Electrical Design & Detailed Engineering 1

Introduction to System Design
The overall system design is divided into two stages:
Conceptual design begins at the inception of a project and includes.
 Gathering process and load data.

 Choosing the most suitable system configuration and bus arrangements as per requirement.
 Selecting a power source.
 Determining system voltages.
Detailed design includes:
 Developing the one-line diagram.

 Performing system studies.
 Sizing equipment and feeder systems.
 Designing grounding and lighting systems.
 Designing system protection.
Power Distribution System Design
Basic Principles: The best distribution system is one that will, cost effectively and safely, adequate electric service to
both present and future probable loads — this section is included to aid in selecting, designing and installing such a
system. The function of the electric power distribution system in a building or installation site is to receive power at
one or more supply points and deliver it to the individual lamps, motors, and all other electrically operated devices.
The importance of the distribution system to the function of a building makes it almost imperative that the
best system be designed and installed. In order to design the best distribution system, the system design
engineer must have information concerning the loads and knowledge of the various types of distribution
systems that are applicable. The various categories of buildings have many specific design challenges, but
certain basic principles are common to all. Such principles, if followed, will provide a soundly executed
design.
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The basic principles or factors requiring consideration during design of the power distribution system
include:
 Functions of structure, present and future.

 Life and flexibility of structure.
 Locations of service entrance and distribution equipment
 Characteristics of loads, locations of unit substations.
 Demand and diversity factors of loads
 Sources of power; including normal, standby and emergency
 Continuity and quality of power available and required
 Energy efficiency and management.
 Distribution and utilization voltages.
 Bus and/or cable feeders.
 Distribution equipment and motor control
 Power and lighting panel boards and motor control center.
 Types of lighting systems
 Installation methods
 Power monitoring systems
 Electric utility requirements.
Modern Electric Power Technologies

Several new factors to consider in modern power distribution systems result from two relatively recent
changes. The first recent change is utility deregulation. The traditional dependence on the utility for
problem analysis; energy conservation measurements and techniques; and a simplified cost structure for
electricity has changed. The second change is less obvious to the designer yet will have an impact on the
types of Equipment and systems being designed. It is the diminishing quantity of qualified building electrical
operators; maintenance departments; and facility engineers. Modern electric power technologies may be of
use to the designer and building owner in addressing new challenges. The advent of microprocessor devices
(smart devices) into power distribution equipment has expanded facility owners’ options and capabilities,
allowing for automated communication of vital power system information (both energy data and system
operation information) and electrical equipment control.
These technologies may be grouped as:
 Power monitoring and control.

 Building management systems interface
 Lighting control.
 Automated energy management.
 Predictive diagnostics.
Various sections of this guide cover the application and selection of such systems and components that
may be incorporated into the power equipment being designed.
Goals of System Design
When considering the design of an electrical distribution system for a given customer and facility, the
electrical engineer must consider alternate design approaches which best fit the following overall goals:
1. Safety: The No. 1 goal is to design a power system which will not be present in any electrical hazard to the people
who utilize the facility, and/or the utilization equipment fed from the electrical system. It is also important to
design a system which is inherently safe for the people who are responsible for electrical equipment maintenance
and upkeep.
The National Electrical Code (NEC), NFPA 70 and NFPA 70E,IEC ,IS as well as local electrical codes provide
minimum standards and requirements in the area of wiring design and protection, wiring methods and
materials as well as equipment for general use with the overall goal of providing safe electrical distribution
systems and equipment. The Standards/codes also covers minimum requirements for special occupancies
including hazardous locations and special use type facilities such as health care facilities, places of
assembly, theaters, etc. and the equipment and systems located in these facilities. Special equipment
and special conditions such as emergency systems, standby systems and communication systems are also
covered in the code.
It is the responsibility of the design engineer to be familiar with the IEC, IS, OISD, NFPA and NEC etc. code
requirements as well as the customer’s facility, process, and operating procedures; to design a system
which protects personnel from electrical live conductors and utilizes adequate circuit protective devices
which will selectively isolate overloaded or faulted circuits or equipment as quickly as possible.
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2. Minimum Initial Investment: The owner’s overall budget for first cost purchase and installation of the electrical
distribution system and electrical utilization equipment will be a key factor in determining which of various alternate
system designs are to be selected. When trying to
minimize initial investment for electrical equipment, consideration should be given to the cost of
installation, floor space requirements and possible extra cooling requirements as well as the initial
purchase price.
3. Maximum Service Continuity: The degree of service continuity and reliability needed will vary
depending on the type and use of the facility as well as the loads or processes being supplied by the
electrical distribution system. For example, for a smaller commercial office building a power outage of
considerable time, say several hours, may be acceptable, whereas in a larger commercial building or
industrial plant only a few minutes may be acceptable. In other facilities such as hospitals, many critical
loads permit a maximum of 10 seconds outage and certain loads, such as real-time computers, cannot
tolerate a loss of power for even a few cycles.
Typically, service continuity and reliability can be increased by:

 Supplying multiple utility power sources or services.
 Supplying multiple connection paths to the loads served.
 Using short-time rated power circuit breakers.
 Providing alternate customer owned power sources
 Selecting the highest quality electrical equipment and conductors.
 Using the best installation methods.
 Designing appropriate system alarms, monitoring and diagnostics.
 Selecting preventative maintenance systems or equipment to alarm before an outage.
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4. Maximum Flexibility and Expendability: In many industrial manufacturing plants, electrical utilization
loads are periodically relocated or changed requiring changes in the electrical distribution system.
Consideration of the layout and design of the electrical distribution system to accommodate these changes
must be considered. For example, providing many smaller transformers or load centers associated with a
given area or specific groups of machinery may lend more flexibility for future changes than one large
transformer. The use of plug-in bus ways to feed selected equipment in lieu of conduit and wire may
facilitate future revised equipment layouts. In addition, consideration must be given to future building
expansion, and/or increased load requirements due to added utilization equipment when designing the
electrical distribution system. In many cases considering transformers with increased capacity or fan
cooling to serve unexpected loads as well as including spare additional protective devices and/ or
provision for future addition of these devices may be desirable. Also to be considered is increasing
appropriate circuit capacities or quantities for future growth. Power monitoring communication systems
connected to electronic metering can provide the trending and historical data necessary for future
capacity growth.
5. Maximum Electrical Efficiency (Minimum Operating Costs): Electrical efficiency can generally be
maximized by designing systems that minimize the losses in conductors, transformers and utilization
equipment. Proper voltage level selection plays a key factor in this area and will be discussed later.
Selecting equipment, such as transformers, with lower operating losses, generally means higher first cost
and increased floor space requirements. Thus, there is a balance to be considered between the owner’s
utility energy changes for the losses in the transformer or other equipment versus the owner’s first cost
budget and cost of money.
6. Minimum Maintenance Cost: Usually the simpler the electrical system design and the simpler the
electrical equipment, the less the associated maintenance costs and operator errors. As electrical systems
and equipment become more complicated to provide greater service continuity or flexibility, the
maintenance costs and chance for operator error increases. The systems should be designed with an
alternate power circuit to take electrical equipment (requiring periodic maintenance) out of service without
dropping essential loads. Use of draw out type protective devices such as breakers and combination
starters can also minimize maintenance cost and out-of- service time.
7. Maximum Power Quality: The power input requirements of all utilization equipment has to be
considered including the acceptable operating range of the equipment and the electrical
distribution system has to be designed to meet these needs. For example, what are the required input
voltage, current, power factor requirements? Consideration to whether the loads are affected by
harmonics (multiples of the basic 50/60 cycle per second sine wave) or generate harmonics must be
taken into account as well as transient voltage phenomena. The above goals are interrelated and in
some ways contradictory. As more redundancy is added to the electrical system design along with the
best quality equipment to maximize service continuity, flexibility and expandability, and power quality,
the more initial investment and maintenance are increased. Thus, the designer must weigh each factor
based on the type of facility, the loads to be served, the owner’s past experience and criteria.
Summary
It is to be expected that the engineer will never have complete load information available when the system
is designed. The engineer will have to expand the information made available to him on the basis of
experience with similar problems. Of course, it is desirable that the engineer has as much definite
information as possible concerning the function, requirements, and characteristics of the utilization
devices. The engineer should know whether certain loads function separately or together as a unit, the
magnitude of the demand of the loads viewed separately and as units, the rated voltage and frequency of
the devices, their physical location with respect to each other and with respect to the source and the
probability and possibility of the relocation of load devices and addition of loads in the future. Coupled
with this information, knowledge of the major types of electric power distribution systems equips the
engineers to arrive at the best system design for the particular building. It is beyond the scope of this
guide to present a detailed discussion of loads that might be found in each of several types of buildings.
Assuming that the design engineer has assembled the necessary load data, the following pages discuss
some of the various types of electrical distribution systems that can be utilized. The description of types
of systems, and the diagrams used to explain the types of systems on the following pages omits the
location of utility revenue metering equipment for clarity. A discussion of short circuit calculations,
coordination, voltage selection, voltage drop, ground fault protection, motor protection, and other
specific equipment protection is also presented.
Voltage Classification
IEC, ANSI, NEC, IS and other local standards define various voltage classifications for Single-
phase and 3-phase systems.
The terminology used divides voltage classes into:
 Low voltage <1.1 kV.

 Medium voltage >1.1 kV to 11 kV
 High voltage.>11 kV to 66 kV
 Extra-high voltage
 Ultra-high voltage
Voltage Recommendations by Motor Horsepower
Some factors affecting the selection of motor operating voltage include:
 Motor, motor starter and cable first cost.

 Motor, motor starter and cable installation cost.
 Motor and cable losses
 Motor availability
 Voltage drop
 Qualifications of the building operating staff; and many more.
System Voltage:
To select distribution and utilization voltages, the following factors should be considered.
 Specific loads served (size and voltage level).
 Voltage level supplied by the utility or on-site generation
 Existing voltage levels in the facility.
 Cost of electrical equipment and cable at different voltage levels and current ratings.
 Losses due to higher current (at lower voltages)
 Overall system flexibility (i.e capability for future expansion)
A major consideration when choosing voltage levels is the cost of equipment and cable. The advantage of a higher
voltage system is that less current is required for the same power than for lower voltage systems. In some cases,
equipment and cable rated at higher voltage levels may be more economical because of the reduced current rating
required. A higher voltage system is also more efficient because of lower power losses.
Standard nominal system voltages for each country are listed in the applicable code and standards.
There are three system voltage classes as a rule. The low voltage class contains all nominal system voltages below
1000 volts. The medium voltage class contains nominal system voltages equal to or greater than 1000 volts, but less
than 100,000 volts. The high voltage class contains nominal system voltages equal to or greater than 100,000 volts.
Distribution Voltage
In most facilities it is necessary to distribute power at a voltage higher than or equal to the utilization voltages. When
choosing a distribution voltage, the first voltage level to consider should be the incoming utility (or generator) voltage.
If the utility supplies a voltage in the range of 6,600 volts to 15,000 volts, it is often economical to use this voltage as
the primary distribution voltage for the facility because step down transformers are not required. If the utility supply
is over 15,000 volts, transformation to a lower voltage
is typically required. An economic study should be made to determine the primary distribution voltage (based on
load), future expansion, and distances between load centers.
Typical primary distribution voltage are 13,800 volts, 4,160 (6,600) volts, and 2,400 (3,300) volts. Other
voltages such as 22,000 volts, dictated by the standard utility voltage levels in the area, may be
encountered in some systems. For large plant facilities, the preferred primary distribution voltages
are 13,800 volts and 4,160 (4,600) volts, but the selection depends on the total facility load and
distance that the primary distribution voltage must be transmitted. Primary distribution voltages
above 15 kV are seldom recommended in Company facilities because of significantly higher costs for
equipment rated above 15 kV.
In most large facilities where facility load is less than 10,000kVA, 4,160 (6,600) volts or 2,400 (3,300)
volts is the most economical primary distribution voltage. Depending on the size of motors at the
facility, a 4,160 (6,600) volt system may be less expensive than a 2,400 (3,300)
volt system. The same 5 (5.2) kV class of switchgear and motor controllers is used for both 2,400
(3,300) volt and 4,160 (6,600) volt systems; however, lower current-rated breakers and controllers
are required for the 4,160 (6,600) volt system. Cable costs are also usually less on the 4,160 (6,600) volt
systems (since smaller conductors can be used). The cost of 4,160 volt motors is typically 5 to 10% more
than for 2,400 volt motors.
For facilities where the load is 10,000 to 20,000 KVA, an economic study (including consideration of the
costs of future expansion) must be made to determine the most economical primary distribution
voltage-usually between 4,160 and 13,800 volts. Facilities where the load is 20,000 KVA or larger, it is
recommend and most economical to use 13,800 volts for primary distribution.
Utilization Voltage
Selection of utilization voltage is primarily dependent on the equipment to be served. Listed below are utilization
voltages and motor voltages available, based on the size of individual motors installed at the facility.
Motor Horse Power (hp) Utilization Voltage (V) Motor Rated Voltage (V)
Above 200 6,900 6,600
Up to 200 460 440
In addition to the above list, utilization voltages and motor voltages available are also listed in API
Standard 541. The preferred utilization voltage for small loads (such as integral horsepower motors below
100 hp) is three-phase 480 (460) volts. Some floodlights, parking lot lights, or other outdoor lights where
voltage drop is a problem, may be best served at 480 (460) volts. Small dry-type transformers rated 480-
208/120 (440-230/129) volt or 480-240/120 (440-220/110) volt- are used to provided 208 (220) volt-three
phase, 120 (110) volt-single phase, and 240 (220) volt single phase for convenience outlets, lighting, and
other small loads.
Coordination with other Discipline
At the earliest practical time in a project the engineers will need to identify areas of engineering and
design where interfaces are necessary. An efficient system of communication and exchange of
information should be established and implemented at regular intervals. Meetings should be arranged to
discuss problem areas and short-falls in information. The following generally summarizes what is needed,
particularly during the feasibility and conceptual stage of a project. In order to be able to engineer an
economical and efficient power system it is desirable for the electrical engineer to have: A basic
understanding of the hydrocarbon and chemical processes and their supporting utilities e.g.
compression, pumping, control and operation, cooling arrangements.
A procedure for regular communication with engineers of other disciplines, e.g. instrument,
process, mechanical, safety, telecommunications, facilities, operations and maintenance. An
appreciation of the technical and economical benefits and shortcomings of the various electrical engineering
options that may be available for a particular project. The technical flexibility to enable the final design to be
kept simple, easy to operate and easy to maintain.
Process Engineers
The process engineers should be able to inform the electrical engineers on matters relating to the
production processes and supporting utilities:
Variation of production rates with time over the anticipated lifetime of the plant. Fuel availability, rates
and calorific values, pollution components e.g. sulphur, carbon-dioxide, alkali contaminants, particle
size and filtration. Electrical heating and refrigeration loads, trace heating of vessels and piping. Make
available process flow diagrams (PFD) Process and instrumentation diagrams (PID), utilities and
instrumentation diagrams (UID). Information about hazardous gases and liquids are available at plant.
Mechanical Engineers
The mechanical engineers will normally need to advise on power consumption data for rotating machines, e.g.
pumps, compressors, fans, conveyors, and cranes. They will also advise the power output options available for the
different types and models of prime movers for generators, e.g. gas turbines, diesel engines, gas engines. In all cases
the electrical engineer needs to know the shaft power at the coupling of the electrical machine. He is then able to
calculate or check that the electrical power consumption is appropriate for the rating of the motor, or the power
output is adequate for the generator. The mechanical engineer will also advise on the necessary duplication of
machinery, e.g. continuous duty, maximum short-time duty, standby duty and out-of-service spare machines. He will
also give some advice on the proposed method of operation and control of rotating machines, and this may
influence the choice of cooling media, construction materials, types of bearings, ducting systems, sources of fresh air,
hazardous area suitability, etc. The electrical engineer should keep in close contact’ with the progress of machinery
selection during the early stages of a project up to the procurement stage in particular, so that he is sure the
electrical machines and their associated equipment are correctly specified. Likewise after the purchase orders are
placed he should ensure that he receives all the latest manufacturers’ data relating to the electrical aspects, e.g. data
sheets, drawings, changes, hazardous area information. Mechanical engineers are subdivided in to following two
categories:
1. Static Equipment Packages
 Air Fan Coolers
 HVAC
 Electric Heaters
 Fired heaters
2. Rotary Equipment Packages

 Compressor
 Turbines
 Pump
 EOT cranes
 Machinery Load List
Instrument Engineers
The process and instrument engineers will generally develop the operation and control philosophies for individual
equipments and overall schemes. The electrical engineer should then interface to enable the following to be
understood. Interlocking and controls that affect motor control centers and switchboards, generator
controls, control panels, local and remote stations, mimic panels, SCADA, computer networking, displays in the
CCR and other locations. Cabling specifications and requirements e.g. screening, numbers of cores, materials,
earthing, routing, segregation and racking of cables.
Power supplies for control systems, AC and DC, UPS requirements, battery systems.
Symbolic notation, e.g. tag numbers, equipment names and labels, cable and core numbering systems.
Special earthing Requirements for instruments and DCS/PLC
Interface of electrical and communication system with DCS/PLC
Make available Process and Instrumentation Diagrams (PID) and Utilities and Instrumentation Diagrams
Communication and Safety Engineers
The communication and safety engineers will be able to advise on power supply requirements for:
Radar, Radio, Telecommunications and Public Address
Aids to navigation, e.g. lamps, beacons, foghorns, sirens; also alarms, lifeboat davits, etc.
Emergency Routing and exit lighting systems
Supplies for emergency shut-down systems.
Civil and Structure Engineers
The Civil and Structure engineers will be able to advise on following requirements for:
 Rolling Shutter and miscellaneous power used for construction.

 Structural / Insert plate details
 Foundation drawings
 UG Composite drawings
 Substation Engineering
 Cable trench
Piping Engineers
The Piping engineers will be able to advice on following requirements for
 Plot Plan
 Cathodic Protection
 Electrical Heat Tracing
 UG Composite drawings
 Fire fighting
Facilities and Operations Engineers
These engineers do not normally contribute any power consumption data, but their input to the work
of the electrical engineer is to advise on subjects such as equipment layout, access to equipment,
maintainability, maintenance lay-down space, emergency exit routing, operational philosophies of
plant and systems, hazardous area classification.
ESTIMATION OF PLANT ELECTRICAL LOAD
One of the earliest tasks for the engineer who is designing a power system is to estimate the normal
operating plant load. He is also interested in knowing how much additional margin he should include
in the final design.
There are no ‘hard-and-fast’ rules for estimating loads and various basic questions need to be
answered at the beginning of a project for example:
• Is the plant a new “Green Field” plant?

• How long will the plant exist e.g. 10, 20, 30 years
• Is the plant old and being extended?
• Is the power to be generated on site, or drawn from an external utility, or a combination?
• Does the owner have a particular philosophy regarding the ‘sparing’ of equipment?
• Are there any operational or maintenance difficulties to be considered?
• Is the power factor important with regard to importing power from an external source?
• If a generator suddenly shuts down, will this cause a major interruption to the plant
• Are there any problems with high fault levels?
PRELIMINARY SINGLE-LINE DIAGRAMS
In the first few weeks of a new project the engineer will need to roughly draft a key single-
line diagram and a set of subsidiary single-line diagrams. The key single-line diagram should show the
sources of power e.g. generators, utility intakes, the main switchboard and the interconnections to
the subsidiary or secondary switchboards. It should also show important equipment such as power
transformers, bus bar section circuit breakers, incoming and interconnecting circuit breakers, large
items of equipment such as high voltage induction motors, series reactors for fault current limitation,
and connections to old or existing equipment if these are relevant and the main earthing
arrangements. The key single-line diagram should show at least, the various voltage levels, system
frequency, power or volt-ampere capacity of main items such as generators, motors and
transformers, switchboard fault current levels, the vector group for each power transformer and the
identification names and unique ‘tag’ numbers of the main equipment. The set of single-line
diagrams forms the basis of all the electrical work carried out in a particular project. They should be
regularly reviewed and updated throughout the project and issued in their final form at the
completion of the project. They act as a diary and record the development of the work. Single-line
diagrams are also called “One Line Diagrams”. At this stage the engineer can begin to prepare a load
schedule for each subsidiary switchboard and motor control centre, and a master schedule for the
main switchboard. The master load schedule will give an early estimate of the total power
consumption. From this can be decided the number of generators and utility intakes to install. The
KW and KVA ratings of each generator or intake will be used to determine the highest voltage to use
in the power system.
Table shows typical voltages used throughout the world for generation, distribution and
transmission of power at different industry plants.
Load Summary
A load summary is a detailed listing of all loads to be served by the electrical distribution system.
It is used to determine the power requirements of a system -
in order to properly size power sources, distribution equipment, and feeder systems. The load
summary also aids in determining system voltages.
Load
To develop a load summary, data on all loads to be served and information about the facility
processes should be collected first. Generally, industrial facility loads are a function of the process
equipment. A list of loads must be obtained from the process and equipment designers. The list
should include nameplate ratings of motors, brake-horsepower of electric motor-driven
equipment, and KVA and kW ratings of all other process equipment. If available, design operating
loads should be included. It is important that the system electrical designer acquire knowledge of
the facility processes. This knowledge will assist in estimating loads and selecting the proper
system and components. At the initial stages of design, accurate load data may be limited. Loads
must be estimated until the design is finalized. It is better to estimate loads on the “high side” to
avoid undersized equipment.
Load Layout
For large facilities, a load layout should be created using the plot plan to show major load
components. If available, individual horsepower ratings should be obtained. Loads located on the
plan give a geographical view of the load density, which can be used to assist in devising a logical
power distribution scheme. Familiarity with existing facilities is also helpful.
A load center is defined as an assembly (lineup) of low-voltage (0-1000 volts) or medium voltage
(1001-100,000 volts) switchgear. Load center breakers typically feed large motors, motor control
centers, or other load centers. Areas containing high load densities should be identified as
possibly requiring load centers. The load layout should then be used to assist in selecting the
power distribution scheme.
Once the basic system has been selected, the load layout is used to assign loads to individual load centers
and Motor Control Centers. Loads should be assigned to busses before beginning the load summary so
that individual summaries can be made for each bus, making it easier to size system components.
A low voltage motor control enters (MCC) is a group of motor starters and thermal magnetic circuit
breakers rated up to 600 volts. Typically, 460 volt motors rated 200 hp or less are fed from MCCs and
started with combination motor starters. Larger 460 volt motors commonly are started with circuit
breakers if they draw too much current for combination motor starters. A combination motor starter
consists of a circuit breaker, a contractor, and an overload relay. Other loads (e.g. lighting and heating)
are served by thermal magnetic circuit breakers in the motor control center.
A medium voltage MCC is a lineup of motor starters rated up to 7200 volts. Starters typically employ a
current limiting fuse, a draw-out air or vacuum contactor, and ambient compensated overload relays.
Detailed Load Summary

A detailed load summary can be developed once the load data has been gathered, a load layout made, a
basic distribution system chosen, and the loads assigned to individual busses. The procedures described
in Sections 2.2 through 2.6 of the conceptual design phase must be performed before starting the one-
line diagram and detailed load summary. The load summary is developed for three main reasons:
1) To determine the power requirements for each load center and motor control center permitting the
designer to select distribution voltages and size distribution equipment (e.g., transformers, buses, circuit
breakers, starters, and feeders).
2) To determine power requirements for the entire system permitting power sources to be sized.
3) To provide a basis for a cost estimate.
First, separate load summaries should be developed for each load center and motor control center. Next,
the totals from these summaries should be combined to determine power requirements for the entire
system. It is best to begin summarizing at the furthermost downstream bus (often a motor control
center). Summarizing in the upstream direction should continue until the source is reached. Each
new summary in the upstream direction will include load data from previous downstream summaries for
use in sizing upstream equipment.
Figure 3.shows an example of a one-line diagram for an electrical distribution system during the
conceptual design phase. Figure 4 is a load summary for this system.
All significant loads in the electrical system, including planned future loads, should be listed on the
summary by equipment type and number. Brake horsepower should be listed for electric motor driven
equipment. Horsepower ratings should be listed for electric motors and KVA ratings for other loads (e.g.,
lighting transformers, power receptacles, and heat tracing). The load summary should include a
calculation of connected load. Connected load is the sum of electric ratings for all equipment served by
the system, including planned future loads.
Running load is the actual electrical load of the facility during operation. Running load is used to size
utility service, generators, transformers, feeders, motor control centers, circuit breakers, and
uninterruptible power supplies. To determine running load, individual loads must be identified as
continuous, intermittent, or spare. Running load is the sum of all continuous loads, including planned
future continuous loads. Intermittent loads are included on a percentage basis; spare loads are not
included in running load calculation.
A continuous load is defined as a load that is expected to operate continuously for 3 hours or more.
Intermittent loads are loads that operate continuously for periods of less than 3 hours. Spare loads are
operated only when other loads are not operating.
Power factor and efficiency must be known to calculate the running load. Power factor is defined as the
ratio of real power (KW) to apparent power (KVA). A load with a low power factor
(e.g., a motor) draws more current than a load with a higher power factor. Efficiency is defined as the
ratio of output power to input power.
Initially, only estimated horsepower ratings may be available, and power factor and efficiency must be
estimated. When power factor and efficiency are not known, consider 1 hp of load to require 1 KVA of
power. As actual power factors and efficiencies become available, particularly for large motors, the load
summary should be updated.
Two factors used to calculate the running load of motors for the sizing of transformers are demand factor
and run factor. Demand factor is the ratio of actual operating load to nameplate rating. Run factor is the
percentage of hours operating per day, expressed as a decimal equivalent. These factors generally are not
used in the load summary. However, in cases where many large intermittent motors are connected to a
bus, run factors and demand factors should be included in the running load calculations for economic
reasons.
Peak load, the maximum instantaneous load drawn by a system during a stated period of time, is
obtained when the facility is operating at full capacity and the maximum instantaneous intermittent load
is energized. All intermittent loads on a system normally will not be energized at the same time.
Therefore, to estimate peak load the process must be evaluated to determine when the maximum
intermittent load will be energized. Peak load is the sum of the running load and the maximum
instantaneous intermittent load.
Stand-by loads should be identified on the load summary to enable the electrical system designer to
design the stand-by power system. Typically, stand-by loads include critical loads that cause damage to
the process or product if power is interrupted, loads required for black startup of a generator (e.g.,
jacket water heaters and pumps), selected plant lighting and HVAC loads, and sewage pumps.
Emergency loads deemed essential for personnel safety (e.g., building egress lighting) and UPS loads that
require clean uninterrupted power (e.g., computers and certain electronic instrumentation) should also
be identified on the load summary. Typically, emergency loads are powered form unit equipment
LOAD SCHEDULES
Each switchboard will supply power to each load connected to it and in many cases it will
also supply power to switchboards or distribution boards immediately downstream. Hence
the input power to a switchboard will have the possibility of two components, one local and
one downstream. Hereinafter the term switchboard will also include the term motor control
centre, (The terms ‘switchgear’ and ‘motor control centre’ are used in general to describe
combinations of enclosures, bus bars, circuit breakers, power contactors, power fuses,
Protective relays, controls and indicating devices) Each local load may be classified into several different
categories for example, vital, essential and non-essential. Individual oil companies often use their own
terminology and terms such as ‘emergency’ and ‘normal’ are frequently encountered. Some processes in
an oil installation may handle fluids that are critical to the loss of power e.g. fluids that rapidly solidify and
therefore must be kept hot. Other processes such as general cooling water services, air conditioning, and
sewage pumping may be able to tolerate a loss of supply for several hours without any long-term serious
effects.
In general terms there are three ways of considering a load or group of loads and these may be cast in the
form of questions:
1. The loss of power jeopardizes safety of personnel or cause serious damage

within the plant. These loads can be called ‘vital’ loads.
2. The loss of power causes degradation or loss of the manufactured product?
These loads can be called the ‘essential’ loads.
3. It does the loss have no effect on safety or production? These can be called the ‘non-
essential’ loads.
Vital loads are normally fed from a switchboard that has one or more dedicated generators
and one or more incoming feeders from an upstream switchboard. The generators provide
power during the emergency when the main source of power fails. Hence these generators
are usually called ‘emergency’ generators and are driven by diesel engines. They are
designed to automatically start, run-up and be closed onto the switchboard whenever a loss
of voltage at the bus bars of the switchboard is detected. An under voltage relay is often used
for this purpose. Testing facilities are usually provided so that the generator can be started
and run-up to demonstrate that it is ready to respond when required. Automatic and
manual synchronizing facilities can also be provided so that the generator can be loaded
during the tests. Low voltage diesel generators are typically rated between 100 and 500 kW, and
occasionally as large as 1000 kW. High voltage emergency generator ratings are typically between 1000
and 2500 kW. The total amount of vital load is relatively small compared with the normal load and, in
many situations, the essential load. Consequently the vital load is fed from
Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), as AC or DC depending upon the functions needed.
The vital loads are usually fed from a dedicated part of the emergency switchboard. The
UPS units themselves are usually provided with dual incoming feeders. Some of the vital and essential
loads are required when the plant is to be started up, and there is no ‘normal’ power available. In this
situation the starting up of the plant is called ‘black starting’. The emergency generator must be started
from a source of power, which is usually a high capacity storage battery and a DC starter motor, or a fully
charged air receiver and a pneumatic starter motor. In many plants, especially offshore platforms, the
vital and essential loads operate at low voltage e.g. 380, 400, 415 volts. Large plants such as LNG
refrigeration and storage facilities require substantial amounts of essential power during their start-up
and shut-down sequences and so high voltage e.g. 4160, 6600 volts is used. The vital loads would still
operate at low voltage.
All of the vital, essential and non-essential loads can be divided into typically three duty categories:
• Continuous duty.
• Intermittent duty.
• Standby duty (those that are not out of service).
Hence each switchboard will usually have an amount of all three of these categories. These are for
continuous duty, I for intermittent duty and S for the standby duty. Let the total amount of each at a
particular switchboard j be Cjsum, Ijsum and Sjsum. Each of these totals will consist of the active power
and the corresponding reactive power. In order to estimate the total consumption for the particular
switchboard it is necessary to assign a diversity factor to each total amount. Let these factors be Dcj for
Csumj, Dij for Isumj and Dsj for Ssumj . Oil companies that use this approach have different values for
their diversity factors, largely based upon experience gained over many years of designing plants.
Different types of plants may warrant different diversity factors.
The factors should be chosen in such a manner that the selection of main generators and main feeders
from a power utility company are not excessively rated, thereby leading to a poor choice of equipment in
terms of economy and operating efficiency. The above method can be used very effectively for estimating
power requirements at the beginning of a new project, when the details of equipment are not known
until the manufacturers can offer adequate quotations. Later in a project the details of efficiency, power
factor, absorbed power, rated current etc. become well known from the purchase order documentation.
A more accurate form of load schedule can then be justified. However, the total power to be supplied will
be very similar when both methods are compared. The total load can be considered in two forms, the
total plant running load (TPRL) and the total plant peak load (TPPL), hence,
Where n is the number of switchboards.
The installed generators or the main feeders to the plant must be sufficient to supply the
TPPL on a continuous basis with a high load factor. This may be required when the production at the plant
is near or at its maximum level, as is often the case with a seasonal demand. Where a plant load is
predominantly induction motors it is reasonable to assume the overall power factor of a switchboard to
be 0.87 lagging for low voltage and 0.89 lagging for high voltage situations. If the overall power factor is
important with regard to payment for imported power, and where a penalty may be imposed on a low
power factor, then a detailed calculation of active and reactive powers should be made separately, and
the total KVA determined from these two totals. Any necessary power factor improvement can then be
calculated from this information.
DEFINATION:
Diversity Factor: The ratio of the sum of the individual non-coincident maximum demands of various
subdivisions of the system to the maximum demand of the complete system. The diversity factor is
usually greater than 1. The (unofficial) term diversity, as distinguished from diversity factor refers to the
percent of time available that a machine, piece of equipment, or facility has its maximum or nominal load
or demand (a 70% diversity means that the device in question operates at its nominal or maximum load
level 70% of the time that it is connected and turned on).Diversity factor is commonly used for a number
of mathematics-related topics. One such instance is when completing a coordination study for a system.
This diversity factor is used to estimate the load of a particular node in the system.
Diversity Factor: Sum of Individual Max. Demands

Max. Demand on Power Station
Demand factor: It is the ratio of the maximum demand of a system, or part of a system, to the total
connected load on the system, or part of the system under consideration. Demand factor is always less
than one.
Load Factor: The ratio of the average load supplied during a designated period to the peak load occurring
in that period, in kilowatts. Simply, the load factor is the actual amount of kilowatt-hours delivered on a
system in a designated period of time as opposed to the total possible kilowatt-hours that could be
delivered on a system in a designated period of time. Utilities are generally interested in increasing load
factors on their systems.
A high load factor indicates high usage of the system’s equipment and is a measure of efficiency. High load factor
customers are normally very desirable from a utility’s point of view. Using a year as the designated period, the load
factor is calculated by dividing the kilowatt hours delivered during the year by the peak load for the year times the
total number or hours during the year.
Capacity factor: The ratio of the actual output of a power plant over a period of time and its output if it had
operated a full capacity of that time period.
Coincidence factor: The ratio, expressed as a numerical value or as a percentage, of the simultaneous maximum
demand of a group of electrical appliances or consumers within a specified period, to the sum of their individual
maximum demands within the same period.
Example:
An offshore production and drilling platform is proposed as a future project, but before the detail design
commences it is considered necessary to prepare an estimate of the power consumption. The results of the
estimate will be used to determine how many gas-turbine driven generators to install.
This in turn will enable an initial layout of all the facilities and equipment to be proposed. Since this is a new plant
and the preliminary data is estimated from process calculations, mechanical calculations and comparisons with
similar plants, it is acceptable to use the following diversity factors, Dc = 1.0, Di = 0.5 and Ds = 0.1.
The total power is found to be 12,029 kW. At this stage it is not known whether the plant is capable of future
expansion. The oil and gas geological reservoir may not have a long life expectation, and the number of wells that
can be accommodated on the platform may be limited. The 4000 kW of power consumed by the drilling operations
may only be required for a short period of time e.g. one year, and thereafter the demand may be much lower.
During the detail design phase of the project the load schedules will be modified and additional loads will
inevitably be added. At least 10% extra load should be added to the first estimate i.e. 1203 kW. The total when
rounded-up to the nearest 100 kW would be 13,300 kW. Sufficient generators should be installed such that those
that are necessary to run should be loaded to about 80 to 85% of their continuous ratings, at the declared ambient
temperature. This subject is discussed in more detail in sub-section 1.3. If four generators are installed on the basis
that one is a non-running standby unit, then three must share the load. Hence a reasonable power rating for each
generator is between 5216 kW and 5542 kW.
DETERMINATION OF POWER SUPPLY CAPACITY
After the load has been carefully estimated it is necessary to select the ratings and numbers of generators, or main
incoming feeders from a power utility company. Occasionally a plant may require a combination of generators and
incoming feeders e.g. refinery, which may operate in isolation or in synchronism with the utility company. Usually a
plant has scope for expansion in the future. This scope may be easy to determine or it may have a high degree of
uncertainty. The owner may have strong reasons to economies initially and therefore be only willing to install
enough capacity to meet the plant requirements in the first few years of operation. If this is the case then it is
prudent to ensure that the switchgear in particular has adequate bus bar normal current rating and fault current
rating for all future expansion. The main circuit breakers should be rated in a similar manner. If the switchgear is
rated properly at the beginning of a project, then all future additions should be relatively easy to achieve in a
practical and economical manner. Such an approach also leads to a power system that is easy to start up, operate
and shut down.
The supply capacity normally consists of two parts. One part to match the known or initial consumption and a
second part to account for keeping a spare generator or feeder ready for service. Any allowance required for
future load growth should be included in the power consumption calculations. This two-part approach is often
referred to as the ‘N − 1 philosophy’, where N is the number of installed generators or feeders. The philosophy is
that under normal operating conditions in a fully load plant N − 1 generators or feeders should be sufficient to
supply the load at a reasonably high load factor.
Pl = power consumption required at the site ambient conditions

Pg = rated power of each generator or feeder at the site ambient conditions
Fo = overload power in % when one generator or feeder is suddenly switched out of service
Fi = load factor in % of each generator or feeder before one is switched out of service
N = number of installed generators or feeders. N is usually between 4 and 6 for an economical design of a
generating plant and 2 or 3 for feeders.
Pl and Pg are usually the known variables, with Fi and Fo being the unknown variables.
Several feasible ratings of Pg may be available and the value of N may be open to choice. A good choice of Pg and
N will ensure that the normally running load factor is high i.e. between 70% and 85%, whilst the post-disturbance
overload on the remaining generators or feeders will not be so high that they trip soon after the disturbance, i.e.
less than 125%.
STANDBY CAPACITY OF PLAIN CABLE FEEDERS AND TRANSFORMER FEEDERS
In above section, the three ways of considering consumers were discussed, and the terms, vital, essential and non-
essential were introduced.
• Because of the sensitive nature of the vital and essential consumers with regard to
personnel safety and production continuity, it is established practice to supply their associated switchboards with
dual, or occasionally triple, feeders.
• For non-essential switchboards it may be practical to use only one feeder.
• For switchboards other than those for the generator or intake feeders it is established practice to add some
margin in power capacity of their feeders so that some future growth can be accommodated. The margin is often
chosen to be 25% above the TPPL.
• If the feeders are plain cables or overhead lines then it is a simple matter to choose
their cross-sectional areas to match the current at the 125% duty.
• For transformer feeders there are two choices that are normally available. Most power transformers can be
fitted with external cooling fans provided the attachments for these fans are included in the original purchase
order. It is common practice to order transformers initially without fans and operate them as ONAN until the
demand increases to justify the fan cooling. Thereafter the transformer is
operated as ONAF. Adding fans can increase the capacity of the transformer by 25% to 35%, depending upon the
particular design and ambient conditions. The alternative choice is simply to rate the ONAN transformer for the
125% duty, and initially operate it at a lower level. The decision is often a matter of economics and an uncertainty
about the future growth. When standby or future capacity is required
for transformers it is necessary to rate the secondary cables or bus bars correctly at the design stage of the project.
Likewise the secondary circuit breakers and switchgear bus bars need to be appropriately rated for the future
demand. The decision to over-rate the primary cables or lines may be made at the beginning of the project or later
when demand increases.
PREPARATION OF THE ONE-LINE DIAGRAM ONE-LINE METER AND RELAY DIAGRAMS
Single-line diagrams are the most essential documents that are developed during the Basic and detail design phase
of a project. They identify almost all the main items of power equipment and their associated ancillaries. Initially
they define the starting point of a project. Finally they are a concise record of the design, from which all the design
and purchasing work evolved. The final single-line diagrams should contain at least the following information.
Complicated power systems may require the single-line diagrams to be sub-divided into several companion
diagrams, in which aspects such as protection, interlocking and earthing are treated separately. This ensures that
the diagrams are not overly congested with information. The end results should be unambiguous and be easily
read and understood by the recipient.
DEFINITIONS
1 One-Line Diagram
A one-line diagram shows, by means of single lines and graphic symbols, the course of an electric circuit or system
of circuits and the component devices or parts used therein. In a three-phase system, a single line represents all
three phases.
2 Schematic Diagrams
A schematic diagram shows, by means of graphic symbols, the electrical connections and functions of a specific
circuit arrangement. Schematic diagrams are used to present the control circuits of electrical equipment such as
motors, heaters etc. or to show the control and protection circuits of transmission line switching equipment such
as circuit breakers, disconnections, etc.
3 Symbols
Graphic symbols represent the functions or interconnections of a circuit. Graphic symbols are
used on one-line diagrams, on schematic diagrams, or, as applicable, on connection or wiring
diagrams. Graphic symbols are correlated with parts lists, descriptions, or instructions by means
of designations.
4 Function Number
A device function number, with an appropriate prefix and appended suffix is used to identify the
function(s) of each device installed in electrical equipment. These numbers are used in one-line
diagrams, on schematic diagrams, instruction books, publications and specifications. In addition,
function number may be physically placed on, or adjacent to, each device on the assembled
equipment.
TABLE OF SYMBOLS
Symbols used to create one-line and schematic diagrams according to ANSI/IEEE and IEC Standards are given in
Table I. Symbols are not always unique. In some cases, within the same standard, the symbols of the same device
are defined in different ways. Table I gives typical representation of symbols. The table also gives alternative
representation of the same symbol if the alternative representation is specified by Standard. IEEE standard 315-
1975 states: “A substantial effort has been made to have American National Standard compatible with approved
IEC Recommendations. Electrical diagrams are a factor in international trade; the use of one common symbol
language ensures a clear presentation and economical diagram preparation for a variety of users.” Hence many of
the ANSI symbols presented in this table use the IEC designated symbols. Protective relay function numbers are
defined by ANSI standard C37.2-1996 and they are commonly used in both ANSI and IEC projects.
In most cases IEC projects use function numbers defined by ANSI C37.2-1996, however some projects may choose
to use symbolic representations given by IEC-60617. ANSI Standard C37.2-1996 defines letters and numbers that
may be used as prefixes or suffixes to device function numbers to provide a more specific definition of the
function. They may serve to denote individual or specific parts or auxiliary contacts of these devices or certain
distinguishing features, characteristics, or conditions that describe the use of the device or its contacts in the
equipment. Similarly as the device function numbers, prefix and suffix letters and numbers can be used in both
ANSI and IEC Projects.
Type of System
Once the load layout has been developed and areas of high load concentrations have been identified, a power
distribution scheme can be selected. A system should be selected that will distribute power to the load centers by
the most economical and reliable means possible that meets the particular facility requirements. The primary
distribution voltage can be distributed to the load centers economically and reliably with the following systems
· Radial
·Primary selective
· Primary loop
· Secondary selective
Radial System
(1) In the radial system, one primary service feeder supplies power from a distribution transformer to the loads (at
utilization voltage) from a load center.
(2) This system is simple in operation, and expansion is accomplished easily. A disadvantage of the radial system is
that a loss of the source or primary feeder will shut down all loads connected to that load center. Also, loads must
be shut down for system maintenance and servicing. The radial system is satisfactory only for installations where
the process allows sufficient down-time for adequate maintenance.
Primary Selective System:
Protection against the loss of a primary supply can be gained through the use of a primary selective system. Each
unit substation is connected to two separate primary feeders through switching equipment to provide a normal
source and an alternate source. If the normal source fails, the distribution transformer is switched to the alternate
source. Switching can be either manual or automatic, but there will be an interruption of power until the load is
transferred to the alternate source.
If both sources can be paralleled during switching, some maintenance of the primary cables (and, in certain
configurations, switching equipment) may be performed without interruption of service. Cost is
higher than for a radial system because of duplication of the primary
cable and switchgear.
Primary Loop System
(1) The primary loop system offers the same basic protection against loss of primary supply as the primary
selective system. A primary cable fault can be isolated by sectionalizing - allowing restoration of service. The cost of
this system may be slightly less than the primary selective system.
(2) The disadvantage of this system is that locating a cable fault in the loop is more difficult. The method of
locating a fault by sectionalizing the loop and reclosing should not be performed since it is an unsafe practice
because several reclosing on the fault may be required before the fault is located. In addition, a section may be
energized from two directions. For these reasons, the primary loop system is not recommended for new facilities.
4 Secondary Selective System
(1) If two unit substations are connected through a normally open secondary tie circuit breaker, the result is a
secondary selective system. If the primary feeder or a transformer fails, the main secondary circuit breaker on the
affected transformer is opened and the tie circuit breaker closed. Operation may be manual or automatic.
Maintenance of primary feeders, transformers, and main secondary circuit breakers is possible with only
momentary power interruption (or no interruption if the stations can be operated in parallel during switching).
Complete station maintenance will require a shut down. With the loss of a primary circuit or transformer, the
total substation load can be supplied by one transformer. To allow for this condition, one or a combination of
the following features should be considered.
1) Size the transformers so that either one can carry the total load.
2) Provide forced-air cooling to the transformer(s) designated for emergency service.
3) Designate nonessential loads that can be shed during emergency periods.
4) Use the temporary overload capacity of the transformers (and accept the loss of transformer life).
A variation of the secondary selective system, a distributed secondary selective system, has two substations in
different locations-connected by a tie cable with a normally open circuit breaker provided in each substation. The
cost of the additional tie circuit breaker and the tie cable should be compared to the cost advantage of locating the
unit stations nearer the load center. In locations where interruptions cannot be tolerated, a variation of the
secondary selective system is to provide a normally closed tie breaker, putting the two load centers in parallel.
However, this method is allowed only if the available short circuit does not exceed the ratings of the secondary
buses and breakers.
IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS WHEN READING IEC ONE-LINE (SINGLE-LINE) AND
SCHEMATIC (ELEMENTARY) DIAGRAMS
Some common points that may mislead a reader familiar with ANSI/IEEE Standards when reading one-line
diagrams and schematic diagrams that comply with IEC standards are given in this Section.
1. Rated power of transformers

Rated power of a power transformer indicated in one-line diagrams or schematic diagrams need to be properly
interpreted. Rated power of a power transformer is defined in sub-clause 4.1 of IEC 60076-1 as the power into
transformer. The power available for the load is therefore generally slightly less than the rated power of the
transformer. Misinterpretation of the rated power definition may lead tounder estimating the rated power
required. Sub-clause 4.1 IEC 60076-1 states that if different values of apparent power are assigned under
different circumstances (for example with different cooling methods), the highest of these values is the rated
power. It is essential that the short circuit per unit impedance given in one-line diagram is defined for the rated
power. Misinterpretation of the rated power of a power transformer given in one-line diagrams in this case may
lead to underestimating the short circuit current.
2. System voltages for low voltage

Several years ago, it was decided to harmonize the values of voltage used in 50Hz applications. Previously, the 2
values were 220/380V and 240/415V, and the new harmonized value was chosen to be 230/400V. All the new
applications should have a nominal system voltage of 230/400V, but different values may appear when reading old
one-line and schematic diagrams. The fact that the no-load voltage of step-down transformers is indicated on one-
line diagrams sometimes leads to confusion since no-load voltage of 400V is used for systems having a nominal
voltage of 380V. For a nominal system voltage of 400V, a secondary no-load voltage of 420V is typically used.
REFERENCES
1. ANSI/IEEE Std 315-1975 (Reaffirmed 1993) Graphic Symbols for Electrical and Electronics Diagrams.
2. ANSI/IEEE Std C37.2-1996 (Reaffirmed 2001) IEEE Standard Electrical Power System Device Function Numbers
and Contact Designations
3. IEC 60617: 2003 Graphical Symbols for Diagrams - Database
4. IEC 60050: 1984 International Electro technical Vocabulary
D. Format Use to prepare single Line Diagram

1. Voltage Levels
A one-line diagram should cover all ac voltage levels within the electrical distribution system.
It is conventional to prepare the diagram beginning with the highest voltage level at the top of
the sheet and proceed down to the lower voltage levels of the system in the order indicated
below:
a. Extra high voltage (switchyard) 765 kV, 500 kV, 345 kV, and 230 kV (voltages above 140 kV)
b. High voltage (switchyard and substation) 138 kV, 115 kV, and 69 kV (voltages above 36 kV, up to and including
140 kV)
c. Medium voltage 34.5 kV (distribution), 22 kV, 13.8 kV, 6.9 kV, 4.16 kV, and 2.4 kV (voltages above 1 kV, up to and
including 36 kV)
d. Low voltage (unit substation and MCCs) 480 V, 600 V (voltages up to and including 1 kV) NOTE: 250 V, 125 V dc,
and 120 V ac UPS and 240 V/120 V distribution system one-line diagrams may be covered on separate drawings.
2. Phase Rotation (or Phase Sequence)

Phase rotations for all voltage levels within the entire electrical distribution system should be shown, preferably at
the top right hand corner of the diagram, starting with the highest voltage phasor as the reference, and the first
phase of the highest voltage system pointing upward (12 o’clock position).The usual notation of the phase
rotations is A-B-C (or X-Y-Z or U-V-W or 1-2-3 or L1-L2-L3 or by three colors, R-Y-B) counterclockwise (or) AC-B
counterclockwise. In addition, phase relationship (electrical angular displacement) between the various voltage
levels should be shown.
3. Definition of Scope and Responsibility

The One-line diagram must include boundary lines clearly identifying the equipment and engineering work within
Contractor's scope and responsibility. Also, major components and interconnections covered by ‘Others’ (for
example, the Utility's switchyard) but interfacing with the equipment within Contractor's scope and responsibility
must be shown on the diagram with a specific note that these are provided by Others.
Equipment Details
The Main One-line Diagrams should present ratings and details of the major electrical equipment and
interconnecting components as listed below:
Switchboards and motor control centers:

All switchboards and motor control centre names, bus-section numbers, line voltages, number of phases, number
of wires, frequency, busbar continuous current rating. Identification of main incoming bus-section, outgoing and
interconnecting circuit breakers including spare and unequipped cubicles. Some diagrams show the cable tag
number of the principal cables. A simplified breaker arrangement including the associated disconnect switches,
surge (lightning) arresters for extra-high or high voltage breakers, and the Current and Voltage transformers that
interface with the plant for synchronization, protective relaying and metering should be shown.
Generators:
• Names and tag numbers.
• Nominal ratings in MVA or kVA and power factor.
• D-axis synchronous reactance in per-unit.
• D-axis transient reactance in per-unit.
• D-axis sub-transient reactance in per-unit.
• Neutral earthing arrangements, e.g. solid, with a neutral earthing resistance (NER), with a common busbar,
switches or circuit breakers for isolation.
• Current and time rating of the NER if used, and the voltage ratio of the earthing transformer if used.
Generator breaker (if applicable)

• No. of Poles.
• Type of interruption.
• Nominal ratings in voltage, Amps and kA
Transformer feeders:
• Nominal ratings in MVA or kVA.
• Leakage impedance in per-unit.
• Symbolic winding arrangement of the primary and secondary.
• Line voltage ratio.
Surge arresters, and surge capacitors

Isolated-phase buses
• No. of Poles.
Non-segregated buses
• No. of Poles.
High voltage and large low voltage motors:

• Nominal ratings in kW.
Current limiting reactors

• Nominal ratings in Amp.
Power factor improvement capacitors

• Nominal ratings in Voltage, kVAr and short circuit current kA.
Distribution 120 V ac (including UPS) system (on separate diagrams)

• Nominal ratings in Voltage, KW or AmpHr and short circuit current kA.
General notes column or box:

Usually several notes are added to the diagram to explain unusual or particular features, such as interlocking,
limitations on impedance values for fault currents or volt drop.
PROCEDURE FOR PREPARATION
The following discrete steps are recommended for preparation of project Main One-line Diagrams.
Step 1: Collection of Basic Data
This step is intended to obtain and organize basic technical data for the major elements in the electrical
distribution system that is listed below. (If actual data/information specific to the project are not available at the
preliminary stage, data/information from a similar project recently executed by Contactor be used to approximate
the data. However, as and when technical data specific to the project
become available, these shall substitute for the approximated data/information).
a. Utilize the project Equipment List to prepare the electrical load lists for the medium voltage and low voltage
loads. Normal operating and spare loads should be assigned to separate busses. Notes may be added to indicate
nature of loads such as common facility loads, essential loads, intermittently operating.
b. Determination of load centers and their dedication to the systems. eg, HRSG Load center.
c. Selection of voltage levels appropriate to the subsystems
d. Selection of distribution system (radial, primary loop, ring bus etc.)
e. Selection of grounding system (ungrounded, high resistance, low resistance or solidly grounded)
f. Major equipment ratings (per ANSI or IEC Std)
g. Interconnecting components (iso-phase bus, non-segregated bus, power cables)
h. Scope and responsibility (marked by boundary lines between the plant and the switchyard, boundary lines
covering equipment and systems within ’Others’ scope of supply’) The extent of the equipment data, details, and
notes shown on the one-line diagrams may vary from one project to another, or from one industry to another.
Reference may be made (on the diagrams) to Medium Voltage and Low Voltage
Diagrams or vendor or contractor drawings for equipment ratings and details.
Step 2: Configuration of Electrical Distribution System

The electrical distribution system shall be configured showing interconnections between equipment at different
voltage levels. In general, the physical locations of individual pieces of equipment need not be considered in the
layout. However; the equipment arrangement shall be from top to bottom based on the voltage levels. If any
special features such as automatic or manual bus transfers (for example,
between start-up and normal sources of power) and interlocks are involved, these should also be indicated and
notes on the drawing should cover their details/description.
Step 3: Drafting of the Diagram

Drafting of the diagram shall comply with company standards. Typical project one-line diagrams are included in
this design guide. These figures depict generic arrangement and are for drafting references only. Preparation of
SLD of Individual Switchboards and Motor Control Centres:
• Switchboards and motor control centre name and tag number.

• Bus-section numbers or letters.
• Cubicle numbers or letters.
• Line voltage, number of phases, number of wires, frequency, bus-bar continuous current rating.
• Bus-bar nominal fault breaking capacity in kA at 1 or 3 seconds.
• Identification of all circuit breakers, fuse-contactor units, and their nominal current bratings.
• Neutral earthing arrangements, e.g. connections to the incomers.
• Protective devices of all incomers, bus-section circuit breakers, bus-bars, and outgoing circuits.
• Interlocking systems in schematic form.
• Local and remote indication facilities.
• Details of special devices such as transducers, automatic voltage regulators, synchronizing schemes, fault limiting
reactors, reduced voltage motor starters, bus-bar trunking.
• Rating, ratio and accuracy class of current and voltage transformers.
• Identification of spare and unequipped cubicles.
• References to other drawing numbers, e.g. continuation of a switchboard, associated switchgear, drawing in the
same series, legend drawing, cables schedule and protective relay schedule.
• Column or box for detailed notes.
• Column or box for legend of symbols
PREPARATION OF ONE-LINE METER AND RELAY DIAGRAMS
GENERAL
1. The system Single Line Meter and Relay Diagram (SLM&RD) is a schematic representation of a specific electrical
system illustrating the functional relationships among the various components and the electrical control, metering,
and protective relays. A system SLM&RD is a key project document, and is intended to fulfill the following primary
objectives:
a. Furnish all information related to the system design
b. Provide interface information to other disciplines
c. Provide the client, regulatory and other agencies, and equipment vendors with a means of better understanding
the system design and requirements
d. Serve as a primary record of system design information and requirements for major equipment (such as
generator, transformer, switchgear, load centers/unit substations) protective relaying and meters
e. Serve as a basis for generating additional project documents, including system description, protection logic and
schematic diagrams, circuit and raceway schedules, electrical equipment index, and loop diagrams for distributed
control systems (DCS)
2. System SLM&RDs shall include all applicable major electrical equipment, meters and their switches, protective
relays with associated instrument transformers, motor protectors, electrical transducers, resistance temperature
detectors, and interlock devices. These equipment and components are to be represented schematically. The
following technical information and details are to be included in system SLM&RDs:
a. System phase rotation (phase sequence)
b. Equipment names, ratings, device identification numbers, and associated location
c. A Protective Relay Table covering device numbers, description of relays, make/model, locations, and intended
function of relays
d. Types of meters and transducers with specified ranges
e. Main generator ratings, excitation, and neutral grounding
f. Power transformer and instrument transformer connection (delta-wye, wye-wye, etc.) and grounding
requirements, including polarity markings for instrument transformers
g. Continuous current ratings of power circuit breakers, or motor starters, and their numbering and cubicle
location numbers in switchgear assemblies and motor starter assemblies
h. Isolated phase bus and/or nonse gregated phase bus continuous current ratings
i. Cable entry (top or bottom) to switchgear, medium voltage motor starter lineups, load centers, and current
limiting reactor (This information may be noted on the diagrams where physical elevation of the equipment is
shown).
j. Power cable sizes (Types and installation [conduit, underground ductbank, or tray] may be noted on the
diagrams.)
k. The quantities of each protective relay and associated instrument transformers and fuses
l. Current ratios of current transformers and polarities and voltage ratios of potential transformers (Metering or
relay accuracy classes may be noted on the diagrams.) m. "Local" and/or "remote" control points of an electrically
operated circuit breaker; the associated control switch, selector switch, and meter; and their respective location
numbers (This information may be indicated on the diagrams.)
n. Computer input requirements
o. Identification of the electrical system designators
p. Power and control cable numbers may be shown
q. Medium voltage motor RTDs (windings and bearings) and differential CTs as applicable
r. Interlocking between breakers as applicable
3. The following details and information are not to be shown on system SLM&RDs:
a. Contact development of control switches
b. Indication lights
c. Contacts of auxiliary relays and control switches (including alarm initiating contacts)
d. Cable block diagrams, and wire numbers
e. Detailed wiring or connections between equipment, components, and devices
4. For low voltage MCCs, the meter and relay requirements may be documented in the form of a schedule of
tabulated design information. Low voltage MCCs feed motors (typically up to 75 hp, or up to 200 hp, depending on
the project design criteria), battery chargers, HVAC
system, heaters, etc.
The MCC schedule (or single line) is an expedient means to define the electrical design requirements for each load
supplied from the MCC. The following information is to be furnished on the schedule format (Refer to Figure 7 for a
typical MCC schedule of tabulated design
a. Identification of the MCC by its location number and/or system designation
b. Service description of load, its assigned identification number, its system designation (where applicable), and it’s
rating in appropriate unit
c. The MCC cubicle number feeding the load and its vertical cubicle dimension
d. Horsepower rating, service factor, the full load current (FLA), locked rotor current (LRA), and feeder cable size
for motor load
e. Control point, whether local or remote, from which the load can be controlled
f. Fuse disconnect switch or breaker rating requirements, including frame size, continuous current rating, and trip
setting or fuse type and rating
g. Starter size, type, and overload element or solid-state trip device settings
h. Control transformer rating and associated fuse rating
i. Breaker or disconnect switch number assigned to the load (Other Bechtel or vendor document numbers may be
referenced, if applicable.)
j. Motor space heater requirements, if applicable
k. Any special design features, such as adding a relay or switch, etc.
5. The meter and relay diagram for the high voltage, extra-high voltage switchyard and substation system is a
schematic representation illustrating the primary circuit equipment and bus arrangement, secondary circuits with
meters, protective relays and functional relationships among the various components. The primary circuit
equipment and bus arrangement shown on the diagram should be in agreement with the physical layout
arrangement. The following technical information and details are to be included in the high and extra-high voltage
system single line meter and relay diagrams:
a. System phase rotation (phase sequence)
b. Type of circuit breaker either dead tank or live tank design and whether gang operated or independent pole
operated may be noted on the diagram. For dead tank breakers, current transformers are located on both side
bushings and form a part of the circuit breaker. For live tank breakers, current transformers are to be shown as
separate equipment.
c. Main bus voltage, continuous current rating and bus identification
d. Type of operator of the disconnect switches and ground switches, show whether motor or manually operated e.
Current transformers ratios, polarities, metering and relay accuracy classes, burden designation
f. Potential transformers ratios, connection (wye-wye, wye-open delta etc.), metering or relay accuracy classes
g. Surge arrestor location
h. Line trap and line tuner details and location (where applicable)
i. Equipment names, ratings, identification number, transmission line or feeder descriptions
j. Current and voltage transformer secondary circuits showing the devices connected to each secondary circuit.
Current transformer secondary circuits shall be summed up for multiple breaker application. Redundant relays
shall be connected from different current transformer circuits. (Test switches are not to be shown on the single line
meter and relay diagrams).
k. A protective relay, meter and transducer table covering device number, description of
devices, make/model, locations, intended functions, measuring ranges for meters and transducers
l. Synchronizing potential signals and its interface with synchronizing devices
m. Potential signal to transformer load tap changer (where applicable)
n. Electrical signals between relays, breakers, and disconnect & ground switches for trip, close and safety interlocks
o. Revenue meters, make/model, accuracy class, associated current and potential transformers (where separate
instrument transformers are used for revenue measurement)
p. Interfaces of the revenue meters with the computer and/or RTU/SCADA system
q. Interface of protection signals with remote ends of the lines and with the plant including basic details of
communication arrangement
r. Interfaces with fault recorder (where applicable)
s. Local and/or remote control points of circuit breakers and disconnect switches (This information may be
indicated as operating philosophy notes on the diagram)
t. Computer input requirement (This information may be covered on a separate drawing/list)
u. RTU/SCADA input requirement (This information may be covered on a separate drawing/list)
v. Event recorder input requirement (This information may be covered on a separate drawing/list)
FORMAT FOR SLM & RD
1. System SLM&RDs must be simple, neat, and presented in schematic form. Since all information may not be
available during the early stages of the project, system SLM&RDs shall first be prepared on a conceptual basis, and
then updated with changes and additions as design progresses.
2. The system SLM&RDs may be presented in a manner such that the components represented schematically on
the drawing are in agreement with the physical arrangement as installed when viewed from the front. If this
relationship cannot be maintained, the front view of the equipment depicting the actual arrangements of the
components may be added to the drawing. A concerted effort must be made to develop the system SLM&RDs so
that all of the components of a system appear on the one or more drawings assigned to that system.
The following specific drawing format is recommended:

a. System phasing sequence should be shown at top left or right b. The device or relay table should be shown on
the upper right portion of the drawing
c. The location number summary table, if furnished, should be near the device or relay table
d. Space should be allowed for explanatory notes and device legends on the right side of the drawing above the
title block
e. If the front elevation of a piece of equipment is required, it may be shown at the top of the drawing
f. Reference drawings should be listed
Note: If power is delivered to motors, MCCs, and other loads scoped within mechanical systems, these
components may also be shown in the electrical distribution system, indicating applicable system designators for
both electrical and mechanical systems.
DEVELOPMENT OF SLM & RD

Since all of the information to be shown on system SLM&RDs may not be available during the early stages of a
project, it is recommended that system SLM&RDs be prepared at several stages during project development, in the
following discrete issues:
a. Preliminary issue
b. Design issue (construction issue)
c. As-built issue an explanation of the need for these discrete issues follows.
1. Preliminary Issue
During the early stages of the project, the function, control, and protection philosophies for different systems are
required to be established and incorporated into the plant design criteria. To support this effort, system SLM&RDs
are prepared for preliminary issue based on equipment design data available for the project or on the data
extracted from a similar plant type (reference plant) of recent design. The preliminary issue is primarily intended
for client review and/or approval and request for bid proposals from vendors of switchgear, transformers, load
centers, MCCs, etc.
2. Design Issue
The design issue of SLM&RDs is to include design requirements and additional, more accurate information from
successful vendor bid proposal documents. The design issue is generally marked as "issued for award" or "issued
for Purchase."
3. Construction Issue
The construction issue is prepared to update system SLM&RDs by incorporating information from as-built or
certified documents (supplied by equipment vendors).
4. As-Built Issue
The As-built issue will incorporate any field changes implemented during construction or
Startup of the system. This may be treated as the final issue of SLM&RDs to clients.
Bus Arrangement
The four most common types of bus arrangements are:
· Single-ended
· Double-ended
· Ring Bus
· Breaker-and-a-half scheme
The arrangement(s) selected depends upon the needs of the particular process. A combination of bus
arrangements should be used to achieve the required reliability and selectivity. In general, system costs increase
with system reliability if component quality is equal. The first step in selecting a bus arrangement is to analyze the
process to determine its reliability needs and potential losses in the event of power interruption. Some
processes are minimally affected by interruption; in these cases, a simple single-ended bus arrangement may be
satisfactory. Other processes may sustain long-term damage by even brief interruptions. A more complex system,
with an alternate power source for critical loads, may be justified in these cases.
Circuit redundancy may be required in continuous process systems to allow equipment maintenance. Although the
reliability of electric power distribution equipment is high, optimum reliability and safety of operations require
routine maintenance. A system that cannot be maintained because of improper bus arrangements is improperly
designed.
• Single-Ended Bus Arrangement

(1) A single-ended bus arrangement, also known as a radial system, utilizes a single primary service and
distribution transformer to supply all feeders. System investment is the lowest of all circuit arrangements since
there is no duplication of equipment.
(2) Operation and expansion are simple. If quality components are used, reliability is high. However, loss of a
cable, primary supply, or transformer will cut off service. Equipment must be shut down to perform routine
maintenance and servicing. Where the industrial process allows enough down-time for maintenance and is
minimally affected by interruptions, the simple radial system or the single-ended
bus arrangement is recommended.
Double-Ended Bus Arrangement
(1) A double-ended bus arrangement, also known as a secondary selective system, utilizes two unit substations
connected through a normally open secondary tie circuit breaker. This type of bus arrangement is commonly used
in industrial installations where high reliability is required.
(2) If the primary feeder or a transformer fails, the circuit breaker protecting the affected transformer is opened,
and the tie circuit breaker is closed. Operation may be manual or automatic. Maintenance of primary feeders,
transformers, and main secondary circuit breakers is possible with only a momentary power interruption (or no
interruption if the stations can be operated in parallel with the tie breaker closed during switching). If this
arrangement is ever operated with the tie breaker closed, the available short circuit current must not exceed the
short circuit rating of the bus and interrupting rating of the breakers. Complete station maintenance requires shut
down.
(3) With the loss of one primary circuit or transformer, total substation load may be supplied by one transformer.
To allow for this condition, one or a combination of the four features outlined in Section 2.2 for a secondary
selective system must be implemented.
(4) Where a process cannot be shut down for maintenance and interruption of power cannot be tolerated, a
double-ended bus arrangement or secondary selective system is recommended. Each transformer should be sized
to carry 75% of the total running load on both buses at its self-cooled, 55℃rating. The transformers should be dual
rated with provisions for future fans. This provision ensures that when one transformer is out of service (such as
for repairs) the other transformer will be able to carry the total running load on both buses (at their 65℃rating, with
forced air cooling). This design feature can be used for the main power source or for substations within a facility.
(1) A ring bus arrangement is used primarily when two utility sources supply the facility. The ring bus arrangement
offers the advantage of automatically isolating a fault and restoring service if a fault occurs in one of the sources.
(2) Normally all breakers of a ring bus arrangement are closed (Figure 11.). If a fault occurs in Source 1, Breakers A
and D operate to isolate the fault, while Source 2 feeds the loads. A fault anywhere in the system results in two
breakers operating to isolate the fault. Manual isolating switches are installed on each side of the automatic device
to allow maintenance to be performed safely and to allow the system to be expanded without interruption of
service. This system is less expensive than the breaker-and-a-half scheme described below, but more expensive
than single- and double-ended bus arrangements.
Breaker-and-a-Half Scheme A breaker-and-a-half scheme is used extensively as an alternate scheme to the ring bus
arrangement in main facility substations where more than one source of power is available. As its name implies,
this arrangement requires one-and-a-half breakers for each source (three breakers for every two sources) in the
scheme. Normally all the breakers are closed. This arrangement offers a high degree of security since a faulted area
will in no way affect other operating sections. This design has particular advantage when more than one major
circuit must share the same right-of-way where the possibility of a double circuit outage is increased.
Schematic Diagram
A schematic diagram shows, by means of graphic symbols, the electrical connections and functions of a specific
circuit arrangement. Schematic diagrams are used to present the control circuits of electrical equipment such as
motors, heaters etc. or to show the control and protection circuits of transmission line switching equipment such
as circuit breakers, disconnections, etc.
SELECTION AND SIZING OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENTS
Generators and Generator Systems
Introduction
The selection and application of generators into the electrical distribution system will depend on
the particular application. There are many factors to consider including code requirements, environmental
constraints, fuel sources, control complexity, utility requirements and load requirements.
The electrical supply for data centers, financial institutions, telecommunications, government and public utilities
also require high reliability. Threats of disaster or terror attacks have prompted many facilities to require complete
self-sufficiency for continuous operation.
Types of Engines
Many generator sets are relatively small in size, typically ranging from several kilowatts to several megawatts.
These units are often required to come on line and operate quickly. They need to have the capacity to run for an
extended period of time. The internal combustion engine is an excellent choice as the prime mover for the
majority of these applications. Turbines may also be utilized. Diesel fueled engines are the most common, but
other fuels used include natural gas, digester gas, landfill gas, propane, biodiesel, crude oil, steam and others.
Some campuses and industrial facilities use and produce steam for heating and other processes. These facilities
may find it economically feasible to produce electricity as a by-product of the steam production. These installations
would typically be classified as a cogeneration facility producing a fairly constant power output and operating in
parallel with the electric utility system.
Types of Generators
Generators can be either synchronous or asynchronous. Asynchronous generators are also referred
to as induction generators. The construction is essentially the same as an induction
motor. It has a squirrel-cage rotor and wound stator. An induction generator is a motor driven
above its designed synchronous speed thus generating power. It will operate as a motor if it
is running below synchronous speed. The induction generator does not have an exciter and must
operate in parallel with the utility or another source. The induction generator requires vars from
an external source for it to generate power. The induction generator operates at a slip frequency so
its output frequency is automatically locked in with the utility's frequency. An induction generator is a popular
choice for use when designing cogeneration systems, where it will operate in parallel with the utility. This type of
generator offers certain advantages over a synchronous generator. For example, voltage and frequency are
controlled by the utility; thus voltage and frequency regulators are not required. In addition, the generator
construction offers high reliability and little maintenance. Also, a minimum of protective relays and controls are
required. Its major disadvantages are that it requires vars from the system and it normally cannot operate as a
standby/emergency generator. Synchronous generators, however, are the most common. Their output is
determined by their field and governor controls. Varying the current in the dc field windings controls the voltage
output. The frequency is controlled by the speed of rotation. The torque applied to the generator shaft by the
driving engine controls the power output. In this manner, the synchronous generator offers precise control over
the power it can generate. In cogeneration applications, it can be used to improve the power factor of the system.
Generator Systems
Emergency Standby Generator System There is primarily three types of generator systems. The first and simplest
type is a single generator that operates independently from the electric utility power grid. This is typically referred
to as an Emergency Standby Generator System. Figure 1.2-1 shows a single standby generator, utility source and a
transfer switch. In this case, the load is either supplied from the utility or the generator. The generator and the
utility are never continuously connected together. This simple radial system has few requirements for protection
and control. It also has the least impact on the complete electric power distribution system. It should be noted that
this type of generator system improves overall electrical reliability but does not provide the redundancy that some
facilities require if the generator fails to start or is out for maintenance.
Emergency Standby Generator System Multiple Isolated Standby generators
The second type of generator system is a multiple isolated set of standby generators. Figure1.2-2 shows multiple
generators connected to a paralleling bus feeding multiple transfer switches. The utility is the normal source for
the transfer switches. The generators and the utility are never continuously connected together in this scheme.
Multiple generators may be required to meet the load requirements (N system). Generators may be applied in an
N+1 or a 2N system for improved system reliability.
Multiple Isolated Set of Standby Generators
In an N system, where N is the number of generators required to carry the load; if a generator fails
or is out for maintenance, then the load may be dropped. This is unacceptable for most critical 24/7 operations. In
an N + 1 system, N is the number of generators needed to carry the load and 1 is an extra generator for
redundancy. If one generator fails to start or is out for maintenance, it will not affect the load. In a 2N system,
there is complete 100% redundancy in the standby generation system such that the failure of one complete set of
generators will not affect the load. Multiple generator systems have a more complex control and protection
requirement as the units have to be synchronized and paralleled together. The generators are required to share
the load proportionally without swings or prolonged hunting in voltage or frequency for load sharing. They may
also require multiple levels of load shedding and/or load restoration schemes to match generation capacity.
Multiple Generators Operating in Parallel with Utility System

The third type of system is either one with a single or multiple generators that operate in parallel with the utility
system. Figure 1.2-3 shows two generators and a utility source feeding a switchgear lineup feeding multiple loads.
This system typically requires generator capacity sufficient to carry the entire load or sophisticated load shedding
schemes. This system will require a complete and complex protection and control scheme. The electric utility may
have very stringent and costly protection requirements for the system. IEEE standard 1547 describes the
interconnection requirements for paralleling to the utility.
Multiple Generators Opera

Auto Starting, Auto Synchronizing auto Load sharing, Auto Load shedding, Grid Islanding and Load shading of
Generators in parallel many industries have multiple generators for their captive usage, each of different size and
different vintage - but they encounter many problems when paralleling the generators.
The problems faced when generators are paralleled are:

a) Instability and hunting at higher outputs
b) Cascaded tripping
c) Accidental reverses power flow due to breaker failure
d) Poor power factor
e) Sensitivity to grid disturbances
f) Protection against grid faults
g) Handling of grid outages as per local utility regulations
h) Reverse synchronization Parallel operation of generators can be of three types:
a) Generators running on a common bus, feeding a given plant load - here, the generating capacity is adequate to
feed the plant load. The advantages are:
- Flexible & better management of plant load
- Switchgear cost reduction
- Economy in cost of generation
- Optimum usage of installed capacity
b) Generators running on a common bus, feeding plant load, but with local utility grid connected to the common
bus here, the plant load is more than the generating capacity. Power is being imported from the grid, to meet the
additional power requirement along with the captive generator sets. In this system, in addition to the advantages
listed above, the user has to minimize power import from the local utility and maximize the captive generation,
resulting in an overall economy and stability in power supply.
c) Generators running on a common bus , feeding plant load, but with local utility grid connected to the common
bus, with a possibility of power export to grid.
In this case, the plant load is less than the generating capacity. In addition to the advantages listed above, the user
has an opportunity to export excess power from the generators to the grid and gain sizeable revenue from the
local utility.
In all the above cases, the protection and control needs of the generator is totally different from what is
normally required when they are operating independently on a bus and feeding a dedicated plant load.
Following paragraphs, various issues involved in paralleling of generators along with cost economic protection
solutions are discussed in detail.
Parallel operation of generators - without Grid

Consider a case of three generators in parallel. The ratings are:
G1 33MW Gas turbine
G2 18 MW Steam Turbines
G3 12 MW Diesel engine Total 63 MW.
The problems associated in this case are:
a) If one generator trips due to some problem, the other two generators also trip one after the other, due to over
load. This is called cascaded tripping.
b) The given plant load at any time, is not shared equally by the generators.
Let us say that the plat load is 54 MW. This would mean that all three generators have to run to meet this power
demand. The plant load is 85.7% of the capacity. Ideally the three generators should share this 54 MW equally -
with respect to their rated capacities (i.e) each generator should run at 85.7 % of its rated capacity. (ie)
G1 should be running at 28.28 MW

Total 54 MW
This kind of power delivery at the above levels, have to be ensured by adjusting the governor and exciter controls
of each of the generators. If this is not ensured, then the largest generator will try to take the entire load of 54
MW, will get over loaded, and trip. This will result in overloading of the next largest generator it will trip and so on.
Final result is that there a cascaded tripping of all generators and total black out.
The adjustment of governor and exciter controls can be done manually by operating on the potentiometers or Inc /
dec push buttons. If the load is fluctuating between 75% to 90% (which is a normal the case) an operator will go
mad doing the adjustments at a rapid speed and eventually make mistakes. It is always recommended to have an
Automatic Load Sharing system, particularly when the generators are large and the load is fluctuating.
c) Even after installing a suitable auto load sharing system, one of the generators may trip - not due to swallowing
of excess load , but due to some other problems like electrical fault or engine related faults or intentional
stop. In this case also the remaining generators will get over loaded and trip in cascade. To avoid this, a proper
load shedding system has to be incorporated. This system will always monitor the over load conditions of the
generators - based on which generator is over loaded, it will initiate a load shedding of appropriate loads. This will
ensure that, at anytime, the total plant load on the generator bus is not above the total capacity of generation.
Following paragraphs describe the Auto Load Sharing system and Auto Load shedding system. For 3 generators,
when they are operating on a same bus - but without connection to grid.
Auto Load Sharing System:

Load sharing, to certain extent is achieved by the built in droop behavior of the generator governor - but this is not
adequate particularly when generators are of large, different in sizes, different vintages, and different makes. For
the case in hand as above, a comprehensive system with load sharing relays (type RRS) is recommended. These
load sharing relays are mounted on each generator feeder - they continuously measure the power being produced
by each generator and compare with a parameter (let us say Px) equivalent to the proportion of total capacity
versus actual plant load. They have facility to give Inc/ dec pulses to governor and exciter. If at any time, the power
measured by RRS relay is above the level of Px, then the relay gives decrease pulses to governor, so that the power
generated by generator will become equal to Px. Similarly, if the power measured by RRS relay is below the level of
Px, then the relay gives increase pulses to governor, so that the power generated by generator will become equal
to Px. The above process is on line, continuous and automatic. Hence it takes care of any fluctuating load
conditions.
It should be noted that, both the active power as well as the reactive power portions of the load
must be shared equally for stable operation of generators in parallel. Otherwise, there may be PF related
problems. If reactive power is not controlled properly, each generator will operate at a different PF the generator
with poor PF will get over heated and trip. Consequently, a dedicated load sharing relay RRS will be required - one
each per generator for kW sharing and one each per generator for kVAR sharing.
• The KW sharing RRS relay measures the active power, compares with the dynamically varying set point Px and
controls the governor.
• The KVAr sharing RRS relay measures the reactive power, compares with the dynamically varying set point Pr and
controls the exciter. It should be noted that load sharing is commenced after synchronizing is completed when
Synchronizing, the load sharing is disabled. Hence the load sharing relay should have a provision, whereby load
sharing activity can be enabled when a potential free contact is available at certain terminals of the relay (like N/O
contact of the breaker)
• A typical Auto Loads Sharing Scheme, with RRS relays, for both KW and KVAr control, for three generators, is
shown in fig. 1. Basically two RRS relays per generator will be required to achieve a proper load sharing of both KW
and KVAr.
Auto Load shedding scheme
Following two methods can be used for initiating load shedding:
a) Frequency based Load shedding: Here the frequency of the generator bus is monitored by using a frequency
relay a falling frequency is a good indication of an over loaded bus. Based on the frequency of the bus, go on
shedding a preselected load
For this purpose L&T relay type UFD34 is ideal - this relay gives settings for 4 levels of under frequency and two
levels of dF/dT. With this facility, the relay can be used to detect progressive fall in frequency and up to 4 loads can
be tripped. One UFD34 relay can give 4 contacts, which can be set to different levels of under frequency and time
delays. Independently settable based on total number of loads to be shed, one or two UFD34 relays may be
required.
b) Power based Load shedding: Here the power level of each of the generators is monitored by an over power
relay - if there is over power in any of the generators, initiate load shedding.
For this L&T relay type MW33 can be used. One MW33 relay per generator will be required. Each MW33 relay will
give two contacts for active power and two contacts for reactive power. Pick up levels of these contacts are
independently adjustable. Consequently upto 6 loads can be shed with this system.
Load shedding logic:
The relays UFD34 or MW33 relays described above can only give a contact for tripping a load when there is an over
load in the generators. This contact has to be routed properly to a selected breaker for actual load shedding to take
effect. The actual load to be shed will depend upon the plant running condition at any time. Consequently, the load
shedding scheme should always:
 Recognize what loads are on in the plant at moment of generator over load
 All of these loads, what are non critical loads, and
 Divert the relay trip signals to these non critical loads in the order of priority.
If this logic sequence is not followed, there is a danger that
a) A non running load receives the trip signal and there is no effect of load shedding
b) The same loads are tripped every time there is a trigger for load shedding.
Both above conditions are not desirable - and hence a logic scheme is required apart from the relays. This logic
system is plant specific and has to be deigned based on the SLD of the plant and the grouping philosophy of the
plant with respect to critical / non critical loads to be tripped during over loads.
Parallel operation of generators - with Grid
If grid paralleling is envisaged, then the generators would require additional protections in the form of Grid
Islanding , load shedding and load shading schemes.
Grid Islanding
The main idea of islanding is that the generators should be safe and they should continue to deliver power to the
plant when the grid is disturbed without getting affected by the harmful effects of grid disturbances. Grid
islanding scheme ensures disconnection of captive power generator plant from the grid in the event of grid supply
failure or disturbances in the grid. A grid disturbance is detected by
following events on the generator bus (which is connected to grid)
a) Rapid fall in frequency - this will happen when there is sudden over load in the grid. Under frequency relay with
dF/dT function is used for detecting this condition.
b) Fault in the grid - in this case the generator will feed the fault and trip on over current resulting in loss of power
to the plant. Directional Over current + Directional Earth fault relays are used to detect this condition.
c) Fault in the grid or grid failure is also well detected by a de/dT relay - here the rate of change of fall in voltage is
sensed and a trip command is issued.
d) Incomer failure - this may cause under frequency on the generator bus if the plant was importing power from
the grid or over frequency if the plant was exporting power.
e) Another solution for detecting mains failure is to use a Vector surge relay. When the incomer utility voltage
fails during export mode, the bus voltage will momentarily shift in the time axis - this phase shift is an
indication of mains failure.
f) Mains failure can also be detected by a sensitive reverse power relay - if the plant is importing power or a low
forward power relay if the plant is exporting power.
Typical grid islanding schemes are:
a) dF/dT + under frequency + Over frequency + de/dT
b) Reverse Power or Low forward power
c) Under Voltage + Directional Over current
d) Vector Surge
e) Under frequency or under voltage
Depending upon the nature and requirement of the plant the user may opt for relays which will give any of the
above or combination of the above schemes.
LOAD SHEDDING SCHEME (AFTER ISLANDING DURING IMPORT OF POWER)
When generators are running in parallel with the grid by importing power, and, when the generators have islanded
due to grid disturbance, the generators may not be in a position to deliver the power to the plant
load which was connected to the bus at the time of islanding. Unless a load shedding operation follows quickly
after islanding, the generators will trip on over load resulting in a total power shut off to the plant.
Normally load shedding, as per predetermined sequence, should be completed within 3 to 20 cycles after islanding
(depending upon the overload withstand capacity of the generator). This will ensure that the generator does not
get over loaded and trip after islanding.
LOAD SHADING OF GENERATORS:
Load shading (progressive reduction of power output of a generator) is required wherever generators are
connected to the grid and they are exporting power to the grid. When a generator is exporting some part of its
power and there is a grid disturbance, it will island since there is no out let to consume the exported power, after
islanding, its terminal voltage / frequency will rise rapidly only to damage the generator. To avoid this there should
be an arrangement which will quickly sense this rapidly increasing dV/dT or dF/dT and issue signals to governor
and exciter to reduce the power level of the generator. This is called load shading in a generator.
Load shading is a built in feature in the load sharing relay RRS- whenever a contact input is given (N/C contact from
the incomer breaker), the load sharing relay will initiate a continuous decrease pulse train and ensure power
reduction.
DATA / EVENT LOGGING:
Apart from the issues discussed above, a user can have a facility by which the above relays of the generator
installation are connected to a computer system. The relays UFD34 and MW33 are totally Numeric in technology
and are communicable relays. RRS relay is a solid state relay - since its function is of regulating nature, it is not
required to communicate. The small islanding / load shedding logic can be achieved by L&T’s Matrix module MX-
7/5 which is again a communicating relay.
These relays come with RS485 serial communication port through which data can be retrieved / sent in on mod-
bus protocol from a PC with specialized communication software. The specialized software is
resident in the PC, and this will:
Establish communication with each of the individual relays continuously poll each relay at regular interval and
down load all data from relay memory to the PC hard disk Store the down loaded data in a file format
Provide the user a facility to view / print all data through a structured, user friendly menu format generate reports
in a readymade format for the user’s management. If required, special additional relays can be provided for
oscillographic recording of the waveform of voltage / current on a trigger (like islanding). These wave forms can be
down loaded in to the PC and a study can reveal valuable fault diagnostic information.
SUMMARY
An attempt has been made to bring out various issues involved in operating generators in parallel ,
along with suggestions on the type of relays / hardware to be used to address each issue without
ambiguity. It should be noted that all the solutions suggested for various operations above, follow a building block
concept to address any newly envisaged projects as well as existing plants with older type of generators with
conventional relays, governors and exciters.
Following are L&T relays for various operations:
Relays for Load sharing RRS (Two per generator)

Relays for Load shedding UFD34 (Common for the generator bus)
MW33 (One per generator)
Relays for Islanding UFD34 (For dF/dT + Under Frequency)
MRP11 (For reverse power)
MW33 (For low forward power)
DM30 (For directional O/C + E/F)
UM30 (For vector surge)
Relays for Islanding logic Matrix module MX-7/5

(Quantity will depend on plant)
PC system Standard configuration with Windows
Communication software MSCOM software
The usage of present day numerical relays as above ( except RRS) , in addition to performing all the tasks
effectively, will offer considerable economy in cost, size, maintenance and a high degree of ease of
operation of the total system.
Generator Fundamentals
A generator consists of two primary components, a prime mover and an alternator. The prime mover is the energy
source used to turn the rotor of the alternator. It is typically a diesel combustion engine for most emergency or
standby systems. In cogeneration applications, the prime mover may come from a steam driven turbine or other
source. On diesel units, a governor and voltage regulator are used to control the speed and power output. The
alternator is typically a synchronous machine driven by the prime mover. A voltage regulator controls its voltage
output by adjusting the field. The output of a single generator or multiple paralleled generator sets is controlled by
these two inputs. The alternator is designed to operate at a specified speed for the required output frequency,
typically 60 or 50 hertz. The voltage regulator and engine governor along with other systems define the generator’s
response to dynamic load changes and motor starting characteristics.
Generators are rated in power and voltage output. Most generators are designed to operate at a 0.8 power factor.
For example, a 2000 kW generator at 277/480 V would have a kVA rating of 2500 kVA (2000 kW/ 08 pf) and a
continuous current rating of 3007 A Typical synchronous generators for industrial and commercial power systems
range in size from 100 to 3,000 kVA and from 208 V to 13,800 V. There are other ratings available and these
discussions are applicable to those ratings as well. Generators must be considered in the short circuit and
coordination study as they may greatly impact the rating of the electrical distribution system. This is especially
common on large installations with multiple generators and systems that parallel with the utility source.
Generator Controls
The engine generator set has controls to maintain the output frequency (speed) and voltage. These controls consist
of a governor and voltage regulator. As loads change on the system the frequency and voltage will change. The
speed control will then adjust the governor to correct for the load (kW) change. The voltage regulator will change
the field current to adjust the voltage to the desired voltage value. These are the basic controls found on all
synchronous generators. Multiple generator systems require more sophisticated controls. Generators are paralleled
in a multi-generator system and they must share the load. These systems often have a load shed scheme, which
adds to the complexity. Multiple generator schemes need a master controller to prevent units from being
connected out of phase. The sequence of operation is to send a start signal to all generators simultaneously. The
first unit up to frequency and voltage will be permitted to close its respective breaker and energize the paralleling
bus. Breakers for the other generators are held open, not permitted to close, until certain conditions are met. Once
the paralleling bus is energized the remaining generators must be synchronized to it before the generators can be
paralleled. Synchronization compares the voltage phasors angle and magnitude. Both generators must be operating
at the same frequency and lined up within typically 5 to 10 degrees with each other. The voltage magnitude typically
must be within 20 to 24%. A synch-scope is typically supplied on paralleling gear. The synch-scope displays the
relative relationship between voltage phasors on the generator to be paralleled and the bus. If the generator is
running slower than the bus (less than 60 Hz) then the needle on the scope will spin in the counterclockwise
direction. If it is running faster then it will rotate in the clockwise direction. The greater the frequency difference, the
faster is the rotation. It is important that the generators are in phase before they are paralleled. Severe damage will
occur if generators are paralleled out-of-phase. starting of a DG set. Through an auto-mains failure (AMF) This is a
common scheme to bring a standby DG set on line automatically on the failure of the main source of supply with the
help of a battery backed-up ignition scheme. On the failure of the main supply, generally three ignition pulses are
given to the engine to auto-start the machine. If the engine fails to start at three attempts, a further pulse is
blocked. To start, the engine is made automatic. The generator excitation or the field current is also pre-set, which
adjusts the generator voltage to the required level automatically through the AVR. Provision is also made to start it
manually in case the AMF scheme fails and to also facilitate routine testing and give it more flexibility.
Control supply
A battery backed-up d.c. source of control supply is provided for the AMF panel and engine ignition. The control
scheme generally consists of a 220 or 240 V a.c. source of supply, with a transformer rectifier unit, to provide a 24 or
48 V d.c. control voltage, to charge the battery as required and a battery back-up of suitable capacity.
Selection scheme
Auto or manual selection (switch SW2)
A switch SW2 is provided for the selection of the engine to be started in auto or manual modes: Auto mode
In auto mode the engine starts automatically on failure of the a.c. bus voltage, V,, through an
Under voltage or bus voltage relay (Relay code 27). The relay is provided on the generator control panel with time
delay contacts. Time delay is provided to allow a pause to the generator if the normal supply is quickly restored.
Manual mode
Local control
In manual mode, the engine can be started and stopped locally, through a pair of start and stop push buttons,
provided on the AMF panel
Local remote control (switch SW3)
This is provided to facilitate the manual start and stop of the engine from a remote point such as through a remote
station.
Three-attempts start
A three- attempts start facility is provided through a sequential timer (ST) in auto mode. A starting
relay (SR) gives three ignition impulses to the engine. If the engine fails to start at three consecutive attempts, the
starting relay (SR) automatically locks out and emits no further ignition impulse. This feature is essential to protect
the engine against a possible hunting and a drain of the battery.
Switching off
Bus voltage relay (Relay code 27) provides an impulse to the generator trip circuit as soon as normal supply is
restored. The generator falls out of the circuit automatically after a pause of 2- 10-30 seconds, and the engine stops.
The relay now also has a delayed feature as it had during the start, to allow a pause to the main supply in case the
main supply fails quickly again Generator Short Circuit Characteristics If a short circuit is applied directly to the
output terminals of a synchronous generator it will produce an extremely high current initially; gradually decaying to
a steady state value. This change is represented by varying reactive impedance. There are three specific reactance's
used for short circuit fault currents. They are:
• Sub transient reactance Xd” which is used to determine the fault current during the first 1 to 5 cycles.
• Transient reactance Xd’ which is used to determine the fault current during the next 5 to 200 cycles.
• Synchronous reactance Xd” which is used to determine the steady state fault current.
The sub-transient reactance Xd” will range from a minimum of approximately 9% for a two pole round rotor
machine to approximately 32% for a low speed salient pole hydro-generator. The initial symmetrical fault current
can be as much as 12 times full load current. Depending on the generator type, the zero sequence impedance may
be less than the sub-transient reactance and the ground fault current substantially higher than the three phase short
circuit current. For example, a 2500 kVA, 480/277 V, 4 pole, 2/3rds pitch stand-by generator has a 0.1411 per unit
sub-transient reactance Xd” and a 0.033 per unit zero sequence Xo reactance. The ground current is approximately a
third larger than the three-phase fault current. The ground fault current can be reduced to the three-phase level by
simply adding a small reactance between the generators neutral and ground while still being considered solidly
grounded. The electric power system analysis must be performed based on the worst case operating conditions.
Typically this is when all sources are paralleled. If the system can operate with both the utility supply and generators
in parallel then the equipment must be rated for the combined fault current plus motor contribution. If the
generator and utility will not be paralleled, then both cases will need to be looked at independently and the worst
case used for selecting the equipment ratings.
Generator Set Sizing and Ratings
Many factors must be considered when determining the proper size or electrical rating of an electrical power
generator set. The engine or prime mover is sized to provide the actual or real power in kW, as well as speed
(frequency) control through the use of an engine governor. The generator is sized to supply the kVA needed at
startup and during normal running operation and it also provides voltage control using a brushless exciter and
voltage regulator. Together the engine and generator provide the energy necessary to supply electrical loads
in many different applications encountered in today’s society. The generator set must be able to supply the starting
and running electrical load. It must be able to pick up and start all motor loads and low power factor loads, and
recover without excessive voltage dip or extended recovery time. Non-linear loads like variable frequency drives,
uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems and switching power supplies also require attention because the SCR
switching causes voltage and current waveform distortion and harmonics. The harmonics generate additional heat
in the generator windings and the generator may need to be upsized to accommodate this. The type of fuel (diesel,
natural gas, propane etc.) used is important as it is a factor in determining generator set transient response. It is also
necessary to determine the load factor or average power consumption of the generator set. This is typically defined
as the load (kW) x time (hrs. while under that particular load) / total running time. When this load factor
or average power is taken into consideration with peak demand requirements and the other operating parameters
mentioned above, the overall electrical rating of the genset can be determined. Other items to consider include the
unique installation, ambient and site requirements of the project. These will help to determine the physical
configuration of the overall system. Typical rating definitions for diesel gensets are: standby, prime plus 10,
continuous and load management (paralleled with or isolated from utility). Any diesel genset can have several
electrical ratings depending on the number of hours of operation per year and the ratio of electrical load/genset
rating when in operation. The same diesel genset can have a standby rating of 2000 kW at 0.8 power factor (pf) and
a continuous rating of 1825 kW at 0.8 pf. The lower continuous rating is due to the additional hours of operation
and higher load that the continuous genset must carry. These additional requirements put more stress on the
engine and generator and therefore the rating is decreased to maintain longevity of the equipment. Different
generator set manufacturers use basically the same diesel genset electrical rating definitions and these are based on
international diesel fuel stop power standards from organizations like ISO, DIN and others. A standby diesel genset
rating is typically defined as supplying varying electrical loads for the duration of a power outage with the load
normally connected to utility, genset operating < 100 hours per year and no overload capability. A prime plus 10
rating is typically defined as supplying varying electrical loads for the duration of a power outage with the load
normally connected to utility, genset operating £ 500 hours per year and overload capability of 10% above its rating
for one hour out of twelve. A continuous rating is typically defined as supplying unvarying electrical loads (i.e., base
loaded) for an unlimited time. The load management ratings apply to gensets in parallel operation with the utility or
isolated/islanded from utility and these ratings vary in usability from < 200 hours per year to unlimited usage. Refer
to generator set manufacturers for further definitions on load management ratings, load factor or average power
consumption, peak demand and how these ratings are typically applied. Even though there is some standardization
of these ratings across the manufacturers, there also exists some uniqueness with regards to how each
manufacturer applies their generator sets. Electrical rating definitions for natural gas powered gensets are typically
defined as standby or continuous with definitions similar to those mentioned above for diesels. Natural gas gensets
recover more slowly than diesel gensets when subjected to block loads. Diesel engines have a much more direct
path from the engine governor and fuel delivery system to the combustion chamber and these results in a very
responsive engine-generator.
A natural gas engine is challenged with air-fuel flow dynamics and a much more indirect path from the engine
governor (throttle actuator) and fuel delivery system (natural gas pressure regulator, fuel valve and actuator,
carburetor mixer, after cooler, intake manifold) to the combustion chamber and these results in a less responsive
engine-generator. Diesel gensets recover about twice as fast as natural gas gensets. For the actual calculations
involved for sizing a genset, there are readily accessible computer
software programs which are available on the genset manufacturer's Internet sites or from the manufacturer's
dealers or distributors. These programs are used to quickly and accurately size generator sets for their application.
The programs take into consideration the many different parameters discussed above including the size and type of
the electrical loads (resistive, inductive, SCR etc.), reduced voltage soft starting devices (RVSS), motor types, voltage,
fuel type, site conditions, ambient conditions and other variables. The software will optimize the starting sequences
of the motors for the least amount of voltage dip and determine the starting kVA needed from the genset. It also
provides transient response data including voltage dip magnitude and recovery duration. If the transient response is
unacceptable, then design changes can be considered including over sizing the generator to handle the additional
kvar load, adding RVSS devices to reduce the inrush current, improving system power factor and other methods.
Generator Set Installation and Site Considerations

There are many different installation parameters and site conditions that must be considered to have a successful
generator set installation. The following is a partial list of areas to consider when conducting this design. Some of
these installation parameters include:
• Foundation type (crushed rock, concrete, dirt, wood, separate concrete inertia pad etc.).
• Foundation to genset vibration dampening (spring type, cork and rubber etc.).
• Noise attenuation (radiator fan mechanical noise, exhaust noise, air intake noise).
• Combustion and cooling air requirements.
• Exhaust backpressure requirements.
• Emissions permitting.
• Delivery and rigging requirements.
• Genset derating due to high altitudes or excessive ambient temperatures.
• Hazardous waste considerations for fuel, antifreeze, engine oil.
• Meeting local building and electrical codes.
• Genset exposure (coastal conditions, dust, chemicals etc.).
• Properly sized starting systems (compressed air, batteries and charger).
• Allowing adequate space for installation of the genset and for
• Flex connections on all systems that are attached to the genset and a rigid structure (fuel piping, foundation
vibration isolators, exhaust, air intake, control wiring, power cables, radiator flanges/duct work etc.).
• Diesel fuel day tank systems (pumps, return piping).
• Fuel storage tank (double walled, fire codes) and other parameters. Please see the generator set manufacturers
Application and Installation Guidelines for proper application and operation of their equipment.
Typical Genset Installation
Diesel engine damage due to misapplication or misuse of generating set. Diesel engines can suffer damage as a
result of misapplication or misuse - namely internal glazing and carbon buildup. This is a common problem in
generator sets caused by failure to follow application and operating guidelines - ideally diesel engines should
run at least around 60-75% of their maximum rated load. Short periods of low load running are permissible
providing the set is brought up to full load, or close to full load on a regular basis. Internal glazing and carbon buildup
is due to prolonged periods of running at low speeds and/or low loads. Such conditions may occur when an engine is
left idling as a 'standby' generating unit, ready to run up when needed, (misuse); if the engine powering the set
is over-powered (misapplication) for the load applied to it, causing the diesel unit to be under-loaded, or as is very
often the case, when sets are started and run off load as a test (misuse).
Running an engine under low loads causes low cylinder pressures and consequent poor piston ring sealing since this
relies on the gas pressure to force them against the oil film on the bores to form the seal. Low cylinder pressures
cause poor combustion and resultant low combustion pressures and temperatures.
This poor combustion leads to soot formation and unburnt fuel residues which clogs and gums piston rings. This
causes a further drop in sealing efficiency and exacerbates the initial low pressure. Glazing occurs when hot
combustion gases blow past the now poorly-sealing piston rings, causing the lubricating oil on the cylinder walls to
'flash burn', creating an enamel-like glaze which smoothes the bore and removes the effect of the intricate pattern
of honing marks machined into the bore surface which are there to hold oil and return it to the crankcase via the
scraper ring.
Hard carbon also forms from poor combustion and this is highly abrasive and scrapes the honing marks on the bores
leading to bore polishing, which then leads to increased oil consumption (blue smoking) and yet further loss of
pressure, since the oil film trapped in the honing marks is intended to maintain the piston seal and pressures. Un-
burnt fuel leaks past the piston rings and contaminates the lubricating oil. Poor combustion causes the injectors to
become clogged with soot, causing further deterioration in combustion and black smoking.
The problem is increased further the formation of acids in the engine oil caused by condensed water and
combustion by-products which would normally boil off at higher temperatures. This acidic build-up in the lubricating
oil causes slow but ultimately damaging wear to bearing surfaces.
This cycle of degradation means that the engine soon becomes irreversibly damaged and may not start at all and will
no longer be able to reach full power when required. Under loaded running inevitably causes not only white smoke
from unburnt fuel but over time is joined by the blue smoke of burnt lubricating oil leaking past the damaged piston
rings, and the black smoke caused by the damaged injectors. This pollution is unacceptable to the authorities and
any neighbors.
Once glazing or carbon build up has occurred, it can only be cured by stripping down the engine and re-boring the
cylinder bores, machining new honing marks and stripping, cleaning and de-coking combustion chambers, fuel
injector nozzles and valves. If detected in the early stages, running an engine at maximum load to raise the internal
pressures and temperatures, allows the piston rings to scrape glaze off the bores and allow carbon buildup to be
burnt off. However, if glazing has progressed to the stage where the piston rings have seized into their grooves this
will not have any effect.
The situation can be prevented by carefully selecting the generator set in accordance with manufacturers printed
guidelines. For emergency only sets, which are islanded, the emergency load is often only about 1/4 of the sets
standby rating, this apparent over size being necessitated to be able to meet starting loads and minimizing starting
voltage drop. Hence the available load is not usually enough for load testing and again engine damage will result if
this is used as the weekly or monthly load test. This situation can be dealt with by hiring in a load bank for regular
testing, or installing a permanent load bank. Both these options cost money in terms of engine wear and fuel use
but are better than the alternative of under loading the engine. For remote locations a Salt water rheostat can be
readily constructed. Often the best solution in these cases will be to convert the set to parallel running and feed
power into the grid, if available, once a month on load test, and or enrolling the set in utility Reserve Service type
schemes, thereby gaining revenue from the fuel burnt.
TRANSFORMER
OPERATING PRINCIPLE
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled
conductors — the transformer's coils or "windings". Except for air-core transformers, the conductors are commonly
wound around a single iron-rich core, or around separate but magnetically-coupled cores. A varying current in the
first or "primary" winding creates a varying magnetic field in the core (or cores) of the transformer. This varying
magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the "secondary" winding. This effect is
called mutual induction. If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary
winding and electrical energy will flow from the primary circuit through the transformer to the load. In an ideal
transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (VS) is in proportion to the primary voltage (VP), and is
given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary to the number of turns in the primary as follows:
By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating current (AC) voltage to be
"stepped up" by making NS greater than NP, or "stepped down" by making NS less than NP. The transformer is
based on two principles: firstly, that an electric current can produce a magnetic field (electromagnetism) and
secondly that a changing magnetic field within a coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil
(electromagnetic induction). Changing the current in the primary coil changes the magnitude of the applied
magnetic field. The changing magnetic flux extends to the secondary coil where a voltage is induced across its ends.
A simplified transformer design is shown to the left. A current passing through the primary coil creates a magnetic
field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic permeability, such as iron;
this ensures that most of the magnetic field lines produced by the primary current are within the iron and pass
through the secondary coil as well as the primary coil.
Induction law
The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's law of induction, which states that:
Where VS is the instantaneous voltage, NS is the number of turns in the secondary coil and Φ equals the magnetic
flux through one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil are oriented perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the
flux is the product of the magnetic field strength B and the area A through which it cuts. The area is constant, being
equal to the cross-sectional area of the transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according to
the excitation of the primary. Since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils in
an ideal transformer, the instantaneous voltage across the primary winding equals
Taking the ratio of the two equations for VS and VP gives the basic equation[13] for stepping up or stepping down
the voltage.
2. ENERGY LOSSES
An ideal transformer would have no energy losses, and would be 100% efficient. In practical transformers energy is
dissipated in the windings, core, and surrounding structures. Larger transformers are generally more efficient, and
those rated for electricity distribution usually perform better than 98%. Experimental transformers using
superconducting windings achieve efficiencies of 99.85%. While the increase in efficiency is small, when applied to
large heavily-loaded transformers the annual savings in energy losses are significant. A small transformer, such as a
plug-in "wall-wart" or power adapter type used for low- power consumer electronics, may be no more than 85%
efficient, with considerable loss even when not supplying any load. Though individual power loss is small, the
aggregate losses from the very large number of such devices are coming under increased scrutiny. The losses vary
with load current, and may be expressed as "no-load" or "full-load" loss. Winding resistance dominates load losses,
whereas hysteresis and eddy currents losses contribute to over 99% of the no-load loss. The no-load loss can be
significant, meaning that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on an electrical supply, which encourages
development of low-loss transformers (also see energy efficient transformer). Transformer losses are divided into
losses in the windings, termed copper loss, and those in the magnetic circuit, termed iron loss. Losses in the
transformer arise from:
Winding resistance: - Current flowing through the windings causes resistive heating of the conductors. At higher
frequencies, skin effect and proximity effect create additional winding resistance and losses.
Hysteresis losses: - Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis within
the core. For a given core material, the loss is proportional to the frequency, and is a function of the peak flux
density to which it is subjected.
Eddy currents: - Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors, and a solid core made from such a material also
constitutes a single short-circuited turn throughout its entire length. Eddy currents therefore circulate within the
core in a plane normal to the flux, and are responsible for resistive heating of the core material. The eddy current
loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and Inverse Square of the material thickness.
Magnetostriction:-Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to physically expand and
contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an effect known as Magnetostriction. This produces the
buzzing sound commonly associated with transformers,[13] and in turn causes losses due to frictional heating in
susceptible cores.
Mechanical losses: - In addition to Magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating
electromagnetic forces between the primary and secondary windings. These incite vibrations within nearby
metalwork, adding to the buzzing noise, and consuming a small amount of power.
Stray losses: - Leakage inductance is by itself lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic fields is returned to the
supply with the next half-cycle. However, any leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the
transformer's support structure will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat.
3. VOLTAGE REGULATION: - The voltage regulation of the transformer is the percentage change in the output
voltage from no-load to full-load. And since power factor is a determining factor in the secondary voltage, power
factor influences voltage regulation.
4. Transformer Nameplate:-
The following data must be on the rating plate:

Maker: The manufacturer’s name or initials.
Serial number: Number for identification.
Current type: To be specified if DC.
Rated current: The rated value for the current flowing through a winding’s line terminals at rated load. The
maximum current for which the winding is designed.
Rated frequency: The frequency at which the transformer is intended to work (AC).
Rated power: The apparent power in VA, kVA or MVA for AC, W or kW for DC.
Rated voltage primary is the value of the main voltage which is intended to be applied to or induced in the primary
winding. The maximum voltage for which the transformer is designed in normal operation.
Rated voltage secondary: The voltage which is generated for the transformer’s secondary line terminals with or
without load (depending on the standard).
Cooling type: A code which indicates the cooling type. Ambient temperature (ta): See separate section.
Short-circuit impedance (ez): To be specified if the transformer is greater than or equal to I kVA.
Short-circuit resistance (er): To be specified if the transformer is greater than or equal to I kVA.
Transformer weight: Must be specified if the transformer weighs more than 18 kg.
Transformer’s degree of protection: IP rating, see separate section.
Insulation class: See separate section.
Coupling group and vector number: Must be specified if it is a three-phase transformer.
Type of operation: Continuous or intermittent operation. Depending on whether it is a small transformer or power
transformer:
Year/date of build
Build standard.
Cos phi: power factor.
5. INSULATION CLASSES
The insulation class of a transformer is determined based on the test levels that it is capable of withstanding.
Transformer insulation is rated by the BIL, or Basic Insulation Impulse Level, in conjunction with the voltage rating.
Internally, a transformer is considered to be a non-self-restoring insulation system, mostly consisting of porous,
cellulose material impregnated by the liquid insulating medium. Externally, the transformer’s bushings and, more
importantly, the surge protection equipment must coordinate with the transformer rating to protect the
transformer from transient overvoltage’s and surges. Standard insulation classes have been established by
standards organizations stating the parameters by which tests are to be performed. Wye connected transformers
will typically have the common point brought out of the tank through a neutral bushing. Depending on the
application, for example in the case of a solidly grounded neutral vs. a neutral grounded through a resistor or
reactor or even an ungrounded neutral, the neutral may have a lower insulation class than the line terminals. There
are standard guidelines for rating the neutral based on the situation. It is important to note that the insulation class
of the neutral may limit the test levels of the line terminals for certain tests, such as the applied potential, or hi-pot,
test where the entire circuit is brought up to the same voltage level. A reduced rating for the neutral can
significantly reduce the cost of larger units and autotransformers as opposed to a fully rated neutral.
6. Cooling Classes
Since no transformer is truly an “ideal” transformer, each will incur a certain amount of energy loss, mainly that
which is converted to heat. Methods of removing this heat can depend on the application, the size of the unit, and
the amount of heat that needs to be dissipated. The insulating medium inside a transformer, usually oil, serves
multiple purposes, first to act as an insulator, and second to provide a good medium through which to remove heat.
The windings and core are the primary sources of heat; however, internal metallic structures can act as a heat
source as well. It is imperative to have proper cooling ducts and passages in proximity to the heat sources through
which the cooling medium can flow such that the heat can be effectively removed from the transformer. The natural
circulation of oil through a transformer through convection has been referred to as a “thermo siphon” effect. The
heat is carried by the insulating medium until it is transferred through the transformer tank wall to the external
environment. Radiators, typically detachable, provide an increase in the convective surface area without increasing
the size of the tank. In smaller transformers, integral tubular sides or fins are used to provide this increase in
surface area. Fans can be installed to increase the volume of air moving across the cooling surfaces thus increasing
the rate of heat dissipation. Larger transformers that cannot be effectively cooled using radiators and fans rely on
pumps that circulate oil through the transformer and through external heat exchangers, or coolers, which can use
air or water as a secondary cooling medium.
Allowing liquid to flow through the transformer windings by natural convection is also identified as non-directed
flow. In cases where pumps are used, and even some instances where only fans and radiators are being used, the
liquid is often guided into and through some or all of the windings. This is called directed flow in that there is some
degree of control of the flow of the liquid through the windings. The difference between directed and non-directed
flow through the winding in regard to winding arrangement will be discussed further with the description of winding
types.
The use of auxiliary equipment such as fans and pumps with coolers, called forced circulation, increases the cooling
and thereby the rating of the transformer without increasing the unit’s physical size. Ratings are determined based
on the temperature of the unit as it coordinates with the cooling equipment that is operating. Usually, a transformer
will have multiple ratings corresponding to multiple stages of cooling, as equipment can be set to run only at
increased loads.
(IEC60726) On the transformer’s rating plate there should be a code indicating the cooling type. The code is made
up of four letters which specify the following in the given order:
1. Coolant in contact with the windings -
(Primary coolant)
2. Circulation method for the primary coolant.
3. Coolant in contact with the cooling system -

(Secondary coolant).
4. Circulation method for the secondary coolant.
The cooling class is identified by the following methodology:
First Letter
Internal Cooling Medium in Contact with the Windings
Letter Definition
O Mineral oil or synthetic insulating liquid with fire point ≤ 300°C K Insulating liquid with fire point > 300°C L
Insulating liquid with no measurable fire point
Second Letter
Circulation Mechanism for Internal Cooling Medium
Letter Definition
N Natural convection flow through cooling equipment and in windings
F Forced circulation through cooling equipment (i.e., coolant pumps) and natural convection flow in windings (also
called non directed flow)
D Forced circulation through cooling equipment, directed from the cooling equipment into the main windings
Third Letter
External Cooling Medium
Letter Definition
A Air
W Water
Fourth Letter
Circulation Mechanism for External Cooling Medium
Letter Definition
N Natural convection
F Forced circulation [fans (air cooling) or pumps (water cooling)]
7. VECTOR GROUP/PHASOR GROUP OF 3-PH TRANSFORMER
A Vector group is the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) method of categorizing the primary and
secondary winding configurations of three-phase transformers. Within a polyphase system power transformer it
indicates the windings configurations and the difference in phase angle between them. The phase windings of a
polyphase transformer can be connected together internally in different configurations, depending on what
characteristics are needed from the transformer. For example, in a three-phase power system, it may be necessary
to connect a three-wire system to a four-wire system, or vice versa. Because of this, transformers are manufactured
with a variety of winding configurations to meet these requirements. Different combinations of winding connections
will result in different phase angles between the voltages on the windings. This limits the types of transformers that
can be connected between two systems, because mismatching phase angles can result in circulating current and
other system disturbances.
Symbol designation
The vector group provides a simple way of indicating how the internal connections of a particular transformer are
arranged. In the system adopted by the IEC, the vector group is indicated by a code consisting of two or three
letters, followed by one or two digits. The letters indicate the winding configuration as follows:
• D: Delta winding, also called a mesh winding. Each phase terminal connects to two windings, so the windings
form a triangular configuration with the terminals on the points of the triangle.
• Y: Wye winding, also called a star winding. Each phase terminal connects to one end of a winding, and the other
end of each winding connects to the other two at a central point, so that the configuration resembles a capital letter
Y. The central point may or may not be connected outside of the transformer.
• Z: Zigzag winding, or interconnected star winding. Basically similar to a star winding, but the windings are
arranged so that the three legs are "bent" when the phase diagram is drawn. Zigzag-wound transformers have
special characteristics and are not commonly used where these characteristics are not needed.
• III: Independent windings. The three windings are not interconnected inside the transformer at all, and must be
connected externally.
In the IEC vector group code, each letter stands for one set of windings. The HV winding is designated with a capital
letter, followed by medium or low voltage windings designated with a lowercase letter. The digits following the
letter codes indicate the difference in phase angle between the windings, with HV winding is taken as a reference.
The number is in units of 30 degrees. For example, a transformer with a vector group of Dy1 has a delta-connected
HV winding and a wye-connected LV winding. The phase angle of the LV winding lags the HV by 30 degrees.
The point of confusion is in how to use this notation in a step-up transformer. As the IEC60076-1 standard has
stated, the notation is HV-LV in sequence. For example, a step-up transformer with a delta-connected primary, and
star-connected secondary, is not written as 'dY11', but 'Yd11'. The 11 indicates the LV winding leads the HV by 30
degrees.
Transformers built to ANSI standards usually do not have the vector group shown on their nameplate and instead a
vector diagram is given to show the relationship between the primary and other windings.
TYPES OF TRANSFORMER:-
A. Autotransformer: - An autotransformer has only a single winding with two end terminals, plus a third at an
intermediate tap point. The primary voltage is applied across two of the terminals, and the secondary voltage taken
from one of these and the third terminal. The primary and secondary circuits therefore have a number of windings
turns in common. Since the volts-per-turn is the same in both windings, each develops a voltage in proportion to its
number of turns. An adjustable autotransformer is made by exposing part of the winding coils and making the
secondary connection through a sliding brush, giving a variable turns ratio.
Polyphase transformers :- For three-phase supplies, a bank of three individual single-phase transformers can be
used, or all three phases can be incorporated as a single three-phase transformer. In this case, the magnetic
circuits are connected together, the core thus containing a three-phase flow of flux. A number of winding
configurations are possible, giving rise to different attributes and phase shifts. One particular polyphase
configuration is the zigzag transformer, used for grounding and in the suppression of harmonic currents.
Leakage transformers: - A leakage transformer, also called a stray-field transformer, has a significantly higher
leakage inductance than other transformers, sometimes increased by a magnetic bypass or shunt in its core
between primary and secondary, which is sometimes adjustable with a set screw. This provides a transformer with
an inherent current limitation due to the loose coupling between its primary and the secondary windings. The
output and input currents are low enough to prevent thermal overload under all load conditions - even if the
secondary is shorted.
Leakage transformers are used for arc welding and high voltage discharge lamps (neon lamps and cold cathode
fluorescent lamps, which are series-connected up to 7.5 kV AC). It acts then both as a voltage transformer and as a
magnetic ballast. Other applications are short-circuit-proof extra-low voltage transformers for toys or
doorbell installations.
Hermetically sealed transformer :- These are filled with mineral oil or synthetic liquid and sealed with an inert gas
like nitrogen at the top portion of the tank to ensure dryness of sealed unit .these transformers do not need periodic
filtration and maintenance explosion vent is provided against build up of pressure within.
ABB Industrial Transformers Unified power for your success
Rectifier Transformers
For various electrolysis applications like aluminum and other metals and chlorine, rectifier transformers are
combined with a diode or thyristor rectifier. The applications range from very large aluminum electrolysis to various
medium size operations. The transformers may have a built-in or separate voltage regulation unit.
Applications
Electrolysis processes are used for the production of metals, such as aluminum, magnesium, copper and zinc, or
chemicals, mainly chlorine. The largest installations are those for aluminum electrolysis with several
transformer/rectifier units in parallel operation to achieve the required DC current. In all cases the rectifier can be
with diodes or thyristors.
Duty
Electrolysis is generally considered to be continuous and stable processes, but with a constant high loading and
current harmonics.
Design
Due to a large variety of applications there are several influencing factors to consider:
• Rectifier bridge connection: For medium to high DC voltage level.
• Rectifier single-way inter phase connection: For low DC voltage levels combined with high DC currents.
• Thyristor or diode rectifier.
• Voltage range and step voltage.
• Double-decker: HV and LV windings in two levels and wye and delta connection to achieve 12-pulse reaction.
• Pulse numbers higher than 12: Requires additional phase shifting windings.
• LV winding arrangements: Adapted to minimize winding hotspots and the influence of harmonics.
• LV bushing arrangement: Adapted to rectifier design and to limit structural heating.
Voltage regulation
Thyristor rectifiers normally require transformer voltage regulation with a no-load-tap-changer (NLTC), if any. For
short voltage ranges the NLTC can be situated in a HV tapped winding. Diode rectifiers will in comparison have a
longer range and a higher number of smaller voltage steps in the transformer. A multi-coarse-fine on-
load-tap-changer (OLTC) or an OLTC/NLTC combination is preferred, together with LV-side saturable reactors for the
voltage fine-tuning. The required double-wound or auto connected regulating transformer can, depending on
transport or site limitations, be built into the same tank as the rectifier transformer or into a separate tank.
Technical features
Unit ratings: Up to 160 MVA
Secondary voltage: Up to 1500 VAC
Unit process current: Up to over 100 kADC
AC Arc Furnace Transformers
Applications
Electric arc furnace (EAF) transformers are required for many different furnace processes and applications. They are
built for:
• Steel furnaces, mainly long arc
• Ladle furnaces
• Ferroalloy furnaces and similar with short or submerged arc
Duty
Steel arc furnace transformer operate under very severe conditions with regard to frequent over currents and over
voltages generated by short-circuits in the furnace and the operation of the HV circuit breaker(“furnace breaker”).
The loading is cyclic, while in other applications the loading is more continuous a thigh utilization.
Design
ABB EAF transformers are rigidly designed to withstand repeated short circuit conditions and high thermal stresses
and to be protected against operational over voltages.
Design options:
• Direct or indirect regulation
• On-load or no-load tap changer (OLTC or NLTC)
• Built-in reactor for long-arc stability

• Secondary bushing arrangements and designs, air or water cooled
• Internal secondary phase closure (internal delta)
• RC-SA high voltage protection system
Series Reactors
Applications
In large long-arc steel furnaces with high arc voltages there will generally be required to introduce extra reactance in
order to stabilize the arc during operation. For this purpose, a linear series reactor will be used. The reactor may be
built into the same tank as the furnace transformer, or supplied as a separate unit.
Duty
For operational flexibility the reactor will normally be supplied with a tap changer. Depending on the melting
process and type of steel being produced this may be an on-load or no-load tap changer with the required number
of steps.
Direct Regulation
The secondary voltage can be regulated by tapping the primary winding. Step voltages over the range will be
unequal, due to the inherent winding design, but adaptations can be made to satisfy most requirements. A single
core-coil unit makes this the most cost-effective regulation principle in a furnace transformer as long as a suitable
on-load tap changer is available. A primary star-delta reconnection switch will expand the range.
Indirect Regulation
When equal and/or very small voltage steps or a very long regulating range is required, the alternative will be the
Booster regulation with two core-coil units directly connected in the same tank. The main unit will supply a fixed
LV component and the series unit will supply a variable and reversible LV component. The two LV systems are
connected in series for the desired LV voltage positions and range.
Over-voltage Protection
In order to protect the HV side of the transformer from incoming switching over-voltages, a system of RC filters and
surge arresters (SA) should be fitted to the HV side of the transformer. On the LV side capacitors may be added to
suppress over-voltages from the arc.
Technical Features
Ratings: Up to 200 MVA
Secondary voltages: Up to 1500 V
Electrode current (steel): Up to 100 kA
Electrode current (Fe-alloy) Up to 160 kA
Design
The reactor will have the same heavy duty as the furnace transformer itself. Therefore the design has to be very
rugged in order to maintain stability and linearity of the reactance. The ABB reactors for this kind of application are
built as coreless coils surrounded by a shielding structure of core laminations in a 3-phase arrangement.
DC Arc Furnace Transformers
Applications
Most large DC arc furnaces are built for steel production. The use of a thyristor rectifier forthe conversion to DC will
normally reduce the requirement for on-load voltage regulation of the furnace transformer. The step voltages will
be larger than for an AC furnace transformer and a no-load tap changer (NLTC) will in many applications be
adequate.
Duty
Being a rectifier transformer for furnace operation, the DC furnace transformer will have to withstand the
characteristic stresses of furnace operation, as well as the additional stresses related to rectifier operation, including
generated current harmonics. Also, the HV side needs to be protected from frequent switching over voltages.
Design
DC furnace transformers are mostly built with two axially displaced LV windings, normally one connected in delta
and one in wye, each having a separate high voltage winding. In this double-decker design the transformer is
connected to two six-pulse rectifiers, adding up to a 12-pulse system or two parallel 6-pulse systems. The regulation
of the LV transformer voltage is normally done by using a NLTC in the primary winding. The location of the 6-pulse
Rectifiers can be on the same side of the transformer or on opposite sides, as required by plant layout.
Intermediate yoke
DC furnace transformers in double-decker design, having two HV-LV voltage systems on the same core may have an
intermediate yoke to enable largely independent operation of the two systems.
Technical Features
Secondary voltages: Up to 1200 V
Electrode current: Up to over 100 kADC
Large Drives Converter Transformers
Applications
For special applications, such as large pumping stations, wind tunnels and rolling stock, a transformer combined
with a frequency converter will supply the input for a variable speed system. For fixed railway feeding stations a
conversion from normal grid frequency to railway frequency takes place in a similar way.
Duty
The duty is much related to type of application. In pumping stations a high loading with limited
variation over time can be expected, while in other applications there may be a more intermittent duty cycle with
load peaks.
Design
Drives transformers are mostly built with two secondary and two primary windings, allowing for a 12-pulse rectifier
reaction. Such transformers are normally built with a tertiary winding system connected to a filter bank to take out
harmonics created by the converter. Due to the operation cycles of the converters, there are strong requirements
for correct inter-winding impedance relations and accuracy.
Technical Features
Secondary voltages: Up to 134 kV
Connection of Transformer Windings
There are four fundamental three-phase transformer connections delta-wye, delta-delta, wye-delta, and wye-
wye. The connection recommended for most applications is delta-wye (delta winding on the primary and wye
winding on the secondary). The wye-connected secondary windings can be used as a three-wire or four-wire
system, depending on the application. It usually is used as a three-wire system with the neutral grounded; however,
a fourth wire connected to the wye neutral can be used to support single-phase loads (such as lighting).
Each winding connection has advantages and disadvantages that make it suitable or unsuitable for particular
applications. When paralleling with an existing system, the same connection scheme must be used to provide
identical phase shifting; otherwise potentially destructive circulating currents may flow.
1) Delta-Wye
a) Advantages
·Effective control of phase to neutral over-voltages
·Easy detection of phase-to-ground faults
·Isolation of ground-fault current from the high voltage (delta) side, thus not affecting ground relaying on the high
voltage side.
b) Disadvantages
·Possibility of large phase-to-ground fault current, leading to possible sustained arcing. (See high-resistance
grounding in Design Manual GTP-6DMP-031, “Grounding System,” for recommendations)
· Interruption of critical processes due to disconnection of equipment upon detection of a ground fault. (See high
resistance grounding in Design Manual GTP-6DMP-031, “Grounding System.”)
·Entire system rendered inoperable by failure of one winding.
2) Delta Delta. Not recommended for new installations, except where required to parallel with an existing system.
a) Advantages
·Low level of line-to-ground fault current.
·Low flash hazard to personnel (from line-to-ground faults)
·Continued operation of equipment after one ground fault
.Three-phase power still available if one winding fails, although load-carrying capability must be derated
b) Disadvantages
·Neutral-to-ground over-voltages uncontrolled and can lead to equipment breakdown and shorter life.
·Overvoltage stresses caused by unresolved faults.
·Possible reduced insulation life (from over-voltages)
·Large circulating currents unless delta windings have identical impedance ratings.
·Difficulty in locating ground faults. (There’re, however, methods of creating high resistance grounding schemes,
similar to wye winding with high value neutral resistor, that allow ground faults to be found quickly without
interrupting operations).
3) Wye-Delta. Not recommended for new installations, except where required to parallel with an existing system.
a) Advantages
·Low levels of line-to-ground fault current.
·Low flash hazard to personnel (from line-to-ground faults)
·Continued operation of equipment after one ground fault
b) Disadvantages
·Neutral-to-ground over-voltages uncontrolled and can lead to equipment breakdown and shorter life.
·Overvoltage stresses caused by unresolved faults.
·Possible reduced insulation life from over-voltages
·Difficulty in locating ground faults
·Entire system rendered inoperable by failure of one winding.
4) Wye-Wye. Not recommended except when required by utilities.

a) Advantages
·Advantages on the secondary side similar to those of delta-wye connection, except ground fault currents not
isolated from the primary side.
b) Disadvantages
·Voltage collapse of the neutral if a single-phase load or unbalanced load is placed on the secondary. This
problem can be solved with tertiary delta-connected windings.
·Higher cost due to insulation degradation and requirement of tertiary delta windings.
· Third harmonic voltages impressed upon line-to-line voltages, resulting in additional voltage stress on equipment.
(Third harmonics can be significantly reduced by using three-phase core-type transformers).
SWITCHGEAR
The term switchgear, used in association with the electric power system, or grid, refers to the combination of
electrical disconnects, fuses and/or circuit breakers used to isolate electrical equipment. Switchgear is used both to
de-energize equipment to allow work to be done and to clear faults downstream. The terms ‘switchgear’ and motor
control centers are used in general to describe combinations of enclosures, bus bars, circuit breakers, power
contactors, power fuses, protective relays, controls and indicating devices.
The standards used in Europe often refer to IEC60050 for definitions of general terms. Particular IEC standards tend
to give additional definitions that relate to the equipment being described, e.g. IEC60439 and IEC60947 for low
voltage equipment, IEC60056, IEC60298 and IEC60694 for high voltage equipment. An earlier standard IEC60277 has
been withdrawn. These standards tend to prefer the general terms ‘switchgear’ and ‘control gear’. Control gear may
be used in the same context as ‘motor control centers which is a more popular and specific term used in the oil
industry. In general switchgear may be more closely associated with switchboards that contain circuit breaker or
contactor cubicles for power distribution to other switchboards and motor control centers, and which receive their
power from generators or incoming lines or cables. Motor control centers tend to be assemblies that
contain outgoing cubicles specifically for supplying and controlling power to motors. However, motor control
centers may contain outgoing cubicles for interconnection to other switchboards or motor control centers, and
circuit breakers for their incomers and bus bar sectioning. Switchboards may be a combination of switchgear and
motor control centers. For example a main high voltage switchboard for an offshore platform will have switchgear
for the generators, bus bar sectioning and outgoing transformer feeders. It will have motor control centre cubicles
for the high voltage motors. IEC60439 applies to low voltage equipment that is described as ‘factory built
assemblies’, or FBAs, of switchgear and control gear. Switchgear tends to be operated infrequently, whereas motor
control centers operate frequently as required by the process that uses the motor. Apart from the
incomers and bus bar section circuit breakers, the motor control centers are designed with contactors and fuses (or
some types of moulded case circuit breakers in low voltage equipment) that will interrupt fault currents within a
fraction of a cycle of AC current. Circuit breakers need several cycles of fault current to flow before interruption is
complete. Consequently the components within a circuit breaker must withstand the higher forces and heat
produced when several complete cycles of fault current flow. Switchgear is available up to at least 400 kV, whereas
motor control centers are only designed for voltages up to approximately 15 kV because this is the normal limit for
high voltage motors.
CONSTRUCTION
The switchgear (SWGR) and motor control centers (MCC) considered in this section are those found in the onshore
and offshore oil industry for supplying power to processes and utilities. Extra high voltage (EHV) transmission and
distribution equipment used by electricity authorities is not considered herein. Hence most of the equipment used
onshore and offshore is limited to an upper service voltage of between 11 kV and 15 kV. Occasionally voltages in
the range of 30 kV to 40 kV are used when the incoming line or generating capacity exceeds approximately 120
MW. Voltages as high as 69 kV are used for long submarine cable systems. The SWGR and MCC equipment are
invariably housed in a building or enclosed module, or at least effectively protected against bad weather and
aggressive environmental conditions. The construction is therefore of the metal clad type, in which all the live parts
are housed in a mild-steel sheet metal enclosure. The enclosure is sub-divided so that personnel may work safely
on some compartments without danger or the risk of electric shock. Various degrees of personnel and ingress
protection are commonly available. The degree of protection is defined in various international standards e.g.
NEMA and NEC in USA, IEC in UK and Europe. For use inside buildings where manual operation and interference is
infrequent and where the atmosphere is cool, dry and clean an enclosure of the IEC60529 type IP40, 41 or 42 or
NEMA type 1 or 2 is usually adequate. If equipment is to be located in a poor atmosphere e.g. dust laden, damp,
hot and where hose-pipes may be used to wash down adjacent plant, then a more demanding enclosure type is
required e.g. IP54 or NEMA type 4, but this would normally only apply to low voltage equipment.
The main electrical components are:-

• Main bus bars.
• Earthing bulbar.
• Incoming and bus bar section circuit breakers.
• Outgoing switching devices, contactors or circuit breakers.
• Fuses for MCC outgoing circuits.
• Safety interlocking devices.
• Electrical protective relays and devices for all power circuits.
• Control and indication devices.
• Communication or network interfacing system.
• Main connections and terminal compartments.
Main Bus bars
The main bus bars should be made of high-grade copper. Aluminum is not recommended because it suffers from
mechanical problems associated with the soft nature of the metal, which makes the physical jointing and
connection of auxiliary devices difficult. For voltages up to 600 V it is often required to use four bus bars, one
being for the neutral. This i s because unbalanced loads need to be supplied as a 4-wire system. In this case a 4wire
feeder from the source is necessary, e.g. a HV/LV transformer, LV generator. Care needs to be taken when
specifying the number of horizontal and vertical bus bars in low voltage motor control centers. Often in oil industry
motor control centers there is a mixture of motor controllers and static load feeder units. Motors seldom need a 4-
wire supply but static loads are often unbalanced and require the fourth or neutral wire. The motor and static load
units need not necessarily be segregated into different complete vertical assemblies, although this is good
engineering practice, and so it is advisable to specify a fourth vertical bus bar in each vertical assembly. When a 4-
wire system is required the incoming and bus bar section circuit breakers may be 3-pole with a
linked neutral or be 4-pole. If the SWBD or MCC feeds equipment located in a hazardous area then the 4-pole
circuit breakers should be used, as recommended in the international standards. For balanced loads and for
voltages above 1000 V a 3-wire source is used and hence only three bus bars are needed. Unbalanced loads are
seldom encountered at high voltages.
The maximum value of 4000 A for low voltage bus bars roughly corresponds to the secondary current of a fully
loaded 2500 kVA transformer. 2500 kVA is often chosen as the limit for transformers that feed motor control
centers because the fault current that they allow through is typically near to the limit that the manufacturers can
normally supply, e.g. 80 kA symmetrical rms current. A 2500 kVA transformer with at 6% leakage impedance and a
400 V secondary winding will pass approximately 60 kA of fault current. If the MCC feeds mostly motors then they
will collectively contribute some fault current in addition to that from the transformer, see IEC60363 clause 4 and
IEC60909 clause 13. In the above simple example some of the margin between 60 kA and 80 kA will be taken up by
the sub-transient contributions from the motors. It can be noted at this point that if the transformer is
subsequently increased in rating by the addition of forced air fans, then the fault current passed by the
transformer will be unchanged. It is advisable to specify the rating of the transformer in its forced air-cooled mode
of operation, if such cooling is considered likely to be needed in the future. This would ensure that the incoming
circuit breakers and bus bar normal rated currents would be correctly matched to the transformers. High voltage
switchboards are available with bus bar ratings up to 5000 A. Consider for example an 11 kV switchboard that is
fed by four 25 MVA generators, two connected to the left-hand side bus bar section and two on the right-hand side
section. The total rated current from a pair of generators is 2624 A, which is the maximum current that can flow
across the bus bar section circuit breaker. Hence the bus bars can be adequately rated at 3000A or 3150A for this
plant. Bus bars are mounted on insulated bushes that are strong enough to withstand the peak short circuit
currents and forces. The bus bars may be air insulated or enclosed in an insulating sleeve. The sleeve is used where
the atmosphere may be damp or corrosive. Neutral bus bars are usually rated at half the phase bus bar current
ratings. If the neutral is likely to carry harmonic currents then it is good practice to use a fully rated neutral bus bar
i.e. the same as the individual phase bus bars.
Earthing Bus bars

The earthing (grounding) bus bar is separate from the neutral bus bar, and is used to earth all conductors that need
to be earthed as well as the metallic frame and casing of the switchboard or motor control centre. The earthing
bus bar is made of high-grade copper and is usually located at the front or rear of the enclosure at ground level.
Incoming and Bus bar Section Switching Device Low voltage systems up to 600 V The incoming and busbar section
switching devices are usually air-break circuit breakers, which can be fixed or withdraw able from the main frame
or enclosure. They can be 3 or 4-pole depending upon whether a 3 or 4-wire supply is required. Some low power
switchboards may use load-break switches for these functions.
High voltage systems up to 15 kV
Several types of circuit breakers are available for high voltage operation. The main types are:-
• Air-break.
• Sulphur hexafluoride gas.
• Vacuum.
The use of oil in switchgear has become unnecessary and discontinued. The choice of circuit breaker type for a
particular power system depends upon several main factors:-
• Ambient and environmental conditions, derating may be required for high ambient temperatures.
• Rated normal rms current.
• Fault peak making current with the appropriate DC offset.
• Fault rms breaking current with the appropriate DC offset if it is still present.
• Fault withstand duty
• Cost and economics
• Variety of choice in the market so that a technical and economic comparison can be made
• Physical size and suitability for the intended location
• Manufacturing time and delivery time.

• Obsolescence and the availability of spare parts.
• Post purchase follows up services.
• Single or duplicate busbar system requirements.
Forms of Separation Cubicle type switchgear can be constructed in many different arrangements depending
upon a variety of requirements. For example the following aspects may be important for a particular plant,
environmental protection, ease of access to internal parts, ease of terminating cables, fixed or with draw able
switching devices, maintainability and level of personnel skill, cost and economics, expected life duration of the
product, fitness for its purpose. The switchgear industry is very competitive and so it is essential to clearly
specify what is required in the form of assembly and its construction. Otherwise a false or unsatisfactory decision
may be made mainly based on a cost comparison. The steel cladding and compartments are necessary for support
of the electrical and mechanical components, and for providing a safety barrier for the personnel who operate
and maintain the switchgear. Safety risk has two main features. Firstly, electric shock and secondly, injury from
explosive faults and fires. A well-designed enclosure should ensure that these features are minimized.
The following discussion refers to IEC standards for low voltage switchgear in particular. However, the basic
concepts also apply to high voltage switchgear.
The main IEC standard for low voltage switchgear assemblies is IEC60439 which has seven parts. Part 1 covers the
basic requirements for internal separation, compartments, barriers and partitions. It uses the IPXY notation of
IEC60529 as a basis for the ingress protection, mainly concentrating on ‘X’ for access by tools, fingers, hands, small
particles and dust. The minimum value of ‘X’ used in the standard is 2 for protection against live parts, and for
ingress between adjacent units of an assembly, in particular by the fingers of a person. The standard defines four
basic ‘forms’ of separation:-
• Form 1. No separation is provided.
• Form 2. Separation is only provided between the bus bars and other functional units.
• Form 3a Separation of the bus bars from the functional units separation of one functional unit from another.
However, the terminals for the external cables need not be separated from the functional units or from each other.
• Form 3b. As for Form 3a except that the terminals as a group are separated from the functional units. The
terminals need not be separated from each other in the group.
• Form 4. As for Form 3a except that the terminals are an integral part of a separated functional unit. The terminals
need to be separated from each other in the group. Also defined in the standard are many terms and expressions
that are used to describe individual parts and components as well as combinations of them, e.g. assembly,
functional unit, barrier. The standard states what is to be achieved but not how and with what materials. An annex
has been issued in the UK that expands the general principles. In June 1996 The Electrical Installation Equipment
Manufacturer’s Association (EIEMA) published Reference 1.
The four ‘forms’ were sub-divided as follows:
• Form 1. No sub-divisions.
• Form 2. Sub-divisions as:-
Form 2a
Form 2b, Type 1
Form 2b, Type 2
Form 3a
Form 3b, Type 1
Form 3b, Type 2
Form 4a, Type 1
Form 4a, Type 2
Form 4a, Type 3
These various ‘forms’ and ‘types’ differ in detail regarding:-
• Separation of bus bars and terminations.
• Separation provided between the bus bars and cable terminals.
• Use of rigid barriers.
• Location of cable glands.
• Whether each functional unit has its own integral glanding arrangement. Reference 1 has an excellent diagram in
the form of a ‘decision tree’ to fully illustrate the above details. Another good summary which includes a table
showing the relationship between bus bar functional units and terminations is Reference 2. Oil industry users tend
to prefer the various types of Form 4, with an ingress code of IP31, 32, 41 or 42 for use indoors.
Ambient Temperature Derating Factor

Switchboards and motor control centers are generally required to operate continuously at temperatures above
15◦C, for example when the switch room air conditioning fails or the ambient temperature is exceptionally high.
However, switchboards are usually manufactured to meet the requirements of an ambient temperature of 40◦C,
see for example, IEC60439 clause 6.1.1 ‘ambient air temperature’. Rated Normal Current When choosing the root
mean square ratings of switchboards due regard should be made for possible extra consumption of power in the
future. The amount of extra power depends upon the particular situation, for example:-
• Updating an existing plant.
• New plant with detailed data.
• New plant with estimated data.
• Future plans for growth.
A good ‘rule-of-thumb’ guide is to assume that between 15% and 25% extra capacity will be required. Hence the
chosen rating will be 115% to 125% of the best-known estimate at the early design stage. This requirement also
applies to power transformers and their main cables or overhead power lines, and to outgoing feeder cables to
auxiliary switchboards and motor control centers. It does not usually apply to individual motor consumers,
Fault Making Peak Current
The circuit breakers and bus bars in the switchgear must be capable of withstanding the worst-case fault
making situation, which should include the appropriate DC off-set. This is taken to be due to a zero
impedance short circuit occurring within the switchboard, e.g. on the busbars, and is also assumed to
exist or have been applied before the incoming feeder circuit breaker is closed. Hence the equipment
must be capable of closing on to the worst possible fault, and clearing the fault within the breaking duty
time period.
Switchboards that are fed by generators usually have the most onerous fault conditions to clear, due to the high
off-set of the current that can occur. High voltage induction motors can also contribute fault current that has a
significant DC off-set,
SWITCHING DEVICES
FUSE: - a fuse (short for fusible link) is a type of over current (Short Circuit Faults) protection device. Its typical
component is a metal wire or strip (element) that melts when too much current flows, which interrupts
(disconnects) the circuit in which it is connected. Circuit or device failure is often a reason for excessive
current. A fuse blows (interrupts excessive current) so that further damage (ie. fire) is prevented. A fuse typically is
not intended to protect from the initial cause of over current. Their ability to provide protection against overloads
and earth-faults is limited.
Fusing Factor: - It is the ration of the minimum current at which a fuse will blow to its rated current
Fusing Factor =Minimum Fusing current
Rated Current
It is always greater than unity and is equal to 1.9 to 2
for the re-wire able fuses and equal to 1.45 for
standard duty cartridge fuses.
Types of Fuses:-
1. Rewirable type
A. open type
B. Semi-enclosed type
2. Cartridge type
A. d-type
B. Link type or High Rupturing capacity(HRC) fuse .
CONTACTOR
Motor control centers and some switchboards use contactors as the frequently operated switching
device for individual outgoing loads up to about 400 amps. Contactors differ from circuit breakers in
that they are designed to handle rated running current and very short-term low fault level situations.
Contactors cannot withstand the high fault currents.
A fuse must be placed in series to interrupt fault currents and sustained over currents. This means that
the device is physically much more compact than a circuit breaker and hence much less expensive. Low
voltage contactors are simple air-break electromagnetic devices. High voltage contactors are air-break,
vacuum or SF6 devices, although air-break is becoming obsolete. Most contactors are closed and held
closed by the action of a powerful fast acting electromagnet. Occasionally a mechanically held
arrangement is required to safeguard against a loss of supply and the need to maintain power to the
load once the supply is restored. This practice often applies to feeders for distribution transformers,
where restoration of the secondary supply must not be delayed by manual intervention. In all cases the
opening of the contactor is carried out by a powerful spring. With a mechanically held arrangement an
auxiliary solenoid is fitted to unlatch the holding mechanism. Low voltage contactors are usually fitted
with purpose-made protection devices for guarding against overloading and single-phase operation.
These devices are used individually or in combination and operate on magnetic, thermal or electronic
principles. Electronic static devices offer the widest range of time-current characteristics.
CIRCUIT BREAKER
A circuit breaker is an automatically-operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit
from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and, by
interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow. Unlike a fuse, which operates once
and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume
normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an
individual household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding
an entire city. The circuit breaker serves two basic purpose.
1] Switching during normal operating conditions for the purpose of operations and maintenance.
2] Switching during abnormal conditions such as short circuits and interrupting fault currents.
Circuit breakers are switching and current interrupting devices. CB comprises of a set of fixed and
movable contacts. The contacts are separated by means of an operating mechanism. The separation of
current carrying contacts produces an arc. The arc is extinguished by a suitable medium and circuit
breakers are classified according to the medium used for arc quenching.
Operation
All circuit breakers have common features in their operation, although details vary substantially
depending on the voltage class, current rating and type of the circuit breaker. The circuit breaker must
detect a fault condition; in low-voltage circuit breakers this is usually done within the breaker enclosure.
Circuit breakers for large currents or high voltages are usually arranged with pilot devices to sense a
fault current and to operate the trip opening mechanism. The trip solenoid that releases the latch is
usually energized by a separate battery, although some high-voltage circuit breakers are self-contained
with current transformers, protection relays, and an internal control power source.
Once a fault is detected, contacts within the circuit breaker must open to interrupt the circuit; some
mechanically-stored energy (using something such as springs or compressed air) contained within the
breaker is used to separate the contacts, although some of the energy required may be obtained from
the fault current itself. Small circuit breakers may be manually operated; larger units have solenoids to
trip the mechanism, and electric motors to restore energy to the springs. The circuit breaker contacts
must carry the load current without excessive heating, and must also withstand the heat of the arc
produced when interrupting the circuit. Contacts are made of copper or copper alloys, silver alloys, and
other materials. Service life of the contacts is limited by the erosion due to interrupting the arc.
Miniature circuit breakers are usually discarded when the contacts are worn, but power circuit breakers
and high voltage circuit breakers have replaceable contacts. When a current is interrupted, an arc is
generated - this arc must be contained, cooled, and extinguished in a controlled way, so that the gap
between the contacts can again withstand the voltage in the circuit. Different circuit breakers use
vacuum, air, insulating gas, or oil as the medium in which the arc forms. Different techniques are used to
extinguish the arc including:
• Lengthening of the arc
• Intensive cooling (in jet chambers)
• Division into partial arcs
• Zero point quenching
• Connecting capacitors in parallel with contacts in DC circuits
Finally, once the fault condition has been cleared, the contacts must again be closed to restore power to
the interrupted circuit.
Types of circuit breaker
Many different classifications of circuit breakers can be made, based on their features
such as voltage class, construction type, interrupting type, and structural features.
Low voltage circuit breakers

Low voltage (less than 1000 VAC) types are common in domestic, commercial and industrial application,
include:
• MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)—rated current not more than 100 A. Trip
Characteristics normally not adjustable. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Breakers illustrated
above are in this category.
•MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker)—rated current up to 1000 A. Thermal or thermal-magnetic
operation. Trip current may be adjustable in larger ratings.
•ACB (Air Circuit Breaker) -Low voltage power circuit breakers can be mounted in multi-tiers in LV
switchboards or switchgear cabinets.
The characteristics of LV circuit breakers are given by international standards such as IEC 947. These
circuit breakers are often installed in draw-out enclosures that allow removal and interchange without
dismantling the switchgear. Large low-voltage molded case and power circuit breakers may have
electrical motor operators, allowing them to be tripped (opened) and closed under remote control.
These may form part of an automatic transfer switch system for standby power.
Low-voltage circuit breakers are also made for direct-current (DC) applications, for example DC supplied
for subway lines. Special breakers are required for direct current because the arc does not have a
natural tendency to go out on each half cycle as for alternating current. A direct current circuit breaker
will have blow-out coils which generate a magnetic field that rapidly stretches the arc when interrupting
direct current. Small circuit breakers are either installed directly in equipment, or are arranged in a
breaker panel.
Medium-voltage circuit breakers
Medium-voltage circuit breakers rated between 1 and 72 kV may be assembled into metal-enclosed
switchgear line ups for indoor use, or may be individual components installed outdoors in a substation.
Air-break circuit breakers replaced oil-filled units for indoor applications, but are now themselves being
replaced by vacuum circuit breakers (up to about 35 kV). Like the high voltage circuit breakers described
below, these are also operated by current sensing protective relays operated through current
transformers. The characteristics of MV breakers are given by international standards such as IEC 62271.
Medium-voltage circuit breakers nearly always use separate current sensors and protection relays,
instead of relying on built-in thermal or magnetic over current sensors. Medium-voltage circuit breakers
can be classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc:
•Vacuum circuit breaker-With rated current up to 3000 A, these breakers interrupt the current by
creating and extinguishing the arc in a vacuum container. These are generally applied for voltages up to
about 35,000 V, [4] which corresponds roughly to the medium-voltage range of power systems. Vacuum
circuit breakers tend to have longer life expectancies between overhaul than do air circuit breakers.
•Air circuit breaker-Rated current up to 10,000 A. Trip characteristics are often fully
adjustable including configurable trip thresholds and delays. Usually electronically controlled, though
some models are microprocessor controlled via an integral electronic trip unit. Often used for main
power distribution in large industrial plant, where the breakers are arranged in draw-out enclosures for
ease of maintenance.
•SF6 circuit breakers extinguish the arc in a chamber filled with sulfur hexafluoride gas. Medium-voltage
circuit breakers may be connected into the circuit by bolted connections to bus bars or wires, especially
in outdoor switchyards. Medium-voltage circuit breakers in switchgear line-ups are often built with
draw-out construction, allowing the breaker to be removed without disturbing the power circuit
connections, using a motor-operated or hand-cranked mechanism to separate the breaker from its
enclosure.
High-voltage circuit breakers

Electrical power transmission networks are protected and controlled by high-voltage breakers. The
definition of "high voltage" varies but in power transmission work is usually thought to be 72,500 V or
higher, according to a recent definition by the International Electro technical Commission (IEC). High-
voltage breakers are nearly always solenoid operated, with current sensing protective relays operated
through current transformers. In substations the protection relay scheme can be complex, protecting
equipment and busses from various types of overload or ground/earth fault. High-voltage breakers are
broadly classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc.
• Bulk oil
• Minimum oil
• Air blast
• SF6
Circuit breaker can be classified as "live tank", where the enclosure that contains the
breaking mechanism is at line potential, or dead tank with the enclosure at earth potential. High-voltage
AC circuit breakers are routinely available with ratings up to 765,000 volts. High-voltage circuit breakers
used on transmission systems may be arranged to allow a single pole of a three-phase line to trip,
instead of tripping all three poles; for some classes of faults this improves the system stability and
availability.
Breakers for protections against earth faults too small to trip an over-current device:
•Residual-current device (RCD, formerly known as a Residual Current Circuit Breaker)-detects current
imbalance, but does not provide over-current protection.
•Residual Current Breaker with Over-current protection (RCBO)-combines the functions of an RCD and
an MCB in one package. In the United States and Canada, panel-mounted devices that combine ground
(earth) fault detection and over-current protection are called Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI)
breakers; a wall mounted outlet device providing ground fault detection only is called a GFI.
• Earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB)-This detects earth current directly rather than detecting
imbalance. They are no longer seen in new installations for various reasons.
SAFETY INTERLOCKING DEVICES

Most switchboards and motor control centers are fitted with a variety of electrical and mechanical
safety interlocking devices.
Their purposes are to protect against for example:-

• Withdrawing the switching device while it is carrying load or fault current.
• Prevent the switching mechanism from being inserted when it is in its ‘on’ state.
• Opening of access doors or panels before setting the switching device in its ‘off’ state.
• Gaining physical access by human operators while the main conductors and contacts are energized.
• Gaining access to the bus bars when the switching devices have been withdrawn.
• To prevent earthing switches from being closed on to live circuits or bus bars.
• Incorrect electrical operation of a complex process system in which various external devices, motors,
pumps, etc. are intimately related. For example a lubrication oil pump must be running before the main
drive motor is started on a pump or compressor. Most of the above interlocks are mechanical latches,
bolts and shutters. The last category is electrical functions using wired relays or electronic logic.
Electrical interlocking is also used to ensure that certain closing and tripping functions take place in a
particular sequence.
Second method is popular and uses a ‘synchronizing check’ relay (25) to sense the voltage on both sides
of a circuit breaker. For the above mentioned dual incomer switchboard all three circuit breakers would
be equipped with the synchronizing check relays.
CONTROL AND INDICATION DEVICES
The requirements for control and indication vary considerably depending upon the type of circuit,
e.g. incoming, bus bar section or outgoing circuit, whether the equipment is a switchboard or a motor
control centre, high or low voltage, process duty, the need for remote indication and control, and owner
preferences. Table 7.2 gives typical minimum requirements for switchboard and motor control centre
incoming, bus bar section and outgoing circuits, but at the equipment and not including remote devices
or recording instruments.
Some of these devices may be mounted on a local panel in the switch room so as to avoid a
human operator having to stand in front of a live cubicle to operate the open and close controls. A
modern plant requires more information, events and alarms to be made available at the main
control room than was generally the case in the past. This has been made much easier to achieve by the
use of computer networking and fiber optical technology. Most of the information that is available at
the switchboard can be transferred to the main control room; so that, for example, a one-line diagram
presentation can be made on a computer desk-top monitor (man-machine interface, MMI).
Restarting and Reaccelerating of Motors

During the normal operation of a power system there are occasions when the voltage profile of the
whole system or just a part of it is lowered for a short period of time. This drop in voltage may be due
to:-
Device
Generator Transformer Busbar Motor Transformer
Incoming Incoming section outgoing outgoing
Stop (open) button Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Start (close) button Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Note 2
One ammeter No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Three ammeter or a selector switch Yes Note 1 Note 1 No Note 1
One voltmeter with or without. Yes Yes Note 3 No No
Selector switch
One wattmeter Yes Yes No Note 4 Note 1
One varmeter Yes Note 1 No No No
One power factor meter Yes Note 1 No No Note 1
One frequency meter Note 1 Note 1 No No No
Synchronizing devices Yes Note 1 Note 1 No Note 1
Note 1: Optional, may be necessary.

Note 2: Some oil companies are not in favor of having a human operator standing in front of a high
voltage switchboard to manually close the switching device.
Note 3: One voltmeter for each side of the switchboard bus bars.
Note 4: Occasionally used for high voltage motors and variable speed drives.
• Starting a large motor.

• Occurrence and clearance of a fault.
• Malfunction of an automatic voltage regulator of a generator.
• Lightning surge from an overhead line.
In general motors’ are specified to be able to reaccelerate or restart their loads from a constant voltage
that is 80% of its nominal value, assuming that it does not recover during these operations. This voltage
should be that appearing at the terminals of the motor. For motors that are located at the end of short
cables, the volt-drop in the cables may be neglected. Volt-drop in long cables may be high enough to
aggravate the reacceleration or starting process, even to the extent that these operations cannot be
completed. If high voltage motors and transformers are switched by contactors that derive their coil
voltage from the switchboard bus bars, then the contactor coil may not hold in when the bus bar
voltage drops below a particular value. It is better practice to derive the coil voltage from a reliable
source such as an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) or a battery. Switchboards are often provided
with under voltage (27) relays to trip predetermined loads when the bus bar voltage falls below a
certain limit for a preset length of time. The loads may be tripped individually or in groups. If the group
tripping is issued then the motors in the group should be related to a particular process rather than
being chosen by their kW rating or some other criterion. The scheduling of the restarting of individual
motors or groups of motors should be progressive so that a large surge of reactive power is avoided.
Each oil company tends to have its own philosophy for restarting and reaccelerating motors, and
schemes can become complicated to understand. The introduction of micro-computers has enabled
almost any philosophy to be implemented. If a severe disturbance occurs that causes the voltage to
drop well below 80% then the duration should be relatively short, e.g. 0.15 second, otherwise recovery
may be difficult. If a complete loss of voltage occurs then even progressive restarting in an automatic
manner may prove difficult if the loss exceeds about 3 seconds.
Micro-computer Based Systems

Modern switchgear is available with micro-computer based intelligence and network communication
facilities. These facilities enable much more information to be managed, manipulated and displayed
than was possible in the past, when only analog devices were available. Modern practice for most
major projects is to ensure that the network communication precisely matches that of other facilities
within the plant. System control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems and distributed control sys-
terms (DCS) were developed in the industrial process control industries long before micro-computers
became available for switchgear. In recent years there has been some convergence of approach
between the more traditional SCADA and DCS network languages and protocols and those of the
electrical power industries. Consequently it is now much easier to specify fully compatible process
and electrical network systems. Within switchgear the approach to control, indication and protection
has changed. These functions are no longer separate entities. They are combined into micro-computer
based electronic relay modules. A module is used for each incoming, bus bar section and outgoing unit,
that is capable of measuring currents, voltages, status of switching devices, interfacing with external
interlocks. They are also capable of carrying out relatively simple calculations such as active power,
reactive power and power factor of the circuit, number of attempted starts for a motor. Transmission of
information between switchboards and to other locations such as a control room can be achieved by
either optical fiber or ‘hard wire’ cables. Suitable interfaces are placed at each end of the cables. As with
many aspects of computing the speed of data transmission, method of porting, the protocols available,
memory capacity and speed of calculation are upgraded, improved and superseded almost on a yearly
basis. It is therefore necessary to be well aware of ‘the state of the art’ in these subjects so that a system
that is about to be superseded is not purchased. The following description of integrated motor control
systems (IMCS) is based upon Reference 7, for which permission to use the material therein was kindly
given by Switchgear and Instrumentation Ltd. The principles described can be used for low and high
voltage switchgear that contains plain feeders, interconnectors, incomers and bus bar section circuit
breakers, in addition to motor feeders. Four main units are used in the IMCS, which are the motor
control unit (MCU), the feeder control unit (FCU), the circuit breaker control unit (CBCU) and the central
control unit (CCU). A MCU is a microprocessor (micro-computer) based module which has integrated
control, monitoring, protection functions, and a communication interface for the motor starter. An FCU
is very similar to a MCU and interfaces communication for the plain feeder contactor or circuit breaker.
A CBCU is also similar to a MCU but is used for incomers, interconnectors and bus bar section circuit
breakers. A CCU provides the facility to communicate simultaneously with MCUs, FCUs, CBCU, and a
distributed control system (DCS), system control and data acquisition (SCADA) and other digital
information systems. Other discrete devices such as special protective relays can also be addressed by
the CCU provided the software and porting systems are compatible. Serial communication network
equipment is used to couple all the microprocessor based units.
Control centers can be increased to cater for a large plant. A typical IMCS should include at least the
following components:-
• Each outgoing motor or plain feeder unit requires a MCU or a FCU.
• Each incoming interconnector and bus bar circuit breaker also requires a FCU.
• A CCU should be provided for either, a complete switchboard, a group of switchboards, or all
switchboards located in a switch room. A dual redundant system may be chosen so as to raise the
system reliability and availability.
• Interfacing equipment and software to communicate with a DCS and a SCADA system, if they exist.
•A local area network (LAN)tocouplealltheunitswithintheIMCS,whichshouldnotbeashared system such
as the DCS.
• Various sources of uninterruptible power will be required, if the plant is spread over a large site. These
will provide the essential power to the IMCS processing units when other less reliable power supplies
interrupt or fail.
• Protection circuits and devices to render the system immune from electromagnetic interference.
In switchboards that supply motors the protection, control and measurement functions will be the most
varied for the motor circuits. Generator incomers would be the next lower in complexity. The following
functions are typical of all but the lowest ratings of motors:-
•Motor current.
•Motor overload protection, settings, status, pre-alarms and time to trip.
•Unbalanced loading, settings, status and pre-alarms.
•Earth fault protection, settings, status, alarms.
•Thermal status information including inhibition of starting.
•Stalling protection, settings and status.
•Acceleration time.
•Automatic restarting information due to voltage drop at the busbars.
•Total operating time of the motor.
•Operating time since the last start command.
•Non-operating time since the last stop command.
•Number of operations of the contactor.
•Local stop command function, i.e. a push button or key.
•Manual resetting of all trips and alarms.
•Remote resetting of certain trip and alarm functions by using a password.
•Facilities to allow external hard-wired circuits, such as interlocks, to be monitored
•Under power protection of the motor and its driven equipment.
•Under voltage tripping facilities for mechanically latched contactors.
•Historical event logging for all alarms, trips, commands and inhibiting of starting.
•Trend records should be stored for a predetermined period such as six weeks.
A similar set of functions are typical for plain feeder, incomer, interconnector and busbar circuit
breakers:-
• Circuit current.
• Circuit voltage.
• Circuit power factor (optional).
• Circuit active power (optional).
• Circuit reactive power (optional).
• Open-close status of the switching device.
• Unbalanced loading, settings, status and pre-alarms (optional).
• Protective device performance information, settings and status.
• Manual resetting of all trips and alarms.
• Remote resetting of certain trip and alarm functions by using a password.
• Facilities to allow external hard-wired circuits, such as interlocks, to be monitored
• Under voltage tripping facilities for mechanically latched contactors.
• Historical event logging for all alarms, trips, commands and inhibiting of starting.
• Trend records should be stored for a predetermined period such as six weeks.
Indicative information such as running current should be displayed at the unit or starter itself, as well as
being accessible at a console or visual display unit in a remote location. Process control systems
traditionally use an analog signal of 4 to 20 mA DC and so it is recommended that such signals should be
interfaced with the MCUs by use of compatible high-speed analog-to-digital converters. The IMCS will
scan all the MCUs, FCUs and CBCUs on a continuous basis with a complete cycle time in the order of 0.5
second, regardless of the number of units in the system. Priority interrupting functions should be used
for protective relaying functions, interlocking and safety related signals, where rapid action is necessary.
MOULDED CASE CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Comparison with Fuses
Low voltage switchgear incorporates circuit breakers and contactors as its main power switching and
control devices, particularly for the outgoing plain and motor feeder circuits. The international
standards that are often used for moulded case circuit breakers are IEC60157 part 1 and IEC60292 part
1 which have been incorporated into IEC60947. IEC60947 parts 1, 2, 3 and 4 are for power circuit
breakers, switches and contactors. In addition the international standards ANSI-C37.13, NEMA-SG3,
NEMA-AB1 and VDE 0660 are regularly applied. Circuit breakers are invariably used for the incomer, bus
bar section and switchboard interconnector switching devices, because the currents that they need to
switch are too high for contactors to handle properly. Outgoing circuits can be static loads or motor
loads, and these are usually limited.
MOTOR
Electric motors, ac motors and dc motors, come in many shapes and sizes. Some are standardized
electric motors for general-purpose applications. Other electric motors are intended for specific tasks. In
any case, electric motors should be selected to satisfy the dynamic requirements of the machines on
which they are applied without exceeding rated electric motor temperature. Thus, the first and most
important step in electric motor selection is determining load characteristics -- torque and speed versus
time. Electric motor selection is also based on mission goals, power available, and cost. Starting and
running torque are the first parameters to consider when sizing electric motors. Starting torque
requirements for electric motors can vary from a small percentage of full loads to a value several
times full-load torque. Starting torque varies because of a change in load conditions or themechanical
nature of the machine, which the electric motor is installed in. The latter could be caused by the
lubricant, wear of moving parts, or other reasons. Electric motors feature torque supplied to the driven
machine, which must be more than that required from start to full speed. The greater the electric
motor's reserve torque, the more rapid the acceleration. Electric motor drive systems that use gear
reducers have parts that rotate at different speeds. To calculate acceleration torque required for these
electric motors, rotating components must be reduced to a common base. The part inertias are usually
converted to their equivalent value at the drive shaft. Equivalent inertia W2K22 of the load only is found
from:
WK2 = W(S/2ΠN) 2
Where W1K21 = load inertia in lb-ft2, N1 = load speed in rpm, and N2 = electric motor speed in rpm.
Electric motors have bodies, which have a straight-line motion are often connected to rotating driving
units by rack-and-pinion, cable, or cam mechanisms. For these electric motor parts, the equivalent WK2
is found from:
WK2 = W(S/2ΠN) 2
Where W = load weight, S = translation speed in fpm, Π is pi, and N = rotational speed in
rpm.
1) Acceleration time:
Acceleration time for electric motors is directly proportional to total inertia and inversely proportional
to the electric motor torque. For electric motors with constant acceleration torque, acceleration time is:
Where WK2 = rotational inertia in lb-ft2, (N2- N1) = the speed difference, and Tx acceleration torque in
lb-ft
For translating bodies, acceleration time is:
Where W = weight of the load in lb, (S1 - S2 ) = the translation speed difference, and F x =translation
Force in lb.
An approximation method is necessary to find the electric motor's acceleration time if acceleration
torque is not linear during speed increase. The quickest method is to break up the speed versus torque
curves of the electric motor and the driven machine into segments and calculate acceleration time for
each segment. Accurate electric motor acceleration times usually result.
2) Power rating
Electric motors offer the horsepower required to drive a machine, which is typically referred to as
electric motor load. The most common equation for power based electric motors on torque and
rotational speed is:
hp = (torque X rpm)/5,250.
If the electric motor's load is not constant and follows a definite cycle, a horsepower versus time curve
for the driven machine is helpful. From this curve both peak and rms the electric motor's horsepower
can be determined. Rms load horsepower indicates the necessary continuous electric motor rating.
Peak load horsepower is not necessarily an indication of the required electric motor rating. However,
when a peak load is maintained for a period of time, electric motors feature a rating, which usually
should not be less than peak load horsepower.
3) Duty Cycle
Continuous steady-running loads over long periods are demonstrated by fans and
blowers. On the other hand, electric motors installed in machines with flywheels may
have wide variations in running loads. Often, electric motors use flywheels to supply the
energy to do the work, and the electric motor does nothing but restore lost energy to the
flywheel. Therefore, choosing the proper electric motor also depends on whether the load is steady,
varies, follows a repetitive cycle of variation, or has pulsating torque or shocks.
For example, electric motors that run continuously in fans and blowers for hours or days
may be selected on the basis of continuous load. But electric motors located in devices
like automatically controlled compressors and pumps start a number of times per hour.
And electric motors in some machine tools start and stop many times per minute.
Duty cycle is a fixed repetitive load pattern over a given period of time which is
expressed as the ratio of on-time to cycle period. When operating cycle is such that electric motors
operate at idle or a reduced load for more than 25% of the time, duty cycle becomes a factor in sizing
electric motors. Also, energy required to start electric motors (that is, accelerating the inertia of the
electric motor as well as the driven load) is much higher than for steady-state operation, so frequent
starting could overheat the electric motor.
For most electric motors (except squirrel-cage electric motors during acceleration and
plugging) current is almost directly proportional to developed torque. At constant speed,
torque is proportional to horsepower. For accelerating loads and overloads on electric motors that have
considerable droop, equivalent horsepower is used as the load factor. The next step in sizing theelectric
motor is to examine the electric motor's performance curves to see if the electric motor has enough
starting torque to overcome machine static friction, to accelerate the load to full running speed, and to
handle maximum overload.
4) Service factors
A change in NEMA standards for electric motor service factors and temperature rise has
been brought about because of better insulation used on electric motors. For instance, a 1.15 service
factor -- once standard for all open electric motors -- is no longer standard for electric motors above 200
hp. Increases in electric motor temperature are measured by the resistance method in the temperature
rise table. Electric motors feature a nameplate temperature rise, which is always expressed for the
maximum allowable load. That is, if the electric motor has a service factor greater than unity, the
nameplate temperature rise is expressed for the overload. Two Class-B insulated electric motors having
1.15 and 1.25 service factors will, therefore, each be rated for a 90°C rise. But the second electric motor
will have to be larger than the first in order to dissipate the additional heat it generates t 125% load.
Electric motors feature a service factor, which indicates how much over the nameplate rating any given
electric motor can be driven without overheating. NEMA Standard MGI-143 defines service factor of an
ac motor as "...a multiplier which, when applied to the rated horsepower, indicates a permissible
horsepower loading which may be carried under the conditions specified for the service factor..." In
other words, multiplying the electric motor's nameplate horsepower by the service factor tells how
much electric motors can be overloaded without overheating. Generally, electric motor service factors:
• Handle a known overload, which is occasional.
• Provide a factor of safety where the environment or service condition is not well defined, especially
for general-purpose electric motors.
• Obtain cooler-than-normal electric motor operation at rated load, thus lengthening insulation life.
5) Efficiency
Small universal electric motors have an efficiency of about 30%, while 95% efficiencies are common for
three-phase machines. In less-efficient electric motors, the amount of power wasted can be reduced by
more careful application and improved electric motor design. Electric motor's feature an efficiency level,
which also depends on actual electric motor load versus rated load, being greatest near rated load and
falling off rapidly for under and overload conditions.
TYPES OF MOTORS
•Induction motor
An induction motor (IM) is a type of asynchronous AC motor where power is supplied to the rotating
device by means of electromagnetic induction. Another commonly used name is squirrel cage motor
because the rotor bars with short circuit rings resemble a squirrel cage (hamster wheel). Induction
motors are now the preferred choice for industrial motors due to their rugged construction, absence of
brushes (which are required in most DC motors) and — thanks to modern power electronics — the
ability to control the speed of the motor.
Starting of Induction Motor:-
When a motor is switched on, there is a high inrush current from the mains which may,
especially if the power line section is inadequate, cause a drop in voltage likely to affect receptor
operation. This drop may be severe enough to be noticeable in lighting equipment. To overcome this,
some sector rules prohibit the use of motors with direct on-line starting systems beyond a given power.
There are several starting systems which differ according to the motor and load specifications. The
choice is governed by electrical, mechanical and economic factors. The kind of load driven is also
important in the choice of starting system.
MODES OF STARTING
A) Direct on-line starting: This is the simplest mode, where the stator is directly connected to the
mains supply. The motor starts with its own characteristics. When it is switched on, the motor
behaves like a transformer with its secondary, formed by the very low resistance rotor cage, in
short circuit. The simplest way to start a three-phase induction motor is to connect its terminals
to the line. This method is often called "direct on line" and abbreviated DOL.
B) In an induction motor, the magnitude of the induced emf in the rotor circuit is proportional to
the stator field and the slip speed (the difference between synchronous and rotor
speeds) of the motor, and the rotor current depends on this emf. When the motor is
started, the slip speed is equal to the synchronous speed, as the rotor speed is zero (slip equal
to 1), so the induced emf in the rotor is large. As a result, a very high current flows through the
rotor. This is similar to a transformer with the secondary coil short circuited,
which causes the primary coil to draw a high current from the mains. When an induction
motor starts DOL, a very high current is drawn by the stator, in the order of 5 to 9 times
the full load current. This high current can, in some motors, damage the windings; in
addition, because it causes heavy line voltage drop, other appliances connected to the
same line may be affected by the voltage fluctuation. To avoid such effects, several other
strategies are employed for starting motors. There is a high induced current in the rotor
which results in a current peak in the mains supply:
Current on starting = 5 to 8 rated Current. The average starting torque is:
T on starting = 0.5 to 1.5 rated T.
In spite of its advantages (simple equipment, high starting torque, fast start, low cost), direct on-line
starting is only suitable when:
The power of the motor is low compared to that of the mains, which limits interference from inrush
current,
The machine to drive does not need to speed up gradually or has a damping device to limit the shock of
starting,
The starting torque can be high without affecting machine operation or the load that is
driven.
DOL Reversing Starter:-
Most motors are reversible or, in other words, they can be run clockwise and anti-clockwise. A reversing
starter is an electrical or electronic circuit that reverses the direction of a motor automatically. Logically,
the circuit is composed of two DOL circuits; one for clockwise operation and the other for anti-clockwise
operation. The case of three phase motor inter changing of any two phases will do the same.
Star-delta starting
This starting system can only be used with a motor where both ends of its three stator windings are
fitted to a terminal board. Furthermore, the winding must be done so that the delta connection
matches the mains voltage: e.g. a 380V 3-phase supply will need a motor with 380V delta and 660V star
coiling. The principle is to start the motor by connecting the star windings at mains voltage, which
divides the motor’s rated star voltage by Ö3 (in the example above, the mains voltage
at 380V = 660V √3).
The starting current peak (SC) is divided by 3:
SC = 1.5 to 2.6 RC (RC rated Current).

A 380V / 660V motor star-connected at its rated voltage of 660V absorbs a current Ö3 time less than a
delta connection at 380V. With the star connection at 380V, the current is divided by Ö3 again, so by a
total of 3.
As the starting torque (ST) is proportional to the square of the supply voltage, it is also divided by 3:
ST = 0.2 to 0.5 RT (RT Rated Torque)
The motor speed stabilizes when the motor and resistive torques balance out, usually at
75-85% of the rated speed. The windings are then delta connected and the motor recovers its own
characteristics. The change from star connection to delta connection is controlled by a timer. The delta
contactor closes 30 to 50 milliseconds after the star contactor opens, which prevents short-circuiting
between phases as the two contactors.
cannot close simultaneously. The current through the windings is broken when the star contactor opens
and is restored when the delta contactor closes. There is a brief but strong transient current peak during
the shift to delta, due to the counter electromotive force of the motor. Star-delta starting is suitable for
machines with a low resistive torque or which start with no load (e.g. wood-cutting machines). Variants
may be required to limit the transient phenomena above a certain power level. One of these is a 1-2
second delay in the shift from star to delta. Such a delay weakens the counter-electromotive force and
hence the transient current peak. This can only be used if the machine has enough inertia to prevent too
much speed reduction during the time delay. Another system is 3-step starting: star-delta + resistance-
delta. There is still a break, but the resistor in series with the delta-connected windings for about three
seconds lowers the transient current. This stops the current from breaking and so prevents the
occurrence of transient phenomena. Use of these variants implies additional equipment, which may
result in a significant rise in the cost of the installation.
Disadvantages of this method over DOL starting are:

. Lower starting torque, which may be a serious issue with pumps or any devices with significant
breakaway torque
. Increased complexity, as more contactors and some sort of speed switch or timers are needed
. Two shocks to the motor (one for the initial start and another when the motor switches from wye to
delta)
Part winding motor starting
This system, not widely used in Europe, is quite common in the North American market (voltage of
230/460, a ratio of 1:2). This type of motor has a stator winding divided into two parallel windings with
six or twelve output terminals. It is equivalent to two half motors of equal power. On starting, a single
“half motor” is connected directly at full mains voltage strength, which divides the starting current and
the torque approximately by two. The torque is however greater than it would be with a squirrel cage
motor of equal power with star-delta starting. At the end of the starting process, the second winding is
connected to the mains. At this point, the current peak is low and brief, because the motor has not been
cut off from the mains supply and only has a little slip.
Resistance stator starting
With this system, the motor starts at reduced voltage because resistors are inserted in series with the
windings. When the speed stabilizes, the resistors are eliminated and the motor is connected directly to
the mains. This process is usually controlled by a timer. This starting method does not alter the
connection of the motor windings so the ends of each winding do not need outputs on a terminal board.
The resistance value is calculated according to the maximum current peak on starting or the minimum
starting torque required for the resistance torque of the machine to drive. The starting current and
torque values are generally:
SC = 4.5 RC
ST = 0.75 RT
During the acceleration stage with the resistors, the voltage applied to the motor terminals is not
constant but equals the mains voltage minus the voltage drop in the starting resistance. The voltage
drop is proportional to the current absorbed by the motor. As the current weakens with the
acceleration of the motor, the same happens to the voltage drop in the resistance. The voltage applied
to the motor terminals is therefore at its lowest on starting and then gradually increases. As the torque
is proportional to the square of the voltage at the motor terminals, it increases faster than in star-delta
starting where the voltage remains constant throughout the star connection. This starting system is
therefore suited to machines with a resistive torque that increases with the speed, such as fans and
centrifugal pumps. It has the drawback of a rather high current peak on starting. This could be lowered
by increasing the resistance value but that would cause the voltage to drop further at the motor
terminals and thus a steep drop in the starting torque. On the other hand, resistance is eliminated at the
end of starting without any break in power supply to the motor, so there are no transient phenomena.
Autotransformer starting
The motor is powered at reduced voltage via an autotransformer which is bypassed when the starting
process is completed. The starting process is in three steps: in the first place, the autotransformer is
star-connected, then the motor is connected to the mains via part of the autotransformer windings. The
process is run at a reduced voltage which depends on the transformation ratio. The autotransformer is
usually tapped to select this ratio to find the most suitable voltage reduction value the star connection is
opened before going onto full voltage. The fraction of coil connected to the mains then acts as an
inductance in series with the motor. This operation takes place when the speed balances out at the end
of the first step - full voltage connection is made after the second step which usually only lasts a fraction
of a second. The piece of autotransformer winding in series with the motor is short-circuited and the
autotransformer is switched off. The current and the starting torque vary in the same proportions. They
are divided by (mains V/reduced V2).
The values obtained are:
SC = 1.7 to 4 RC
ST = 0.5 to 0.85 RT
The starting process runs with no break in the current in the motor, so transient phenomena due to
breaks do not occur. However, if a number of precautions are not taken, similar transient phenomena
can appear on full voltage connection because the value of the inductance in series with the motor is
high compared to the motors after the star arrangement is open. This leads to a steep drop in voltage
which causes a high transient current peak on full voltage connection. To overcome this drawback, the
magnetic circuit in the autotransformer has an air gap which helps to lower the inductance value.
This value is calculated to prevent any voltage variation at the motor terminals when the star
arrangement opens in the second step. The air gap causes an increase in the magnetizing current in the
autotransformer. This current increases the inrush current in the mains supply when the
autotransformer is energized. This starting system is usually used in LV for motors powered at over
150kW. It does however make equipment rather expensive because of the high cost of the
autotransformer.
Slip ring motor starting
A slip ring motor cannot be started direct on-line with its rotor windings short-circuited, otherwise it
would cause unacceptable current peaks. Resistors must therefore be inserted in the rotor circuit and
then gradually short-circuited, while the stator is powered at full mains voltage. The resistance inserted
in each phase is calculated to ascertain the torque-speed curve with strict accuracy. The result is that it
has to be fully inserted on starting and that full speed is reached when it is completely short-circuited.
The current absorbed is more or less proportional to the torque supplied at the most only a little greater
than the theoretical value. For example, for a starting torque equal to 2 RT, the current peak is about 2
RC. This peak is thus much lower and the maximum starting torque much higher than with a squirrel
cage motor, where the typical values are about 6 RC for 1.5 RT when directly connected to the mains
supply. The slip ring motor, with rotor starting, is the best choice for all cases where current peaks need
to be low and for machines which start on full load. This kind of starting is extremely smooth, because it
is easy to adjust the number and shape of the curves representing the successive steps to mechanical
and electrical requirements (resistive torque, acceleration value, maximum current peak, etc.).
Soft starter starting/slackening

This is an effective starting system for starting and stopping a motor smoothly It can be used for: current
limitation, torque adjustment. Control by current limitation sets a maximum current (3 to 4 x RC) during
the starting stage and lowers torque performance. This control is especially suitable for “turbo
machines” (centrifugal pumps, fans).Control by torque adjustment optimizes torque performance in the
starting process and lowers mains inrush current. This is suited to constant torque machines.
Motor soft starters can consist of mechanical or electrical devices, or a combination of
both. Mechanical soft starters include clutches and several types of couplings using a
fluid, magnetic forces, or steel shot to transmit torque, similar to other forms of torque
limiter. Electrical soft starters can be any control system that reduces the torque by
temporarily reducing the voltage or current input, or a device that temporarily alters how the motor is
connected in the electric circuit. Motor soft starters can consist of mechanical or electrical devices, or a
combination of both. Mechanical soft starters include clutches and several types of couplings using a
fluid, magnetic forces, or steel shot to transmit torque, similar to other forms of torque limiter. Electrical
soft starters can be any control system that reduces the torque by temporarily reducing the voltage or
current input, or a device that temporarily alters how the motor is connected in the electric circuit.
Frequency converter starting
This is an effective starting system (C Fig.8) to use whenever speed must be controlled and adjusted.
Its purposes include:
- starting with high-inertia loads,
- starting with high loads on supplies with low short-circuit capacity
- Optimization of electricity consumption adapted to the speed of "turbo machines".
This starting system can be used on all types of machines. It is a solution primarily used to adjust motor
speed, starting being a secondary purpose.
SPEED COTROL
Adjustable speed drive (ASD) or variable-speed drive (VSD) describes equipment used
to control the speed of machinery. Many industrial processes such as assembly lines
must operate at different speeds for different products. Where process conditions
demand adjustment of flow from a pump or fan, varying the speed of the drive may save energy
compared with other techniques for flow control. Where speeds may be selected from several different
pre-set ranges, usually the drive is said to be "adjustable" speed. If the output speed can be changed
without steps over a range, the drive is usually referred to as "variable speed". Adjustable and variable
speed drives may be purely mechanical, electromechanical, hydraulic, or electronic. Fixed speeds of
electric motors Alternating-current electric motors run at speeds closely determined by the number of
poles in the motor and the frequency of the alternating current supply. This is unlike the steam engine,
which can be made to run over a range of speeds by adjusting the timing and duration of valves
admitting steam to the cylinder. AC motors can be made with several sets of poles, which can be chosen
to give one of several different speeds (say, 720/1800 RPM for a 60 Hz motor). The number of different
speeds available is limited by the expense of providing multiple sets of windings. If many different
speeds or continuously variable speeds are required, other methods are required. Direct-current motor
sallows changes of speed by adjusting the shunt field current. Another way of changing speed of a direct
current motor is to change the voltage applied to the armature. An adjustable speed drive might consist
of an electric motor and controller that is used to adjust the motor's operating speed. Thecombination
of a constant-speed motor and a sleeplessly adjustable mechanical speed-changing device might also be
called an adjustable speed drive. Electronic variable frequency drives are rapidly making older
technology redundant.
Reasons for using adjustable speed drives

Process control and energy conservation are the two primary reasons for using an adjustable speed
drive. Historically, adjustable speed drives were developed for process control, but energy conservation
has emerged as an equally important objective. Adjusting speed as a means of controlling a process
The following are process control benefits that might be provided by an adjustable speed drive:
• Smoother operation
• Acceleration control
• Different operating speed for each process recipe
• Compensate for changing process variables
• Allow slow operation for setup purposes
• Adjust the rate of production
• Allow accurate positioning
• Control torque or tension
Example
An adjustable speed drive can often provide smoother operation compared to an alternative fixed
speed mode of operation. For example, in a sewage lift station sewage usually flows through sewer
pipes under the force of gravity to a wet well location. From there it is pumped up to a treatment
process. When fixed speed pumps are used, the pumps are set to start when the level of the liquid in
the wet well reaches some high point and stop when the level has been reduced to a low point. Cycling
the pumps on and off results in frequent high surges of electrical current to start the motors resulting in
electromagnetic and thermal stresses in the motors and power control equipment, the pumps and pipes
are subjected to mechanical and hydraulic stresses, and the sewage treatment process is forced to
accommodate surges in the flow of sewage through the process. When adjustable speed drives are
used, the pumps operate continuously at a speed that increases as the wet well level increases. This
matches the outflow to the average inflow and provides a much smoother operation of the process.
Saving energy by using adjustable speed drives an adjustable speed drive often uses less energy than an
alternative fixed speed mode of operation. Fans and pumps are the most common energy saving
applications. When a fan is driven by a fixed speed motor, the airflow may sometimes be higher than it
needs to be. Airflow can be regulated by using a damper to restrict the flow, but it is more
efficient to regulate the airflow by regulating the speed of the motor. It follows from the affinity laws
that reducing fan speed to 50% results in a power consumption drop to 12.5%.
Types of adjustable speed drives

Speed adjustment techniques have been used in transmitting mechanical power to machinery since the
earliest use of powered machinery. Before electric motors were invented, mechanical speed changers
were used to control the mechanical power provided by water wheels and steam engines. When electric
motors came into use, means of controlling their speed were developed almost immediately. Today,
various types of mechanical drives, hydraulic drives and electric drives compete with one another in the
industrial drives market.
a) Mechanical adjustable speed drives there are two types of mechanical drives, variable pitch drives
and traction drives. Variable pitch drives are pulley and belt drives in which the pitch diameter of one or
both pulleys can be adjusted. Traction drives transmit power through metal rollers running against
mating metal rollers. The input/output speed ratio is adjusted by moving the rollers to change the
diameters of the contact path. Many different roller shapes and mechanical designs have been used.
b) Hydraulic adjustable speed drives
There are three types of hydraulic drives, those are: hydrostatic drives, hydrodynamic drives and hydro
viscous drives.
A hydrostatic drive consists of a hydraulic pump and a hydraulic motor. Since positive displacement
pumps and motors are used, one revolution of the pump or motor corresponds to a set volume of fluid
flow that is determined by the displacement regardless of speed or torque. Speed is regulated by
regulating the fluid flow with a valve or by changing the displacement of the pump or motor. Many
different design variations have been used. A swash plate drive employs an axial piston pump and/or
motor in which the swash plate angle can be changed to adjust the displacement and thus adjust the
speed.
Hydrodynamic drives or fluid couplings use oil to transmit torque between an impeller on the constant
speed input shaft and a rotor on the adjustable-speed output shaft. The torque converter in the
automatic transmission of a car is a hydrodynamic drive.
A hydroviscous drive consists of one or more discs or connected to the input shaft pressed against a
similar disc or discs connected to the output shaft. Torque is transmitted from the input shaft to the
output shaft through an oil film between the discs. The transmitted torque is proportional to the
pressure exerted by a hydraulic cylinder that presses the discs together.
c)Continuously variable transmission (CVT) Main article: Continuously variable transmission Mechanical
and hydraulic adjustable speed drives are usually called transmissions or continuously variable
transmissions when they are used in vehicles, farm equipment and some other types of equipment.
d) Electric adjustable speed drives
There are three general categories of electric drives: DC motor drives, eddy current drives and AC motor
drives. Each of these general types can be further divided into numerous variations. Electric drives
generally include both an electric motor and a speed control unit or system. The term drive is often
applied to the controller without the motor. In the early days of electric drive technology,
electromechanical control systems were used. Later, electronic controllers were designed using various
types of vacuum tubes. As suitable solid state electronic components became available, new controller
designs incorporated the latest electronic technology.
e) DC drives
DC drives are DC motor speed control systems. Since the speed of a DC motor is directly proportional to
armature voltage and inversely proportional to field current, either armature voltage or field current can
be used to control speed. Several types of DC motors are described in the electric motor article. The
electric motor article also describes electronic speed controls used with various types of DC motors.
f) Eddy current drives

An eddy current drive consists of a fixed speed motor and an eddy current clutch. The clutch contains a
fixed speed rotor and an adjustable speed rotor separated by a small air gap. A direct current in a field
coil produces a magnetic field that determines the torque transmitted from the input rotor to the
output rotor. The controller provides closed loop speed regulation by varying clutch current, only
allowing the clutch to transmit enough torque to operate at the desired speed. Speed feedback is
typically provided via an integral AC tachometer. Eddy current drives are a type of slip controlled drive.
Slip controlled drives are generally less efficient than other types of drives. The motor develops the
torque required by the load and operates at full speed. The output shaft transmits the same torque to
the load, but turns at a slower speed. Since power is proportional to torque multiplied by speed, the
input power is proportional to motor speed times operating torque while the output power is output
speed times operating torque. The difference between the motor speed and the output speed is called
the slip speed. Power proportional to the slip speed times operating torque is dissipated as heat in the
clutch.
g) AC drives
AC drives are AC motor speed control systems.
Slip controlled drives control the speed of an induction motor by increasing a motor's slip. This is
accomplished by reducing the voltage applied to the motor or increasing the resistance of the rotor
windings. Because they are generally less efficient than other types of drives, slip controlled drives have
lost popularity and have recently been used only in special situations. See eddy current drives above.
Adjustable-frequency drives (AFD) control the speed of either an induction motor or a synchronous
motor by adjusting the frequency of the power supplied to the motor. Adjustable frequency drives are
also known as variable-frequency drives (VFD).When changing the frequency of the power supplied to
an AC motor, the ratio of the applied voltage to the applied frequency (V/Hz) is generally maintained at
a constant value between the minimum and maximum operating frequencies. Operation at a
constant voltage (reduced V/Hz) above a given frequency provides reduced torque capability and
constant power capability above that frequency. The frequency or speed at which constant-voltage
operation begins is called the base frequency or speed. Whether the applied voltage is regulated
directly or indirectly, the V/Hz tends to follow the general pattern described for the performance
described. The variable-frequency drive article provides additional information on electronic speed
controls used with various types of AC motors.
VARIABLE-FREQUENCY DRIVE (VFD)
A variable-frequency drive (VFD) is a system for controlling the rotational speed of an alternating
current (AC) electric motor by controlling the frequency of the electrical power supplied to the
motor.[1][2] [3] A variable frequency drive is a specific type of adjustable speed drive. Variable
frequency drives are also known as adjustable-frequency drives (AFD), variable-speed drives (VS D), AC
drives, micro drives or inverter drives. Since the voltage is varied along with frequency, these are
sometimes also called VVVF (variable voltage variable frequency) drives. Variable-frequency drives are
widely used. For example, in ventilations systems for large buildings, variable-frequency motors on fans
save energy by allowing the volume of air moved to match the system demand. Variable frequency
drives are also used on pumps, conveyor and machine tool drives.
Operating principle
The synchronous speed of an AC motor is determined by the frequency of the AC supply and the
number of poles in the stator winding, according to the relation:
Where
RPM = Revolutions per minute
f = AC power frequency (hertz)
p = Number of poles (an even number)
The constant, 120, is 60 cycles per minute multiplied by 2 poles per pole pair. Sometimes 60 is used as
the constant and p is stated as pole pairs rather than poles. By varying the frequency of the voltage
applied to the motor, its speed can be changed. Synchronous motors operate at the synchronous speed
determined by the above equation. The speed of an induction motor is slightly less than the
synchronous speed.
Example
A 4-pole motor that is connected directly to 60 Hz utility (mains) power would have a synchronous
speed of 1800 RPM:
If the motor is an induction motor, the operating speed at full load will be about 1750
RPM. If the motor is connected to a speed controller that provides power at 50 Hz, the synchronous speed would
be 1500RPM:
VFD types
All VFDs use their output devices (IGBTs, transistors, thyristors) only as switches, turning them only on or off.
Attempting to use a linear device such as transistor in its linear mode would be impractical, since power dissipated
in the output devices would be about as much as power delivered to the load.
Drives can be classified as:
• Constant voltage
• Constant current
• Cycloconverter
In a constant voltage converter, the intermediate DC link voltage remains approximately constant during each
output cycle. In constant current drives, a large inductor is placed between the input rectifier and the output
bridge, so the current delivered is nearly constant. A cycloconverter has no input rectifier or DC link and instead
connects each output terminal to the appropriate input phase.
The most common type of packaged VF drive is the constant-voltage type, using pulse width modulation to control
both the frequency and effective voltage applied to the motor load.
VFD system
A variable frequency drive system generally consists of an AC motor, a controller and an operator interface.
VFD motor
The motor used in a VFD system is usually a three-phase induction motor. Some types of single-phase motors can
be used, but three-phase motors are usually preferred. Various types of synchronous motors offer advantages in
some situations, but induction motors are suitable for most purposes and are generally the most economical
choice. Motors that are designed for fixed-speed mains voltage operation are often used, but certain
enhancements to the standard motor designs offer higher reliability and better VFD performance.
VFD controller
Variable frequency drive controllers are solid state electronic power conversion devices. The usual design first
converts AC input power to DC intermediate power using a rectifier bridge. The DC intermediate power is then
converted to quasi-sinusoidal AC power using an inverter switching circuit. The rectifier is usually a three-phase
diode bridge, but controlled rectifier circuits are also used. Since incoming power is converted to DC, many
units will accept single-phase as well as three-phase input power (acting as a phase converter as well as a speed
controller); however the unit must be derated when using single phase input as only part of the rectifier bridge is
carrying the connected load.
PWM VFD Diagram

As new types of semiconductor switches have been introduced, these have promptly been applied to inverter
circuits at all voltage and current ratings for which suitable devices are available. Introduced in the 1980s, the
insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) became the device used in most VFD inverter circuits in the first decade of
the 21st century. AC motor characteristics require the applied voltage to be proportionally adjusted whenever the
frequency is changed in order to deliver the rated torque. For example, if a motor is designed to operate at
460volts at 60 Hz, the applied voltage must be reduced to 230 volts when the frequency is reduced to 30 Hz. Thus
the ratio of volts per hertz must be regulated to a constant value (460/60 = 7.67 V/Hz in this case). For optimum
performance, some further voltage adjustment may be necessary, but nominally constant volts per hertz are the
general rule. This ratio can be changed in order to change the torque delivered by the motor. In addition to these
simple volts per hertz control more advanced control methods such as vector control and direct torque control
(DTC) exist. These methods adjust the motor voltage in such a way that the magnetic flux and mechanical torque
of the motor can be precisely controlled. The usual method used to achieve variable motor voltage is pulse-width
modulation (PWM). With PWM voltage control, the inverter switches are used to construct a quasi-sinusoidal
output waveform by a series of narrow voltage pulses with sinusoidal varying pulse durations. Operation at above
synchronous speed is possible, but is limited to conditions that do not require more power than nameplate rating
of the motor. This is sometimes called "field weakening" and, for AC motors, is operating at less than rated
volts/hertz and above synchronous speed. Example, a 100 hp, 460 V, 60 Hz, 1775 RPM (4 pole) motor supplied with
460 V, 75 Hz (6.134 V/Hz), would be limited to 60/75 = 80% torque at 125% speed (2218.75 RPM) = 100% power.
PWM VFD Output Voltage Waveform PWM AC variable speed drive

An embedded microprocessor governs the overall operation of the VFD controller. The main microprocessor
programming is in firmware that is inaccessible to the VFD user. However, some degree of configuration
programming and parameter adjustment is usually provided so that the user can customize the VFD controller to
suit specific motor and driven equipment requirements.[10] At 460 Volts, the maximum recommended cable
distances between VFDs and motors can vary by a factor of 2.5:1. The longer cables distances are allowed at the
lower Carrier Switching Frequencies (CSF) of 2.5 kHz. The lower CSF can produce audible noise at the motors. The
2.5 kHz and 5 kHz CSFs cause less motor bearing problems than caused by CSFs at 20 kHz.[15] Shorter cables are
recommended at the higher CSF of 20 kHz. The minimum CSF for synchronize tracking of multiple conveyors is 8
kHz.
VFD operator interface The operator interface, also commonly known as an HMI (Human Machine Interface),
provides a means for an operator to start and stop the motor and adjust the operating speed. Additional operator
control functions might include reversing and switching between manual speed adjustment and automatic control
from an external process control signal. The operator interface often includes an alphanumeric display and/or
indication lights and meters to provide information about the operation of the drive. An operator interface keypad
and display unit is often provided on the front of the VFD controller as shown in the photograph above. The keypad
display can often be cable-connected and mounted a short distance from the VFD controller. Most are also
provided with input and output (I/O) terminals for connecting pushbuttons, switches and other operator interface
devices or control signals. A serial communications port is also often available to allow the VFD to be configured,
adjusted, monitored and controlled using a computer.
VFD Operation
When a motor is simply switched to the grid at full voltage, it initially draws at least 300% of its rated current from
the mains. As the load accelerates, the available torque usually drops a little and then rises to a peak while the
current remains very high until the motor approaches full speed. On the contrary, when a VFD starts a motor, it
initially applies a low frequency and voltage to the motor. The starting frequency is typically 2 Hz or less. Thus
starting at such a low frequency avoids the high inrush current that occurs when a motor is started by simply
applying the utility (mains) voltage by turning on a switch. After the start of the VFD, the applied frequency and
voltage are increased at a controlled rate or ramped up to accelerate the load without drawing excessive current.
This starting method typically allows a motor to develop 150% of its rated torque while drawing less than 50% of
its rated current from the mains in the low speed range. A VFD can be adjusted to produce a steady 150% starting
torque from standstill right up to full speed. Thus by using a VFD it is possible to start and run a motor in a weak
grid without causing excessive voltage dips and flickering of the lights. In addition to that big energy savings are
often possible when the loads (for example pumps and fans) can be run at a lower speed when the maximum
output is not required. With a VFD, the stopping sequence is just the opposite as the starting sequence. The
frequency and voltage applied to the motor are ramped down at a controlled rate. When the frequency
approaches zero, the motor is shut off. A small amount of braking torque is available to help decelerate the load a
little faster than it would stop if the motor were simply switched off and allowed to coast. Additional braking
torque can be obtained by adding a braking circuit to dissipate the braking energy or return it to the power source.
Induced power line harmonics While PWM allows for very specific supply currents and voltages to be applied to a
load, PWM slices square-wave notches of power out of sinusoidal alternating current, creating high frequency
harmonic feedback in the power line. When the VFD load size is small and the available utility power is large, the
effects of PWM power systems slicing small chunks out of AC generally go unnoticed. However, when either a large
number of low-amperage PWM devices, or just a few very large-load PWM devices are used, they can have a
cumulative negative impact on the AC power available to other utility customers outside of the business, due to
chopping such large irregular pieces out of the utility sine wave. The utility power wave becomes misshapen and
distorted, and may be unable to effectively drive normal AC motors, resulting in waste heating of motors. The high
frequency power line harmonics may not easily cross transformers that are tuned to operate at utility frequency,
resulting in waste heating of utility substation transformers. This increases the power factor of utility-supplied
current, and a business may be required to install filtering equipment to smooth out the irregular waveform.
Alternately, the utility may choose to install filtering equipment of its own at substations affected by the large
amount of VFD / PWM equipment being used.
Applications considerations
The output voltage of a PWM VFD consists of a train of pulses switched at the carrier frequency. Because of the
rapid rise time of these pulses, transmission line effects of the cable between the drive and motor must be
considered. Since the transmission-line impedance of the cable and motor are different, pulses tend to reflect back
from the motor terminals into the cable. If the cable is long enough, the resulting voltages can produce up to twice
the rated line voltage, putting high stress on the cable and eventual insulation failure. Because of the standard
ratings of cables, this phenomenon is of little concern for 230 volt motors, may be a consideration for long runs
and 480 volt motors, and frequently a concern for 600 v motors. Available VFD power ratings Variable frequency
drives are available with voltage and current ratings to match the majority of 3-phase motors that are
manufactured for operation from utility (mains) power. VFD controllers designed to operate at 110 volts to 690
volts are often classified as low voltage units. Low voltage units are typically designed for use with motors rated to
deliver 0.2 kW or 1/4 horsepower (hp) up to at c least 750 kW or 1000 hp. Medium voltage VFD controllers are
designed to operate at 2400/4162 volts (60 Hz), 3000 volts (50 Hz) or up to 10 kV. In some applications a step up
transformer is placed between a low voltage drive and a medium voltage load. Medium voltage units are typically
designed for use with motors rated to deliver 375 kW or 500 hp and above. Medium voltage drives rated above 7
kV and 5000 or 10000 hp should probably be considered to be one-of-a-kind (one-off) designs.
Brushless DC motor drives

Much of the same logic contained in large, powerful VFDs is also embedded in small brushless DC motors such as
those commonly used in computer fans. In this case, the chopper usually converts a low DC voltage (such as 12
volts) to the three-phase current used to drive the electromagnets that turn the permanent magnet rotor.
PROTECTION OF MOTOR
Thermal Protection
Thermal Protection is made up of both winding protection and bearing protection. Winding Protection consists of
thyristors, thermostats, RTD's and thermocouples. Bearing Protection consists of devices such as RTD per bearing,
thyristors and thermocouples. Thermal Protection - Windings
RTD (Resistance Thermal Detectors)
Winding RTD - A resistance device used to measure temperature change in the motor windings to detect a possible
overheating condition. These detectors would be mounted in the coil head of the motor and their resistance varies
with the temperature
Space Heaters
Introduction
Space heaters and drains are used to prevent damage to the motor windings and internal parts, which can be
caused by moisture condensing within the motor. Premature motor winding failure can result if moisture or
condensation is allowed to settle within the motor frame. Modem non-hydroscopic insulation systems are highly
resistant to moisture, however, they are not 100% effective if a large amount of water is present. Internal parts can
also be damaged by corrosion or oxidation caused by the presence of excessive moisture. Condensation can form
in a motor due to the inherent moisture content of the earth's atmosphere and the heating and cooling cycles of a
motor. The characteristic of air is such that warm air will hold more moisture than the same quantity of cooler air
at the same pressure. The air inside of a running motor is warmer and thus, less dense than the air outside of the
motor. When the motor is shut down, the air within it will cool down and the volume will decrease (become
denser). As the air volume decreases, air is drawn in from the outside to equalize the air pressure. This is known as
motor "breathing". As the moisture laden air within the motor is cooled below a certain temperature (the dew
point) and the pressure is equalized, condensation will begin to form on the windings and internal parts of the
motor. Motors operating outdoors are especially susceptible to internal condensation since this condition can
generally be anticipated when the ambient temperature is 50 degrees F or less. Motors which are subjected to the
above conditions and to a continual running and idle cycle can experience a sufficient collection of internal
condensation to cause a premature winding failure.
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER
Instrument transformers (ITs) are designed to transform: voltage (Voltage (VTs) or Potential Transformers (PTs)) or
current (Current transformers (CTs)) from the high values in the transmission and distribution systems to the low
values that can be utilized by low voltage current metering devices. There are three primary applications for which
ITs are used:
-metering (for energy billing and transaction purposes)
-Protection control (for system protection and protective relaying purposes)
-load survey (for economic management of industrial loads)
Depending on the requirements for those applications, the IT design and construction can be quite different.
Generally, the metering ITs require high accuracy in the range of normal operating voltage and current. Protection
ITs require linearity in a wide range of voltages and currents. During the disturbance, such as a system fault, over
voltage transients, the output of the IT is used by a protective relay to initiate an appropriate action (open or close
a breaker, reconfigure the system, etc.) to mitigate the disturbance and protect the rest of the power system.
Instrument transformers are the most common and economic way to detect a disturbance. Typical output levels
of instrument transformers are 0-5 A and 115-120 V for CTs and VTs, respectively. There are several classes of
accuracy for instrument transformers defined by the IEEE, CSA, IEC and ANSI standards.
Core balance CT (CBCT):
The CBCT, also known as a zero sequence CT, is used for earth leakage and earth fault protection. The concept is
similar to the RVT. In the CBCT, the three core cable or three single cores of a three phase system pass through the
inner diameter of the CT. When the system is fault free, no current flows in the secondary of the CBCT. When there
is an earth fault, the residual current (zero phase sequence current) of the system flows through the secondary of
the CBCT and this operates the relay. In order to design the CBCT, the inner diameter of the CT, the relay type, the
relay setting and the primary operating current need to be furnished.
CT Shorting
CTs should remain shorted during installation until secondary wiring is complete. Figure 4 shows the termination of
a multi-ratio CT on a shorting terminal strip. A shorting screw inserted through the shorting bar ties isolated terminal
strip points together. Any shorting winding effectively shorts the entire CT.
Standards:
The Indian and international standard references for VT s are as given in the table below:
Standard Standard Number Year
Indian IS 3156 1992
British BS 3841 1973
IEC IEC186 1987
Australian AS 1243 1982
American ANSI C.57.13 1978
Tests
A number of routine and type tests have to be conducted on VT s before they can meet the standards specified
above. The tests can be classified as:
Accuracy tests to determine whether the errors of the VT are within specified limits. Dielectric insulation tests such
as power frequency withstand voltage test on primary and secondary windings for one minute, induced over-
voltage test, impuse tests with 1.2u/50u wave, and partial discharge tests (for voltage>=6.6 kV) to determine
whether the discharge is below the specified limits.
Temperature rise tests
Short circuit tests
Verification of terminal markings and polarity
Typical specification for a 11 kV VT
System voltage: 11 kV
Insulation level voltage (ILV): 12 /28/75 kV Number of phases: Three
Vector Group: Star / Star
Ratio: 11 kV/ 110 V
Burden: 100 VA
Accuracy: Class 0.5
Voltage Factor: 1.2 continuous and 1.5 for 30 seconds with provision for fuse. Capacitive voltage transformers are
used by utilities for high-voltage (greater than 66 kV) metering. They have a capacitive voltage divider but also have
a dual-winding transformer to couple the divided voltage to the metering circuit. They tend to have lower allowable
burdens than a wound transformer but can be made economically at higher voltage ratings. Another difference is
that even though they decrease voltage, they do not increase current as found in wound electromagnetic
transformers - an ampere drawn by the load is an ampere drawn from the primary circuit. And of course they can
only reduce voltage, not increase". Capacitor Voltage Transformers must convert transmission class voltages to
standardized the low and easily measurable values, which will be used for metering, protection and control of the
high voltage system. As such need for accurate and reliable voltage transformation is essential. Additionally,
Capacitor voltage Transformers serve as a coupling capacitor for coupling high frequency power line carrier signals
to the transmission line.
POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT
The power factor of an AC electric power system is defined as the ratio of the real power flowing to the load to the
apparent power, and is a number between 0 and 1 (frequently expressed as a percentage, e.g. 0.5 pf = 50% pf).
Real power is the capacity of the circuit for performing work in a particular time. Apparent power is the product of
the root mean squared current and root mean squared voltage of the circuit.
Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave
shape of the current drawn from the source, the apparent power can be greater than the real power. In an electric
power system, a load with low power factor draws more current than a load with a high power factor for the same
amount of useful power transferred. The higher currents increase the energy lost in the distribution system, and
require larger wires and other equipment. Because of the costs of larger equipment and wasted energy, electrical
utilities will usually charge a higher cost to industrial or commercial customers where there is a low power factor.
Linear loads with low power factor (such as induction motors) can be corrected with a passive network of capacitors
or inductors. Non-linear loads, such as rectifiers, distort the current drawn from the system. In such cases, active
power factor correction is used to counteract the distortion and raise power factor. The devices for correction of
power factor may be at a central substation, or spread out over a distribution system, or built into power-consuming
equipment.
Power factor in linear circuit
In a purely resistive AC circuit, voltage and current waveforms are in step (or in phase), changing polarity at the
same instant in each cycle. Reactive loads are present, such as with capacitors or inductors, energy storage in the
loads result in a time difference between the current and voltage waveforms. This stored energy returns to the
source and is not available to do work at the load. Thus, a circuit with a low power factor will have higher currents to
transfer a given quantity of real power than a circuit with a high power factor. A linear load does not change the
shape of the waveform of the current, but may change the relative timing (phase) between voltage and current.
Circuits containing purely resistive heating elements (filament lamps, strip heaters, cooking stoves, etc.) have a
power factor of 1.0. Circuits containing inductive or capacitive elements (compact fluorescent lamps, lamp ballasts,
motors, etc.) often have a power factor below 1.
Linear loads
Electrical loads consuming alternating current power consume both real power and reactive power. The vector sum
of real and reactive power is the apparent power. The presence of reactive power causes the real power to be less
than the apparent power, and so, the electric load has a power factor of less than 1.
Non-linear loads
A non-linear load on a power system is typically a rectifier (such as used in a power supply), or some kind of arc
discharge device such as a fluorescent lamp, electric
welding machine, or arc furnace. Because current in these systems is interrupted by a switching action, the current
contains frequency components that are multiples of the power system frequency.
Importance of power factor in distribution systems

The significance of power factor lies in the fact that utility companies supply customers with volt-amperes, but bill
them for watts. Power factors below 1.0 require a utility to generate more than the minimum volt-amperes
necessary to supply the real power (watts). This increases generation and transmission costs. For example, if the
load power factor were as low as 0.7, the apparent power would be 1.4 times the real power used by the load. Line
current in the circuit would also be 1.4 times the current required at 1.0 power factor, so the losses in the circuit
would be doubled (since they are proportional to the square of the current). Alternatively all components of the
system such as generators, conductors, transformers, and switchgear would be increased in size (and cost) to carry
the extra current. Utilities typically charge additional costs to customers who have a power factor below
some limit, which is typically 0.9 to 0.95. Engineers are often interested in the power factor of a load as one of the
factors that affect the efficiency of power transmission
Power Factor Correction Methods

1. Injecting the reactive Power required
2. Filter the Noisy or distorted reactive Power
3. Set the current and voltage in Phase
Power Factor improvement equipments
1. Static Capacitors
2. Synchronous condensers
1. Static Capacitors
This power factor correction is achieved by switching in or out banks of capacitors. For example the inductive effect
of motor loads may be offset by locally connected capacitors. When reactive elements supply or absorb reactive
power near the load, the apparent power is reduced. Power factor correction may be applied by an electrical power
transmission utility to improve the stability and efficiency of the transmission network. Correction equipment
may be installed by individual electrical customers to reduce the costs charged to them by their electricity supplier.
A high power factor is generally desirable in a transmission system to reduce transmission losses and improve
voltage regulation at the load. Power factor correction brings the power factor of an AC power circuit closer to 1 by
supplying reactive power of opposite sign, adding capacitors or inductors which act to cancel the inductive or
capacitive effects of the load, respectively. For example, the inductive effect of motor loads may be offset by locally
connected capacitors. If a load had a capacitive value, inductors (also known as reactors in this context) are
connected to correct the power factor. In the electricity industry, inductors are said to consume reactive power and
capacitors are said to supply it, even though the reactive power is actually just moving back and forth on each AC
cycle. The reactive elements can create voltage fluctuations and harmonic noise when switched on or off. They will
supply or sink reactive power regardless of whether there is a corresponding load operating nearby, increasing the
system's no-load losses. In a worst case, reactive elements can interact with the system and with each other to
create resonant conditions, resulting in system instability and severe overvoltage fluctuations. As such, reactive
elements cannot simply be applied at will, and power factor correction is normally subject to engineering analysis.
An automatic power factor correction unit is used to improve power factor. A power factor correction unit usually
consists of a number of capacitors that are switched by means of contactors. These contactors are controlled by a
regulator that measures power factor in an electrical network. To be able to measure power factor, the regulator
uses a current transformer to measure the current in one phase. Depending on the load and power factor of the
network, the power factor controller will switch the necessary blocks of capacitors in steps to make sure the power
factor stays above a selected value (usually demanded by the energy supplier), say 0.9. Instead of using a set of
switched capacitors, an unloaded synchronous motor can supply reactive power. The reactive power drawn by the
synchronous motor is a function of its field excitation. This is referred to as a synchronous condenser. It is started
and connected to the electrical network. It operates at full leading power factor and puts vars onto the network as
required to support a system’s voltage or to maintain the system power factor at a specified level. The condenser’s
installation and operation are identical to large electric motors. Its principal advantage is the ease with which the
amount of correction can be adjusted; it behaves like an electrically variable capacitor. Unlike capacitors, the
amount of reactive power supplied is proportional to voltage, not the square of voltage; this improves voltage
stability on large networks. Synchronous condensers are often used in connection with high voltage direct current
transmission projects or in large industrial plants such as steel mills.
Induction motors, transformers and many other electrical loads require magnetizing current (kVAR) as well as actual
power (kW). By representing these components of apparent power (kVA) as the sides of a right triangle, we can
determine the apparent power from the right triangle rule: kVA2 = kW2 + kVAR2.
To reduce the kVA required for any given load, you must shorten the line that represents the kVAR. This is precisely
what capacitors do. Induction motors, transformers and many other electrical loads require magnetizing current
(kVAR) as well as actual power (kW). By representing these components of apparent power (kVA) as the sides of a
right triangle, we can determine the apparent power from the right triangle rule: kVA2 = kW2 + kVAR2. To reduce
the kVA required for any given load, you must shorten the line that represents the kVAR. This is precisely what
capacitors do.
1. Shunt capacitor - connected across the inductive circuit to improve its p.f.
2 Series capacitor - connected in series at the far end of a long transmission or HT distribution line to offset the
reactive component of the line impedance, contain the voltage drop and enhance the receiving-end voltage. It can
support a transmission or distribution system in the following ways:
• Improving the regulation of the system at the receiving end
• Limiting the system voltage swing during a load rejection or off-peak periods, and protect it from overvoltage
• Enhancing the stability of the system by minimizing the voltage fluctuations caused by load variations and
• Enhancing the power-carrying capacity of the system by reducing the I’R losses.
The use of a reactor in series with the capacitors will reduce the harmonic effects in a power network, as well as
their effect on other circuits in the vicinity, such as a telecommunication network. The choice of reactance should be
such that it will provide the required detuning by resonating below the required harmonic, to provide a least
impedance path for that harmonic and filter it out from the circuit. The basic idea of a filter circuit is to make it
respond to the current of one frequency and reject all other frequency components. At power frequency, the circuit
should act as a capacitive load and improve the p.f. of the system. For the fifth harmonic, for instance, it should
resonate below 5 x 50 Hz for a 50 Hz system, say at around 200- 220 Hz, to avoid excessive charging voltages which
may lead to
- Overvoltage during light loads
- Overvoltage may saturate transformer cores and
Failure of capacitor units and inductive loads connected generate harmonics in the system. It should be ensured that
under no condition of system disturbance would the filter circuit become capacitive when it approaches near
resonance. To achieve this, the filter circuits may be tuned to a little less than the defined harmonic frequency.
compensating for the series reactor. When a capacitor circuit is compensated through a series reactor, either to
suppress the system harmonics or to limit the switching inrush currents or both, it will require suitable adjustment in
its voltage and capacitive ratings. The series reactor will dampen the switching currents but consume an inductively
reactive power and offset an equivalent amount of capacitive kVAr. and require compensation.
Synchronous condenser
Synchronous condenser (sometimes synchronous compensator) is a synchronous motor that is not attached to any
driven equipment. Its field is controlled by a voltage regulator to either generate or absorb reactive power as
needed to support a system's voltage or to maintain the system power factor at a specified level. The condenser’s
installation and operation are identical to large electric motors. Synchronous motors load the power line with a
leading power factor. This is often useful in cancelling out the more commonly encountered lagging power factor
caused by induction motors and other inductive loads. Originally, large industrial synchronous motors came into
wide use because of this ability to correct the lagging power factor of induction motors.
This leading power factor can be exaggerated by removing the mechanical load and over exciting the field of the
synchronous motor. Such a device is known as a synchronous condenser. Furthermore, the leading power factor can
be adjusted by varying the field excitation. This makes it possible to nearly cancel an arbitrary lagging power factor
to unity by paralleling the lagging load with a synchronous motor. A synchronous condenser is operated in a
borderline condition between a motor and a generator with no mechanical load to fulfill this function. It can
compensate either a leading or lagging power factor, by absorbing or supplying reactive power to the line. This
enhances power line voltage regulation. Since a synchronous condenser does not supply a torque, the output shaft
may be dispensed with and the unit easily enclosed in a gas tight shell. The synchronous condenser may then
be filled with hydrogen to aid cooling and reduce windage losses. Since the density of hydrogen is 7% of that of air,
the windage loss for a hydrogen filled unit is 7% of that encountered in air. Furthermore, the thermal
conductivity of hydrogen is ten times that of air. Thus, heat removal is ten times more efficient. As a result, a
hydrogen filled synchronous condenser can be driven harder than an air cooled unit, or it may be physically smaller
for a given capacity. There is no explosion hazard as long as the hydrogen concentration is maintained above 70%,
typically above 91%. The efficiency of long power transmission lines may be increased by placing synchronous
condensers along the line to compensate lagging currents caused by line inductance. More real power may be
transmitted through a fixed size line if the power factor is brought closer to unity by synchronous condensers
absorbing reactive power. The ability of synchronous condensers to absorb or produce reactive power on a
transient basis stabilizes the power grid against short circuits and other transient fault conditions. Transient sags and
dips of milliseconds duration are stabilized. This supplements longer response times of quick acting voltage
regulation and excitation of generating equipment. The synchronous condenser aids voltage regulation by drawing
leading current when the line voltage sags, which increases generator excitation thereby restoring line voltage
The capacity of a synchronous condenser can be increased by replacing the copper wound iron field rotor with
an ironless rotor of high temperature superconducting wire, which must be cooled to the liquid nitrogen boiling
point of 77oK (-196oC). The superconducting wire carries 160 times the current of comparable copper wire,
while producing a flux density of 3 Teslas or higher. An iron core would saturate at 2 Teslas in the rotor air gap. Thus,
an iron core, approximate µr=1000, is of no more use than air, or any other material with a relative permeability
µr=1, in the rotor. Such a machine is said to have considerable additional transient ability to supply reactive power
to troublesome loads like metal melting arc furnaces. The manufacturer describes it as being a “reactive power
shock absorber”. Such a synchronous condenser has a higher power density (smaller physically) than a switched
capacitor bank. The ability to absorb or produce reactive power on a transient basis stabilizes the overall power grid
against fault conditions.
CALCULATION OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT CAPACITOR BANK
kvar1 = kW x tanθ1 = kW x sqrt [(1 / cosθ12 ) - 1]

kvar2 = kW x tanθ2 = kW x sqrt [(1 / cosθ22 ) - 1] ckvar =
kW x (tanθ1 - tanθ2 ) = kW x {sqrt [(1 / cosθ12 ) - 1] - sqrt
[(1 / cosθ22 ) - 1] }
Expected power factor (P.F): cosθ = kW / sqrt { kW2 + (kvar1- ckvar)2}
POWER REACTOR
Power reactors are similar to transformers. However, they have only one winding per phase
They are employed to perform a number of functions, primarily to control and regulate the reactive power of a
power system by supplying the inductive and absorbing the capacitive power. Control can be achieved in different
ways as noted later. The reactors depending upon their design and I-@ characteristics can be classified as
follows: Single- or three-phase Single-phase reactors are used in the neutral circuit either to limit the ground fault
currents or as arc-suppression coils. Similarly, three-phase reactors are used for three-phase applications.
Air cooled dry type and oil-immersed type. This will depend upon the size of the reactor and the design of the
manufacturer. The latest practice is to use air-cooled dry type, which call for lesser maintenance and are free from
any fire hazards indoor or outdoor types. These may be designed indoor or outdoor types depending upon the
application.
Tap-changing facility Where necessary, the reactance of the coil can be varied by providing an on- or offload tap-
changing gear with the reactor, similar to a power transformer.
Selection of power reactors

When it is required to limit the inrush current a fixed reactance (linear) reactor is more suitable. A variable type
reactor will be necessary when it is to be used for voltage regulation or load sharing. In circuits where harmonics
may be present, saturated type reactors may be preferred. The harmonic content may be measured through
harmonic analyzers and expressed as a percentage of the fundamental component. The current and voltage ratings
of the reactors will depend upon their application. A series reactor connected permanently in the circuit, for
instance, will be rated continuously and for full system voltage, whereas a reactor used in the ground circuit may
be short-time rated and rated for the likely maximum ground fault current. The magnetic characteristics of an
inductor coil will vary with the type of its configuration as discussed below. It can have one of the following shapes:
Linear
Non-linear
Saturated
A reactor can be designed to provide any of these characteristics to meet the different reactive power needs.
Application
1. Shunt reactors or compensating reactors.

These are meant for parallel connections to absorb the reactive power (capacitive current) of the system
and are generally used on transmission and large distribution networks. They may have a fixed or variable
reactance, rated continuously, and any of the magnetic characteristics. Broadly speaking, they can perform
the following functions:
1. Limit the switching surges. But they may affect the steady-state power transfer capability of the system.
2. Adjust the steady-state voltage control by supplying reactive power and compensating the capacitive content.
3. Suppress the harmonic contents.
2. Current limiting or series reactors

These are connected in series in a circuit, and are meant to limit the high inrush current, such as during switching
of HT capacitor banks. They may also be used to limit the currents under fault conditions by adding to the circuit
impedance to match with the breaking capacity of the interrupting device when the fault level of the system may
exceed this. They are also used for load sharing of two power systems. They are connected in the circuit
permanently and may have a fixed or variable reactance, rated continuously and can be made to have linear (fixed
reactance) or nonlinear magnetic characteristics as required. When they are required to limit the inrush currents,
fixed reactance, and linear reactors should be preferred. During a fault condition, the reactance of the reactor
should not diminish due to the saturation effect. This is an essential requirement to limit the short-time fault
currents. Ideally, current limiting reactors must have no-iron circuit (air core or coreless type). The iron core type
provide non-linear saturating type characteristics, and at over currents have a tendency to diminish their reactance
due to the saturation effect, while the reactors are required to offer high impedances to limit the fault currents.
The coreless type will provide a near constant reactance at all currents due to the absence of an iron core and
hence, their preference over other types for such applications.
3. Dampening reactors
These are meant to limit the inrush currents occurring during a switching operation of a capacitor. They are
connected in series with the capacitors and may be short time rated for the values of the inrush currents and
continuously rated for normal line currents. They are almost the same as the series reactors with fixed
reactance.
4. Neutral grounding reactors

These are meant to limit the ground fault current and are used between the neutral of the system and the ground.
They are single-phase and may be short-time rated; otherwise they are the same as the current limiting reactors.
5. Grounding transformer or neutral

These are meant to provide a neutral to an ungrounded system. When the ground transformer neutral is
connected to the ground directly or through a current limiting reactor its neutral current may be considered for
short-time duration only, i.e. until the ground fault exists assuming that the ground fault protective scheme will
isolate the faulty circuit promptly. But when the neutral is grounded through an arc suppression coil (reactor) the
current through the grounded neutral may be of a limited amplitude, say, up to its continuous rating and it may
exist for longer. These transformers are three-phase and may be connected for zig-zag or star delta connections.
The delta may also be made open type by inserting a resistor across it to help adjust the zero-sequence impedance,
if required.
6. Arc suppression or Petersen coil (reactor)

These are meant to compensate the ground capacitive current on a ground fault in the system, which may be
grounded naturally or artificially. They are connected between the neutral of the system and the ground and are
single-phase and may be short-time or continuously rated, depending upon the system requirement. If it is being
used as a ground fault neutralizer it may have to be continuously rated. It may be of variable type to help tuning
with the system ground capacitance.
7. Tuning or filter reactors

These are meant to be used with a capacitor to tune a filter circuit, with resonances in the audio frequency range
for reducing and filtering the harmonics or communication frequencies. They provide a near short-circuit for the
required harmonics to filter them out of circuit. They may be single-phase or three-phase and connected in series
or parallel of the capacitor circuit and may have a fixed or variable reactance, rated continuously with saturated
magnetic characteristics. They may incur heavy losses.
8. Smoothing reactors
These are meant to provide high impedance to harmonic currents and block their entry or reduce their amplitudes
and are therefore also known as blocking reactors. They may have any of the magnetic and have a fixed reactance,
rated continuously.
SELECTION AND SIZING OF BATTERY AND BATTERY CHARGER
A battery or voltaic cell is a combination of many electrochemical Galvanic cells of identical type to store chemical
energy and to deliver higher voltage or higher current than with single cells. The battery cells create a voltage
difference between the terminals of each cell and hence to its combination in battery. When an external electrical
circuit is connected to the battery, then the battery drives electrons through the circuit and electrical work is done.
A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. It consists of one or more voltaic
cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions
and cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which anions (negatively-charged ions) migrate,
i.e. the anode or negative electrode; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which cations
(positively-charged ions) migrate, i.e. the cathode or positive electrode
Batteries are classified into two broad categories:-
Primary batteries
Primary batteries can produce current immediately on assembly. Disposable batteries, also called primary cells, are
intended to be used once and discarded. These are most commonly used in portable devices that have low current
drain, are only used intermittently, or are used well away from an alternative power source, such as in alarm and
communication circuits where other electric power is only intermittently available. Disposable primary cells cannot
be reliably recharged, since the chemical reactions are not easily reversible and active materials may not return to
their original forms. Battery manufacturers recommend against attempting recharging primary cells. Common
types of disposable batteries include zinc-carbon batteries and alkaline batteries. Generally, these have higher
energy densities than rechargeable batteries, but disposable batteries do not fare well under high-drain
applications with loads under 75 ohms (75 Ω).
Secondary batteries
Secondary batteries must be charged before use; they are usually assembled with active materials in the
discharged state. Rechargeable batteries or secondary cells can be recharged by applying electrical current, which
reverses the chemical reactions that occur during its use. Devices to supply the appropriate current are called
chargers or rechargers. The oldest form of rechargeable battery is the lead-acid battery, a type of wet cell. This
battery is notable in that it contains a liquid in an unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright
and the area be well ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of the hydrogen gas produced by these batteries during
overcharging. The lead-acid battery is also very heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can supply. Despite
this, its low manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make its use common where a large capacity (over
approximately 10Ah) is required or where the weight and ease of handling are not concerns.
Definitions
Battery duty cycle: The loads a battery is expected to supply for specified time periods.
Cell size: The rated capacity of a lead-acid cell or the number of positive plates in a cell.
Equalizing charge: A prolonged charge, at a rate higher than the normal float voltage, to correct any inequalities of
voltage and specific gravity that may have developed between the cells during service.
Amp Hour or Ampere-Hour: A unit of measurement of a battery's electrical storage capacity. Current multiplied by
time in hours equals ampere-hours.
One amp hour is equal to a current of one ampere flowing for one hour. Also, 1 amp hour is equal to 1,000 mAh.
Anode - During discharge, the negative electrode of the cell is the anode. During charge, that reverses and the
positive electrode of the cell is the anode. The anode gives up electrons to the load circuit and dissolves into the
electrolyte.
Aqueous Batteries - Batteries with water-based electrolytes. The electrolyte may not appear to be liquid since it
can be absorbed by the battery’s separator. Actual Capacity or available capacity the total battery capacity, usually
expressed in ampere-hours or milliamp-hours, available to perform work. The actual capacity of a particular
battery is determined by a number of factors, including the cut-off voltage, discharge rate, temperature, method of
charge and the age and life history of the battery.
Battery an electrochemical device used to store energy. The term is usually applied to a group of two or more
electric cells connected together electrically. In common usage, the term “battery” is also applied to a single cell,
such as an AA battery.
Battery Capacity - The electric output of a cell or battery on a service test delivered before the cell reaches a
specified final electrical condition and may be expressed in ampere-hours, watt- hours, or similar units. The
capacity in watt-hours is equal to the capacity in ampere-hours multiplied by the battery voltage.
Battery Charger: A device capable of supplying electrical energy to a battery.
Battery-Charge Rate - The current expressed in amperes (A) or milli amps (mA) at which a battery is charged.
Cutoff Voltage, final:The prescribed lower-limit voltage at which battery discharge is considered complete. The
cutoff or final voltage is usually chosen so that the maximum useful capacity of the battery is realized. The cutoff
voltage varies with the type of battery and the kind of service in which the battery is used. When testing the
capacity of a NiMH or NiCD battery a cutoff voltage of 1.0 V is normally used. 0.9V is normally used as the cutoff
voltage of an alkaline cell. A device that is designed with too high a cutoff voltage may stop operating while the
battery still has significant capacity remaining. C - Used to signify a charge or discharge rate equal to the capacity of
a battery divided by 1 hour. Thus C for a 1600 mAh battery would be 1.6 A, C/5 for the same battery would be 320
mA and C/10 would be 160 mA. Because C is dependent on the capacity of a battery the C rate for batteries of
different capacities must also be different.
Capacity - The capacity of a battery is a measure of the amount of energy that it can deliver in a single discharge.
Battery capacity is normally listed as amp-hours (or milli amp-hours) or as watt-hours.
Cathode - Is an electrode that, in effect, oxidizes the anode or absorbs the electrons. During discharge, the positive
electrode of a voltaic cell is the cathode. When charging, that reverses and the negative electrode of the cell is the
cathode.
Cell - An electrochemical device composed of positive and negative plates and electrolyte, which is capable of
storing electrical energy. It is the basic “building block” of a battery.
Charge - The conversion of electric energy, provided in the form of a current, into chemical energy within the cell
or battery.
Charge Rate - The amount of current applied to battery during the charging process. This rate is commonly
expressed as a fraction of the capacity of the battery. for example the C/2 or C/5.
Charging - The process of supplying electrical energy for conversion to stored chemical energy.
Constant-Current Charge - A charging process in which the current applied to the battery is maintained at a
constant value.
Constant-Voltage Charge - A charging process in which the voltage applied to a battery is held at a constant value.
Cycle - One sequence of charge and discharge.
Deep Cycle - A cycle in which the discharge is continued until the battery reaches its cut-off voltage, usually 80% of
discharge.
Shallow Cycling - Charge and discharge cycles which do not allow the battery to approach its cutoff voltage.
Shallow cycling of NiCd cells lead to “memory effect”. Shallow cycling is not detrimental to NiMH cells and it is the
most beneficial for lead acid batteries.
Cycle Life - For rechargeable batteries, the total number of charge/discharge cycles the cell can sustain before it’s
capacity is significantly reduced. End of life is usually considered to be reached when the cell or battery delivers
only 80% of rated ampere hour capacity. NiMH batteries typically have a cycle life of 500 cycles, NiCd batteries can
have a cycle life of over 1,000 cycles. The cycle of a battery is greatly influenced by the type depth of the cycle
(deep or shallow) and the method of recharging. Improper charge cycle cutoff can greatly reduce the cycle life of a
battery.
Direct Current (DC) - The type of electrical current that a battery can supply. One terminal is always positive and
another is always negative.
Discharge: The conversion of the chemical energy of the battery into electric energy.
Depth of Discharge: The amount of energy that has been removed from a battery (or battery pack) usually
expressed as a percentage of the total capacity of the battery. For example, 50% depth of discharge means that
half of the energy in the battery has been used. 80% DOD means that eighty percent of the energy has been
discharged, so the battery now holds only 20% of its full charge.
Discharge deep: Withdrawal of all electrical energy to the end-point voltage before the cell or battery is recharged.
Discharge high-rate: Withdrawal of large currents for short intervals of time, usually at a rate that would
completely discharge a cell or battery in less than one hour.
Discharge low-rate: Withdrawal of small currents for long periods of time, usually longer than one hour.
Drain: Withdrawal of current from a cell.
Dry Cell: A primary cell in which the electrolyte is absorbed in a porous medium, or is otherwise restrained from
flowing. Common practice limits the term “dry cell” to the Leclanch‚ cell, which is the common commercial type.
Electrochemical Couple: The system of active materials within a cell that provides electrical energy storage through
an electrochemical reaction.
Electrode: An electrical conductor through which an electric current enters or leaves a conducting medium,
whether it be an electrolytic solution, solid, molten mass, gas, or vacuum. For electrolytic solutions, many solids,
and molten masses, an electrode is an electrical conductor at the surface of which a change occurs from
conduction by electrons to conduction by ions. For gases and vacuum, the electrodes merely serve to conduct
electricity to and from the medium.
Electrolyte - A chemical compound which, when fused or dissolved in certain solvents, usually water, will conduct
an electric current. All electrolytes in the fused state or in solution give rise to ions which conduct the electric
current.
Electro positivity: The degree to which an element in a galvanic cell will function as the positive element of the cell.
An element with large electro positivity will oxidize faster than an element with smaller electro positivity.
End-of-Discharge Voltage: The voltage of the battery at termination of a discharge. Energy - Output Capability -
expressed as capacity time’s voltage, or watt-hours. Energy Density - Ratio of cell energy to weight or volume
(watt-hours per pound, or watt-hours per cubic inch). Final Voltage (see Cutoff voltage)
Float Charging - Method of recharging in which a secondary cell is continuously connected to a constant-voltage
supply that maintains the cell in fully charged condition typically applied to lead acid batteries.
Galvanic Cell - A combination of electrodes, separated by electrolyte, that is capable of producing electrical energy
by electrochemical action.
Gassing: The evolution of gas from one or both of the electrodes in a cell gassing commonly results from self
discharge or from the electrolysis of water in the electrolyte during charging.
Internal Resistance: The resistance to the flow of an electric current within the cell or battery.
Memory Effect - A phenomenon in which a cell, operated in successive cycles to less than full, depth of discharge,
temporarily loses the remainder of its capacity at normal voltage levels (usually applies only to Ni-Cd cells). Note,
memory effect can be induced in NiCd cells even if the level of discharge is not the same during each cycle.
Memory effect is reversible.
Negative Terminal - The terminal of a battery from which electrons flow in the external circuit when the cell
discharges. See Positive Terminal.
Nonaqueous Batteries - Cells that do not contain water, such as those with molten salts or organic electrolytes.
Open Circuit - Condition of a battery which is neither on charge nor on discharge (i.e., disconnected from a circuit).
Open-Circuit Voltage: The difference in potential between the terminals of a cell when the circuit is open (i.e., a no-
load condition)
Oxidation - A chemical reaction that results in the release of electrons by an electrode’s active material.
Parallel Connection - The arrangement of cells in a battery made by connecting all positive terminals together and
all negative terminals together. The voltage of the group remains the same as the voltage of the individual cell. The
capacity is increased in proportion to the number of cells.
Polarity - Refers to the charges residing at the terminals of a battery.
Positive Terminal - The terminal of a battery toward which electrons flow through the external circuit when the cell
discharges. See Negative Terminal.
Primary Battery - A battery made up of primary cells. See Primary Cell.
Primary Cell - A cell designed to produce electric current through an electrochemical reaction that is not efficiently
reversible. The cell, when discharged, cannot be efficiently recharged by an electric current. Alakline, lithium, and
zinc air are common types of primary cells.
Rated Capacity - The number of ampere-hours a cell can deliver under specific conditions (rate of discharge, end
voltage, temperature); usually the manufacturer’s rating.
Rechargeable - Capable of being recharged; refers to secondary cells or batteries.
Recombination - State in which the gases normally formed within the battery cell during its operation, are
recombined to form water.
Reduction - A chemical process that results in the acceptance of electrons by an electrode’s active material.
Seal - The structural part of a galvanic cell that restricts the escape of solvent or electrolyte from the cell and limits
the ingress of air into the cell (the air may dry out the electrolyte or interfere with the chemical reactions).
Secondary Battery - A battery made up of secondary cells. See Storage Battery; Storage Cell.
Self Discharge - Discharge that takes place while the battery is in an open-circuit condition.
Separator - The permeable membrane that allows the passage of ions, but prevents electrical contact between the
anode and the cathode.
Series Connection: The arrangement of cells in a battery configured by connecting the positive terminal of each
successive cell to the negative terminal of the next adjacent cell so that their voltages are cumulative.
Shelf Life: For a dry cell, the period of time (measured from date of manufacture), at a storage temperature of 21
degrees C (69 degrees F), after which the cell retains a specified percentage (usually 90%) of its original energy
content.
Short Circuit: A condition that occurs when a short electrical path is unintentionally created. Batteries can supply
hundreds of amps if short-circuited, potentially melting the terminals and creating sparks.
Short-Circuit Current: That current delivered when a cell is short-circuited (i.e., the positive and negative terminals
are directly connected with a low-resistance conductor). Starting-Lighting-Ignition (SLI) Battery - A battery designed
to start internal combustion engines and to power the electrical systems in automobiles when the engine is not
running. SLI batteries can be used in emergency lighting situations.
Stationary Battery: A secondary battery designed for use in a fixed location.
Storage Battery: An assembly of identical cells in which the electrochemical action is reversible so that the battery
may be recharged by passing a current through the cells in the opposite direction to that of discharge. While many
non-storage batteries have a reversible process, only those that are economically rechargeable are classified as
storage batteries. Synonym: Accumulator; Secondary Battery. See Secondary Cell. Storage Cell - An electrolytic cell
for the generation of electric energy in which the cell after being discharged may be restored to a charged
condition by an electric current flowing in a direction opposite the flow of current when the cell discharges.
Synonym: Secondary Cell. See Storage Battery.
Taper Charge: A charge regime delivering moderately high-rate charging current when the battery is at a low state
of charge and tapering the current to lower rates as the battery becomes more fully charged.
Terminals: The parts of a battery to which the external electric circuit is connected.
Thermal Runaway: A condition whereby a cell on charge or discharge will destroy itself through internal heat
generation caused by high overcharge or high rate of discharge or other abusive conditions.
Trickle Charging - A method of recharging in which a secondary cell is either continuously or intermittently
connected to a constant-current supply that maintains the cell in fully charged condition.
Vent: A normally sealed mechanism that allows for the controlled escape of gases from within a cell.
Voltage cutoff: Voltage at the end of useful discharge.
Voltage end-point: Cell voltage below which the connected equipment will not operate or below which operation
is not recommended.
Voltage nominal: Voltage of a fully charged cell when delivering rated current.
Watt: A measurement of total power. It is amperes multiplied by volts. 120 volt @ 1 amp = 12 volts @ 10 amps.
Wet Cell: A cell, the electrolyte of which is in liquid form and free to flow and move.
Full float operation: Operation of a dc system with the battery, battery charger, and load all connected in Parallel
and with the battery charger supplying the normal dc load plus any charging current required by the battery. (The
battery will deliver current only when the load exceeds the charger output.)
Period: An interval of time in the battery duty cycle during which the load is assumed to be constant for purposes
of cell sizing calculations.
Rated capacity (lead-acid): The capacity assigned to a cell by its manufacturer for a given discharge Rate, at a
specified electrolyte temperature and specific gravity, to a given end-of-discharge voltage.
Vented battery: A battery in which the products of electrolysis and evaporation are allowed to escape freely to the
atmosphere. These batteries are commonly referred to as “flooded.”
Types of Batteries commonly used for industrial Application:-

1. Lead Acid Battery:
Each cell contains (in the charged state) electrodes of lead metal (Pb) and lead (IV) dioxide (PbO2) in an electrolyte
of about 33.5% v/v (6 Molar) sulfuric acid (H2SO4). In the discharged state both electrodes turn into lead (II) sulfate
(PbSO4) and the electrolyte loses its dissolved sulfuric acid and becomes primarily water. Due to the freezing-point
depression of water, as the battery discharges and the concentration of sulfuric acid decreases, the electrolyte is
more likely to freeze.
The chemical reactions are (charged to discharge): Cathode (reduction):
Because of the open cells with liquid electrolyte in most lead-acid batteries, overcharging with excessive charging
voltages will generate oxygen and hydrogen gas by electrolysis of water, forming an explosive mix. The acid
electrolyte is also corrosive. Practical cells are usually not made with pure lead but have small amounts of
antimony, tin, calcium or selenium alloyed in the plate material. Generally there are two types of lead-acid storage
batteries, based on their method of construction. These batteries are either called flooded (or vented) or sealed.
Flooded and sealed batteries also differ in their operation. All lead-acid batteries produce hydrogen and oxygen
gas (gassing) at the electrodes during charging through a process called electrolysis. These gases are allowed to
escape a flooded cell, however the sealed cell is constructed so that the gases are contained and recombined. It
should be noted that hydrogen gas is explosive in air at only 4% by volume. Flooded Lead-Acid Batteries: - Flooded
cells are those where the electrodes/plates are immersed in electrolyte. Since gases created during charging are
vented to the atmosphere, distilled water must be added occasionally to bring the electrolyte back to its required
level. The most familiar example of a flooded lead-acid cell is the 12-V automobile battery.
Sealed Lead-Acid Batteries

These types of batteries confine the electrolyte, but have a vent or valve to allow gases to escape if internal
pressure exceeds a certain threshold. During charging, a lead-acid battery generates oxygen gas at the positive
electrode. Sealed lead-acid batteries are designed so that the oxygen generated
during charging is captured and recombined in the battery. This is called an oxygen recombination cycle and works
well as long as the charge rate is not too high. Too high of a rate of charge may result in case rupture, thermal
runaway, or internal mechanical damage. The valve-regulated battery is the most common type of sealed battery.
It was developed for stationary and telecommunication battery applications. These types of sealed batteries have a
spring-controlled valve that vents gases at a predetermined pressure. Typical pressure thresholds are from 2 to 5
psig, depending on the battery design. Although the term "valve- regulated" is often used synonymously to
describe sealed lead-acid batteries, not all sealed batteries are valve-regulated. Some battery designs employ
replaceable vent plugs or other mechanisms to relieve excess pressure. Sealed batteries were developed to reduce
the maintenance required for batteries in active service. Since electrolyte levels are preserved by trapping and
recombining off-gasses, there should not be any need to add distilled water over the life of the battery. These
batteries are often misnamed "maintenance free." In fact, all maintenance practices applicable to unsealed type
batteries are applicable to sealed type batteries. The only exception is that electrolyte levels cannot, and should
not need to be, maintained.
Starting batteries
Lead acid batteries designed for starting automotive engines are not designed for deep discharge. They have a
large number of thin plates designed for maximum surface area, and therefore maximum current output, but
which can easily be damaged by deep discharge. Repeated deep discharges will result in capacity loss and
ultimately in premature failure, as the electrodes disintegrate due to mechanical stresses that arise from cycling. A
common misconception is that starting batteries should always be kept on float charge. In reality, this practice will
encourage corrosion in the electrodes and result in premature failure. Starting batteries should be kept open-
circuit but charged regularly (at least once every two weeks) to prevent sulfating.
Deep cycle batteries

Specially designed deep-cycle cells are much less susceptible to degradation due to cycling, and are required for
applications where the batteries are regularly discharged, such as photovoltaic systems, electric vehicles (forklift,
golf cart, electric cars and other) and uninterruptible power supplies. These batteries have thicker plates that can
deliver less peak current, but can withstand frequent discharging.[3] Marine/Motor home batteries, sometimes
called "leisure batteries", are something of a compromise between the two, able to be discharged to a greater
degree than automotive batteries, but less so than deep cycle batteries.
Fast and slow charge and discharge

The capacity of a lead-acid battery is not a fixed quantity but varies according to how quickly it is discharged. An
empirical relationship exists between discharge rate and capacity, known as Peukert's law. When a battery is
charged or discharged, this initially affects only the reacting chemicals, which are at the interface between the
electrodes and the electrolyte. With time, these chemicals at the interface, which we will call an "interface charge",
spread by diffusion throughout the volume of the active material. If a battery has been completely discharged (e.g.
the car lights were left on overnight) and next is given a fast charge for only a few minutes, then during the short
charging time it develops only a charge near the interface. After a few hours this interface charge will spread to the
volume of the electrode and electrolyte, leading to an interface charge so low that it may be insufficient to start
the car. On the other hand, if the battery is given a slow charge, which takes longer, then the battery will become
more fully charged, since then the interface charge has time to redistribute to the volume of the electrodes and
electrolyte, and yet is replenished by the charger.
Similarly, if a battery is subject to a fast discharge (such as starting a car, which is a draw of some 200 amps) for a
few minutes, it will appear to go dead. Most likely it has only lost its interface charge; after a wait of a few minutes
it should appear to be operative. On the other hand, if a battery is subject to a slow discharge (such as leaving the
car lights on, which is a draw of only 6 amps), then when the battery appears to be dead it likely has been
completely discharged.
The fully charged lead-acid cell has an open circuit voltage of approximately 2.10 V, which varies as a function of
cell specific gravity and temperature. Open circuit voltage increases with specific gravity and decreases with
temperature, and may range from 2.06 to 2.15 V/cell. Float voltages range from 2.15 to 2.40 V/cell, depending on
their individual cell designs, temperature, and manufacturer recommendations.
Design
Lead-acid battery designs are available for the following three standby applications:
1) Long duration (i.e., telecommunications or low rate) batteries are designed for applications in which the standby
loads are relatively small and the battery is required to supply these loads for a minimum of 3 h. Long duration
batteries are characterized by thicker plates and lower specific gravity electrolytes. The typical discharge duration
is 8 h.
2) General purpose (i.e., switchgear and control) batteries are similar to the long duration battery, but have
additional design features to improve conductivity. In UPS applications, this design is best suited for discharge
times of 1h to 3 h.
3) Short duration (i.e., UPS or high rate) batteries are designed to supply large amounts of power for a relatively
short period of time. Short duration batteries are typically characterized by thinner plates and higher specific
gravity electrolytes. These batteries are best suited for applications requiring reserve times of 1 h or less. The
typical discharge time is 15 min.
Valve regulated lead acid batteries

VRLA stands for valve regulated lead-acid and is the designation for low maintenance lead-acid batteries, also
called recombinant batteries. VRLA batteries are commonly further classified as:
• Absorbent glass mat battery
• Gel battery
These batteries are often colloquially called sealed lead-acid batteries, but this term is misleading: a sealed battery
would be a safety hazard due to overpressure risks when overcharging, and there is always a safety valve present,
hence the name valve-regulated. Sealed is opposed to vented (also called flooded). Because VRLA batteries use
much less electrolyte (battery acid) than traditional lead-acid batteries, they are also occasionally referred to as an
"acid-starved" design. The name "valve regulated" does not wholly describe the technology; these are really
"recombinant" batteries, which means that the oxygen evolved at the positive plates will largely recombine with
the hydrogen ready to evolve on the negative plates, creating water—thus preventing water loss. The valve is
strictly a safety feature in case the rate of hydrogen evolution becomes dangerously high. One result of this design
is a much higher ratio of power to "floor space" than large, flooded type battery systems;[citation needed] another
is a high-rate power capacity, though of relatively short duration.[citation needed] As a result, VRLA batteries are
frequently employed in UPS (uninterruptible power supply) or other high-rate applications. Long duration
applications such as telecommunications are not as well-suited to VRLA batteries, as there are other, more
applicable battery designs available.
Comparison with flooded lead-acid cells compared with flooded lead-acid cells, VRLA batteries offer several
advantages. The battery can be mounted in any position, since the valves only operate on over pressure faults.
Since the battery system is designed to be recombinant and eliminate the emission of gases on overcharge, room
ventilation requirements are reduced and no acid fume is emitted during normal operation. The volume of free
electrolyte that could be released on damage to the case or venting is very small. There is no need (nor possibility)
to check the level of electrolyte or to top up water lost due to electrolysis, reducing inspection and maintenance.
Absorbent glass mat (AGM) absorbent glass mat (AGM) is a class of VRLA battery in which the electrolyte is
absorbed into a mat of fine glass fibers. The plates in an AGM battery may be flat like a wet cell lead-acid battery in
a rectangular case. In cylindrical AGMs, the plates are thin and wound, like most consumer disposable and
rechargeable cells, into spirals so they are also sometimes referred to as spiral wound. Their unique (for lead acid
chemistries) construction also allows for the lead in their plates to be purer as they no longer need to support their
own weight as in traditional cells. Their internal resistance is lower than traditional cells due to plate proximity and
the pure lead plates have lower resistivity, they handle higher temperatures better, and self discharge more slowly.
Their specific power is very good and they can be charged and discharged quite rapidly, however their specific
energy tends to be lower than traditional flooded batteries. They are often used in high performance electric
vehicles due to their high power density. In high grade and military spec AGMs the plates are thin and hand
wrapped in envelopes to discourage short circuiting due to vibration.
Gel battery
A gel battery (also known as a "gel cell") is a VRLA battery with a gelified electrolyte; the sulfuric acid is mixed with
a silica fume, which makes the resulting mass gel-like and immobile. Unlike a traditional wet-cell lead-acid battery,
these batteries do not need to be kept upright (though they cannot be charged inverted). In addition, gel batteries
virtually eliminate the electrolyte evaporation, spillage (and subsequent corrosion issues) common to the wet-cell
battery, and boast greater resistance to extreme temperatures, shock, and vibration. These batteries are often
colloquially referred to as sealed lead-acid (SLA) batteries due to their non-leaking containers, but they are not
completely sealed; the valve regulation system allows for gas to be expelled. Chemically they are the same as wet
(non-sealed) batteries except that the antimony in the lead plates is replaced by calcium. This preserves the
mechanical characteristics but renders the construction far less prone to gassing. The battery type is often referred
to as a lead-calcium battery.
Applications
Many modern motorcycles on the market utilize AGM or factory-sealed AGM batteries for the combined benefits
of reduced likelihood of acid-spilling during accidents, and for packaging reasons (lighter, smaller battery to do the
same job; the battery can be installed at an odd angle if needed for the design of the motorcycle). Due to the
higher manufacturing costs compared with flooded lead acid batteries, AGM technology is currently being used on
premium vehicles. As vehicles become heavier and equipped with greater electronic devices such as navigation,
stability control, and premium stereos, AGM batteries are being employed to lower vehicle weight and provide
better electrical reliability compared with flooded lead acid batteries.
Exploding batteries
Excessive charging of a lead-acid battery will cause emission of hydrogen and oxygen from each cell, as some of the
water of the electrolyte is broken down by electrolysis. This process is known as "gassing". Wet cells have open
vents to release any gas produced, and VRLA batteries rely on valves fitted to each cell. Wet cells may be equipped
with catalytic caps to recombine any emitted hydrogen. A VRLA cell will normally recombine any hydrogen and
oxygen produced into water inside the cell, but malfunction or overheating may cause gas to build up. If this
happens (e.g. by overcharging the cell) the valve is designed to vent the gas and thereby normalize the pressure,
resulting in a characteristic acid smell around the battery. Valves can sometimes fail however, if dirt and debris
accumulate in the device, so pressure can build up inside the affected cell. If the accumulated hydrogen and
oxygen within either a VRLA or wet cell is ignited, an explosion is produced. The force is sufficient to burst the
plastic casing or blow the top off the battery, and can injure anyone in the vicinity and spray acid and casing
shrapnel to the immediate environment; an explosion in one cell may also set off the combustible gas mixture in
remaining cells of the battery. VRLA batteries usually show swelling in the cell walls when the internal pressure
rises. The deformation of the walls varies from cell to cell, and is greater at the ends where the walls are
unsupported by other cells. Such over-pressurized batteries should be isolated and discarded, taking great care
using protective personal equipment (goggles, overalls, gloves, etc.) during the handling.
2. Nickel-cadmium battery
The nickel-cadmium battery (commonly abbreviated NiCd is a type of rechargeable battery using nickel oxide
hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes.
Applications
Sealed NiCd cells may be used individually, or assembled into battery packs containing two or more cells. Small
NiCd dry cells are used for portable electronics and toys, often using cells manufactured in the same sizes as
primary cells. When NiCds are substituted for primary cells, the lower terminal voltage and smaller ampere-hour
capacity may reduce performance as compared to primary cells. Specialty NiCd batteries have a niche market in
the area of cordless and wireless telephones, emergency lighting, model airplanes, as well as power tools. With a
relatively low internal resistance, a NiCd battery can supply high surge currents. This makes them a favorable
choice for remote-controlled electric model aero planes, boats, and cars, as well as cordless power tools and
camera flash units. Larger flooded cells are used for aircraft starting batteries, electric vehicles, and standby power.
Voltage Nickel-cadmium cells have a nominal cell potential of 1.2V. This is lower than the 1.5V of many popular
primary cells, and consequently they are not appropriate as a replacement in all applications. Unlike common
primary cells, a NiCd cell's terminal voltage only changes a little as it discharges. Many electronic devices are
designed to work with primary cells that may discharge to as low as 0.90 to 1.0V per cell, the relatively steady 1.2V
of a NiCd is enough to allow operation. Some would consider the near-constant voltage a drawback as it makes it
difficult to detect when the battery charge is low.
Advantages
When compared to other forms of rechargeable battery, the NiCd battery has a number of distinct advantages.
The batteries are more difficult to damage than other batteries, tolerating deep discharge for long periods. In fact,
NiCd batteries in long-term storage are typically stored fully discharged. This is in contrast, for example, to lithium
ion batteries, which are highly volatile and will be permanently damaged if discharged below a minimum voltage.
In addition, NiCd batteries typically last longer, in terms of number of charge/discharge cycles, than other
rechargeable batteries, and have faster charge and discharge rates than lead-acid batteries, with minimal loss of
capacity even at high discharge rates.
The most common alternative to NiCd batteries are lead-acid batteries. Compared to these, NiCd batteries have a
much higher energy density. This means that, for a given battery capacity, a NiCd battery is smaller and lighter than
a comparable lead-acid battery. In cases where size and weight are important considerations (for example, some
transportation applications), NiCd batteries are preferred over the cheaper lead-acid batteries.
In consumer applications, NiCd batteries compete directly with alkaline batteries. A NiCd cell has a lower capacity
than that of an equivalent alkaline cell, and costs slightly more. However, since the alkaline batteries chemical
reaction is typically not reversible, a reusable NiCd battery has a significantly longer total lifetime. There have been
attempts to create rechargeable alkaline batteries, such as the rechargeable alkaline or specialized battery
chargers for charging single-use alkaline batteries, but none that has seen wide usage. In addition, a NiCd battery
maintains a constant voltage as it discharges. An alkaline batteries voltage drops as the charge drops, most
consumer applications are well equipped to deal with the slightly lower NiCd voltage with no noticeable loss of
performance.
Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries are the newest, and most similar, competitor to NiCd batteries. Compared
to NiCd, NiMH batteries have a higher capacity and are less toxic, and are now more cost effective. However, a
NiCd battery has a lower self-discharge rate (for example, 20% per month for a NiCd, versus 30% per month for a
traditional NiMH under identical conditions), although low self-discharge NiMH batteries are now available which
have substantially lower self-discharge than either NiCd or traditional NiMH. This results in a preference for NiCd
over NiMH in applications where the current draw on the battery is lower than the battery's own self-discharge
rate (for example, television remote controls). In both Charging NiCd batteries can charge at several different rates,
depending on how the cell was manufactured. The charge rate is measured based on the percentage of the amp-
hour capacity the battery is fed as a steady current over the duration of the charge. Regardless of the charge
speed, more energy must be supplied to the battery than its actual capacity, to account for energy loss during
charging, with faster charges being more efficient. For example, the typical overnight charge, called a C/10 charge,
is accomplished by applying 10% of the battery's total capacity for a period of 14 hours; that is, a 100 mAh battery
takes 140 mAh of energy to charge at this rate. At the fast-charge rate, done at 100% of the rated capacity, the
battery holds roughly 80% of the charge, so a 100 mAh battery takes 120 mAh of energy to charge (that is,
approximately 1 hour and fifteen minutes). The downside to faster charging is the higher risk of overcharging,
which can damage the battery. The safe temperature range for a NiCd battery in use is between −20°C and 45°C.
During charging, the battery temperature typically stays low, around 0°C (the charging reaction absorbs heat), but
as the battery nears full charge the temperature will rise to 45-50°C. Some battery chargers detect this
temperature increase to cut off charging and prevent over-charging. When not under load or charge, a NiCd
battery will self-discharge approximately 10% per month at 20°C, ranging up to 20% per month at higher
temperatures. It is possible to perform a trickle charge at current levels just high enough to offset this discharge
rate; to keep a battery fully charged. However, if the battery is going to be stored unused for a long period of time,
it should be discharged down to at most 40% of capacity (some manufacturers recommend fully discharging and
even short-circuiting once fully discharged), and stored in a cool, dry environment.
Charge condition
High quality NiCd’s has a thermal cut-off so if the battery gets too hot the charger stops. If a NiCd is still warm from
discharging and been put on charge, it will not get the full charge possible. In that case, let the battery cool to room
temperature, then charge. Watch for the correct polarity. Leave charger in a cool place when charging to
get best results.
Charging method
A NiCd battery requires a charger with a slightly different voltage charge level than a lead-acid battery, especially if
the NiCd has 11 or 12 cells. In addition, the charger requires a more intelligent charge termination method if a fast
charger is used. Often NiCd battery packs have a thermal cut-off inside that feeds back to the charger telling it to
stop the charging once the battery has heated up and/or a voltage peaking sensing circuit. At room temperature
during normal charge conditions the cell voltage increases from an initial 1.2V to an end-point of about 1.45V. The
rate of rise increases markedly as the cell approaches full charge. The end-point voltage decreases slightly with
increasing temperature.
Electrochemistry
A fully charged NiCd cell contains:
• Nickel (III) oxide-hydroxide positive electrode plate.
• Cadmium negative electrode plate a separator.
• And an alkaline electrolyte (potassium hydroxide). NiCd batteries usually have a metal case with a sealing plate
equipped with a self-sealing safety valve. The positive and negative electrode plates, isolated from each other by
the separator, are rolled in a spiral shape inside the case. The chemical reactions in a NiCd battery during discharge
are:
During recharge, the reactions go from right to left. The alkaline electrolyte (commonly KOH) is not consumed in
this reaction and therefore it’s Specific Gravity, unlike in lead-acid batteries, is not a guide to its state of charge.
When Jungner built the first NiCD batteries, he used nickel oxide in the cathode, and iron and cadmium materials
in the anode. It was not until pure cadmium metal and nickel hydroxide was used. Until about 1960, the reaction in
nickel-cadmium batteries was not completely understood. There were several speculations as to the reaction
products. The debate was finally resolved by spectrometry, which revealed cadmium hydroxide and nickel
hydroxide. Another historically important variation on the basic nickel-cadmium cell is the addition of lithium
hydroxide to the potassium hydroxide electrolyte. This was believed to prolong the service life by making the cell
more resistant to electrical abuse. The nickel-cadmium battery in its modern form is extremely resistant to
electrical abuse anyway, so this practice has been discontinued.
Problems with NiCd

Overcharging
Overcharging must be considered in the design of most rechargeable batteries. In the case of NiCds, there are two
possible results of overcharging:
•If the negative electrode is overcharged, hydrogen gas is produced.
•If the positive electrode is overcharged, oxygen gas is produced.
For this reason, the anode (negative) is always designed for a higher capacity than the cathode, to avoid releasing
hydrogen gas. There is still the problem of eliminating oxygen gas, to avoid rupture of the cell casing. NiCd cells are
vented, with seals that fail at high internal gas pressures. The sealing mechanism must allow gas to escape
from inside the cell, and seal again properly when the gas is expelled. This complex mechanism, unnecessary in
alkaline batteries, contributes to their higher cost. NiCd cells dealt with in this article are of the sealed type (see
also vented type). Cells of this type consist of a pressure vessel that is supposed to contain any generation of
oxygen and hydrogen gasses until they can recombine back to water. Such generation typically occurs during rapid
charge and discharge and exceedingly at overcharge condition. If the pressure exceeds the limit of the safety valve,
water in the form of gas is lost. Since the vessel is designed to contain an exact amount of electrolyte this loss will
rapidly affect the capacity of the cell and its ability to receive and deliver current. To detect all conditions of
overcharge demands great sophistication from the charging circuit and a cheap charger will eventually damage
even the best quality cells.
Cell reversal
Another potential problem is reverse charging. This can occur due to an error by the user, or more commonly,
when a battery of several cells is fully discharged. Because there is a slight variation in the capacity of cells in a
battery, one of the cells will usually be fully discharged before the others, at which point reverse charging begins
seriously damaging that cell, reducing battery life. The by-product of reverse charging is hydrogen gas, which can
be dangerous. Some commentators advise that one should never discharge multi-cell nickel-cadmium batteries to
zero voltage; for example, torches (BrE)/flashlights (AmE) should be turned off when they are yellow; before they
go out completely.
A common form of this deprecation occurs when cells connected in series develop unequal voltages and discharge
near zero voltage. The first cell that reaches zero is pushed beyond to negative voltage and gasses generated open
the seal and dry the cell. In modern cells, an excess of anti-polar material (basically active material ballast at
positive electrode) is inserted to allow for moderate negative charge without damage to the cell. This excess
material slows down the start of oxygen generation at the negative plate. This means a cell can survive a negative
voltage of about -0.2 to -0.4 volts. However if discharge is continued even further, this excess ballast is used up
and both electrodes change polarity, causing destructive gassing (gas generation). Battery packs with multiple cells
in series should be operated well above 1 volt per cell to avoid placing the lowest capacity cell in danger of going
negative. Battery packs that can be disassembled into cells should be periodically zeroed and charged
individually to equalize the voltages. However, this does not help if old and new cells are mixed, since their
different capacities will result in different discharge times and voltages.
Memory and lazy battery effects

Main article: Memory effect NiCd batteries suffer from a "memory effect" if they are discharged and recharged to
the same state of charge hundreds of times. The apparent symptom is that the battery "remembers" the point in
its charge cycle where recharging began and during subsequent use suffers a sudden drop in voltage at that point,
as if the battery had been discharged. The capacity of the battery is not actually reduced substantially. Some
electronics designed to be powered by NiCds are able to withstand this reduced voltage long enough for the
voltage to return to normal. However, if the device is unable to operate through this period of decreased voltage,
the device will be unable to get as much energy out of the battery, and for all practical purposes, the
battery has a reduced capacity. There is controversy about whether the memory effect actually exists, or whether
it is as serious a problem as is sometimes believed. Some critics claim it is used to promote competing NiMH
batteries, which apparently do not suffer from it. Many NiCd battery manufacturers either deny the effect exists or
are silent on the matter. There is much evidence that the memory effect story originated from orbiting satellites,
where they were typically charging for twelve hours out of twenty-four for several years. After this time, it was
found that the capacities of the batteries had declined significantly, but were still perfectly fit for use. It is unlikely
that this precise repetitive charging (e.g., 1000 charges / discharges with less than 2% variability) could ever be
reproduced by consumers using electrical goods. An effect with similar symptoms to the memory effect is the so-
called voltage depression or lazy battery effect. (Some people use this term as a synonym for "memory effect".)
This results from repeated overcharging; the symptom is that the battery appears to be fully charged but
discharges quickly after only a brief period of operation. Larger cells may benefit from refilling with distilled water,
or a complete electrolyte replacement. In rare cases, much of the lost capacity can be recovered by a few deep-
discharge cycles, a function often provided by automatic NiCd battery chargers. However, this process may reduce
the shelf life of the battery. If treated well, a NiCd battery can last for 1000 cycles or more before its capacity drops
below half its original capacity.
BATTERY CHARGING
Two principal methods of battery charging are used:-Constant-potential charging and Constant-current charging.
Many variants of these methods exist, such as the float charge regimen and the shallow charge regimen, which are
modifications of the constant-potential method. Also, many methods of control of the charging process exist.
These include charging for a particular time to a particular end-voltage, charging to a particular end-current,
charging controlled by electrolyte temperature, and charging controlled by the internal pressure of the battery (in
the case of sealed batteries). Another proposal, which has been tried out for charge control of sealed nickel-
cadmium cells, is to incorporate an oxygen-consuming auxiliary electrode in the cell to consume oxygen gas as it is
evolved towards the end of charge and on overcharge and thus prevent the build-up of excessive internal gas
pressure. This, however, needs extensive modifications of the cell structure and consequently is expensive and
increases the overall cost. When choosing a charger, it is necessary to consider the type of battery, the way in
which the battery will be discharged, the time available for charge, the temperature extremes the battery will
experience, and the number of cells in the battery (output voltage). It is important to consult the battery
manufacturer at the time of purchase to determine the appropriate charging method. In general, lead-acid
batteries may be recharged at any rate that does not produce excessive gassing, overcharge, or high
temperatures. Discharged batteries may be recharged at a high current initially. However, once the battery
approaches its full charge the current must be decreased to reduce gassing and excessive overcharging. A wide
variety of schemes exist for charging lead-acid batteries.
Constant-Voltage Charging: - Constant-voltage (often called constant-potential) chargers maintain nearly the same
voltage input to the battery throughout the charging process, regardless of the battery's state of charge. Constant-
voltage chargers provide a high initial current to the battery because of the greater potential difference between
the battery and charger. A constant-voltage charger may return as much as 70% of the previous discharge in the
first 30 minutes. This proves useful in many battery applications involving multiple discharge scenarios. As the
battery charges its voltage increases quickly. This reduces the potential that has been driving the current, with a
corresponding rapid decrease in charge current. As a result, even though the battery reaches partial charge
quickly, obtaining a full charge requires prolonged charging. Given this behavior, constant-voltage chargers are
frequently found in applications that normally allow extended charging periods to attain full charge. Constant-
voltage chargers should not be used where there is frequent cycling of the battery. Repeated discharges without
returning the cell to its full charge will eventually decrease the battery capacity and may damage individual cells.
Constant-voltage chargers are most often used in two very different modes: as a fast charger to restore a high
percentage of charge in a short time or as a float charger to minimize the effects of overcharge on batteries having
infrequent discharges.
Float Charging: Float charging is most commonly used for backup and emergency power applications where the
discharge of the battery is infrequent. During float charging the charger, battery, and load are connected in
parallel. The charger operates off the normal power supply which provides current to the load during operation.
In the event of normal power supply failure, the battery provides backup power until the normal power supply is
restored. Since most equipment requires alternating current, a rectifier circuit is usually added between the
battery and the load. Float chargers are typically constant-voltage chargers that operate at a low voltage.
Operating the charger at a low voltage, usually less than about 2.4 V per cell, keeps the charging current low and
thus minimizes the damaging effects of high-current overcharging. For valve-regulated batteries, an important
consideration when float charging is the possible occurrence of phenomena called "thermal runaway". The best
way of preventing thermal runaway is through the use of a temperature-compensated battery charger. A
temperature-compensated charger adjusts the float voltage based upon battery temperature. Temperature-
compensated chargers will increase the reliability and prolong the life of the battery/charger system. They are
especially useful for batteries located in areas where temperatures may be significantly above ambient conditions.
Constant-Current Charging: - Constant-current charging simply means that the charger supplies a relatively uniform
current, regardless of the battery state of charge or temperature. Constant-current charging helps eliminate
imbalances of cells and batteries connected in series. Single-rate, constant-current chargers are most appropriate
for cyclic operation where a battery is often required to obtain a full charge overnight. At these high rates of
charge there will be some venting of gases. Positive grid oxidation will occur at elevated temperatures or extended
overcharge times. Normally the user of a cyclic application is instructed to remove the battery from a single-rate,
constant-current charger within a period of time that permits full charge yet prevents excessive grid oxidation.
Another type of constant-current charger is the split-rate charger. A split-rate charger applies a high initial current
to the cell and then switches to a low rate based on time of charge, voltage, or both. The choice of switching
method and switch point may be affected by the relative priority of minimizing venting (early switching) versus
maintaining good cell balance (later switching). In some split- rate chargers, the charger will alternate between the
high and low rate as the battery approaches full charge. Split-rate chargers are useful when the discharge cannot
be classified as float or cyclic, but lies somewhere between the two applications.
Trickle Charging: - A trickle charge is a continuous constant-current charge at a low (about C/100) rate which is
used to maintain the battery in a fully charged condition. Trickle charging is used to recharge a battery for losses
from self-discharge as well as to restore the energy discharged during intermittent use of the battery. This method
is typically used for SLI and similar type batteries when the battery is removed from the vehicle or its regular
source of charging. Trickle charging is also used widely for portable tools and equipment such as flashlights and
battery powered screwdrivers. Avoiding Over discharge In order to obtain maximum life from lead-acid
batteries, they should be disconnected from the load once they have discharged their full capacity. The cutoff
voltage of a lead-acid cell is usually around 1.75 V. However, the cutoff voltage is very sensitive to operating
temperature and discharge rate. Like batteries discharged at a high rate will have a lower cutoff voltage than
those discharged at a low rate. Greater capacities are obtained at higher temperatures and low discharge rates.
The manufacturer should specify cutoff voltages for various operating temperatures and discharge rates. The
difference between a float charger and a trickle charger is that the float has circuitry to prevent overcharging. It
senses when the battery voltage is at the maximum level and temporarily shuts off the charge (floats voltage at
zero or a very minimal charge until it senses that the battery output voltage has fallen, and then resumes charging).
You can keep it connected indefinitely. A trickle charger, on the other hand, will charge no matter whether the
battery is fully charged or not. So it needs to be connected and disconnected periodically. If left in place too long
it'll eventually boil the electrolyte out of the cells or damage the plates. Trickle chargers will work to keep the
battery charged if used once a month or so for a day or 2, but the float chargers can be left connected indefinitely
without potential harm to the battery.
CHARGING LEAD-ACID BATTERIES

Constant potential charging, with current limiting, is usually recommended for sealed lead-acid cells. Due to the
sloping volt age profile of a lead-acid battery, the voltage of the battery is a reliable indicator of its state of charge.
Current limiting may be accomplished through the use of a current-limiting resistor. One manufacturer uses a
miniature light bulb as a current-limiting resistor. The brightness of the bulb will provide a visual indication of the
state of charge of the battery. In modern practice, however, current limiting is accomplished with integrated
circuits.
CHARGING NI-CD BATTERIES
During their recharge cycle, nickel-cadmium batteries react in a manner different from other batteries. Nickel-
cadmium batteries will actually absorb heat during the first 25% of the charge cycle (as opposed to most secondary
batteries, which generate heat all through their recharge cycle). Beyond that first quarter of the charge cycle, a Ni-
Cd battery will generate heat. If constant current is applied past the point when the battery reaches approximately
85% of its fully charged state, the excess heat will cause “thermal runaway” to occur. Under thermal runaway
conditions, the excess heat in the battery will cause its voltage to drop. The drop in voltage will cause the charge
rate to increase (according to Ohm’s Law), generating more heat and accelerating the cycle. The temperature and
internal pressure of the battery will continue to rise until permanent damage results. When using trickle or slow
chargers to charge Ni-Cd batteries, the heat build-up is minimal and is normally dissipated by atmospheric
convection before thermal runaway can occur. Most chargers supplied with, or as a part of, rechargeable devices
(sealed flashlights, mini vacuums, etc.) are slow chargers. Quick or fast battery chargers, designed especially for Ni-
Cd batteries, will usually have a temperature sensor or a voltage sensor that can detect when the battery is nearing
thermal-runaway conditions. When near runaway conditions are indicated, the charger will reduce or shut off the
current entering the battery.
Defining loads
General considerations
The duty cycle imposed on the battery by any of the conditions described herein will depend on the dc system
design and the requirements of the installation. The battery must supply the dc power requirements when the
following conditions occur:
a) Load on the dc system exceeds the maximum output of the battery charger;
b) Output of the battery charger is interrupted;
c) AC power is lost [may result in a greater dc power demand than b) above].
The most severe of these conditions, in terms of battery load and duration, should be used to determine the
battery size for the installation.
Load classification
The individual dc loads supplied by the battery during the duty cycle may be classified as continuous or non-
continuous.
Non-continuous loads lasting 1 min or less are designated “momentary loads” and should be given special
consideration.
Continuous loads
Continuous loads are energized throughout the duty cycle. These loads are those normally carried by the battery
charger and those initiated at the inception of the duty cycle. Typical continuous loads are as follows:
a) Lighting
b) Continuously operating motors
c) Converters (e.g., inverters)
d) Indicating lights
e) Continuously energized coils
f) Annunciator loads
g) Communication systems
Non-continuous loads
Non-continuous loads are energized only during a portion of the duty cycle. These loads may come on at any time
within the duty cycle and may be on for a set length of time, be removed automatically or by operator action, or
continue to the end of the duty cycle. Typical non continuous loads are as follows:
a) Emergency pump motors
b) Critical ventilation system motors
c) Fire protection systems actuations
d) Motor-driven valve operations (stroke time > 1 min)
Momentary loads
Momentary loads can occur one or more times during the duty cycle but are of short duration, not exceeding 1 min
at any occurrence. Although momentary loads may exist for only a fraction of a second, it is common practice to
consider each load will last for a full minute because the battery voltage drop after several seconds often
determines the battery’s 1 min rating. When several momentary loads occur within the same 1 min period and a
discrete sequence cannot be established, the load for the 1 min period should be assumed to be the sum of all
momentary loads occurring within that minute. If a discrete sequence can be established, the load for the period
should be assumed to be the maximum load at any instant. Sizing for a load lasting only a fraction of a second,
based on the battery’s 1 min performance rating, results in a conservatively sized battery. Consult the battery
manufacturer for ratings of discharge durations less than 1 min typical momentary loads are as follows:
a) Switchgear operations
b) Motor-driven valve operations (stroke time<1 min)
c) Isolating switch operations
d) Field flashing of generators
e) Motor starting currents
f) Inrush currents
When evaluating or justifying the size of an existing battery by means of a service test, the momentary load’s
actual duration and sequence should be duplicated as accurately as practical.
Other considerations
The above lists of typical loads are not a full catalog of the dc loads at any one installation. Loads applied to the
battery are normally typed as constant power, constant resistance, or constant current. However, for sizing
purposes, loads are treated as constant power or constant current. The designer should review each system
carefully to be sure all possible loads and their variations are included.
Duty cycle diagram

A duty cycle diagram showing the total load at any time during the cycle is an aid in the analysis of the duty cycle.
To prepare such a diagram, all loads (expressed in either current or power) expected during the cycle are tabulated
along with their anticipated inception and shutdown times. The total time span of the duty cycle is determined by
the requirements of the installation.
Defined loads
Loads whose inception and shutdown times are known are plotted on the diagram as they would occur. If the
inception (beginning) time is known, but the shutdown time is indefinite, it should be assumed that the load will
continue through the remainder of the duty cycle.
Random loads
Loads that occur at random should be shown at the most critical time of the duty cycle in order to simulate the
worst-case load on the battery. These may be non continuous or momentary loads. To determine the most critical
time, it is necessary to size the battery without the random load(s) and to identify the section of the duty cycle that
controls battery size. Then the random load(s) should be superimposed on the end of that controlling section as
shown in Figure
L1 40 A for 3 h, continuous load;
L2 280 A for the 1st min, momentary load, actually 5 s starting current to load L3;
L3 60 A from the 1st min through the 120th min, non-continuous load;
L4 100 A from the 30th min through the 120th min, non-continuous load;
L5 80 A from the 30th min through the 60th min, non-continuous load;
L6 80 A for the last minute, momentary load, actually a known sequence of:
40 A for the first 5 s,
80 A for the next 10 s,
30 A for the next 20 s;
L7 100 A for 1 min, random load (Actually this consists of four 25 A momentary
loads that can occur at any time within the duty cycle. Therefore, the assumption is
that they all occur simultaneously) When the duty cycle includes constant power and constant current loads it is
usually more convenient to convert the constant power load values to constant current values for sizing
calculations .
Cell selection
This summarizes some factors that should be considered in selecting a cell design for a particular application.
Various cell designs have different charge, discharge, and aging characteristics. Refer vendor literature for a
discussion of cell characteristics. The following factors should be considered in the selection of the cell.
a) Physical characteristics, such as dimensions and weight of the cells, container material, intercell connectors, and
terminals;
b) Planned life of the installation and expected life of the cell;
c) Frequency and depth of discharge;
d) Ambient temperature (Note that sustained high ambient temperatures result in reduced battery life.
e) Charging characteristics;
f) Maintenance requirements;
g) Cell orientation requirements (VRLA);
h) Ventilation requirements (VRLA);
i) Seismic characteristics.
Temperature correction factor

The available capacity of a cell is affected by its operating temperature. The standard temperature for rating cell
capacity is 25 °C (77 °F). If the lowest expected electrolyte temperature is below this standard temperature, select
a cell large enough to have the required capacity available at the lowest expected temperature. If the lowest
expected electrolyte temperature is above 25 °C (77 °F), it is a conservative practice to select a cell size to match
the required capacity at the standard temperature and to recognize the resulting increase in available capacity as
part of the overall design margin. Vendor will lists cell size correction factors for various temperatures for vented
lead acid cells with nominal of 1.215 specific gravity.
Design margin
It is prudent to provide a capacity margin to allow for unforeseen additions to the dc system and less-than
optimum operating conditions of the battery due to improper maintenance, recent discharge, or ambient
temperatures lower than anticipated, or a combination of these factors. A method of providing this design margin
is to add 10-15% to the cell size determined by calculations. If the various loads are expected to grow at different
rates, it may be more accurate to apply the expected growth rate to each load for a given time and to develop a
duty cycle from the results. The cell size calculated for a specific application will seldom match a commercially
available cell exactly, and it is normal procedure to select the next higher capacity cell. The additional capacity
obtained can be considered part of the design margin.
Aging factor
As a rule, the performance of a lead-acid battery is relatively stable throughout most of its life, but begins to
decline with increasing rapidity in its latter stages, with the “knee” of its life versus performance curve occurring at
approximately 80% of its rated performance. IEEE Std 450-1995 recommends that a battery be replaced when its
actual performance drops to 80% of its rated performance because there is little life to be gained by allowing
operation beyond this point. Therefore, to ensure that the battery is capable of meeting its design loads
throughout its service life, the battery’s rated capacity should be at least 125% (1.25 aging factor) of the load
expected at the end of its service life. Exceptions to this rule exist. For example, some manufacturers recommend
that vented batteries with Plant modified Plant and round plate designs be replaced when their measured capacity
drops below 100% of their rated capacity (1.00 aging factor). These designs maintain a fairly constant capacity
throughout their life.
Initial capacity
Batteries may have less than rated capacity when delivered. Unless 100% capacity upon delivery is specified, initial
capacity can be as low as 90% of rated capacity. This will rise to rated capacity in normal service after several
charge-discharge cycles or after several years of float operation. If the designer has provided a 1.25 aging factor,
there is no need for the battery to have full rated capacity upon delivery because the capacity normally available
from a new battery will be above the duty cycle requirement. When a 1.00 aging factor is used, the designer
should ensure that the initial capacity upon delivery is at least 100%, or that there is sufficient margin in the sizing
calculation to accommodate a lower initial capacity.
SIZING OF BATTERY AND BATTERY CHARGER
PROCEDURE
For battery backup time required, the customer’s design basis shall be referred. In the absence of any specific
customer requirements, the backup time can be considered as 1 hour. The battery sizing shall be done on the basis
of the following loads.
a) Total continuous load

b) Total 1st minute load
c) Total 60th minute load
STEPS FOR BATTERY SIZING
Step-1 -Calculation of Total Continuous Load

The total continuous load is the summation of the loads mentioned below: -
a) Continuous load for HT Switch boards for indicating lamps shall
b) Continuous load for LT Switchboards (PCC)
c) Continuous load for MCCs, if applicable
d) DC Lighting loads
e) Other miscellaneous loads
a) Continuous load for HT Switchboards the following loads shall be calculated:-

i) Total VA load of indicating lamps
ii) Total auxiliary load in VA (This includes trip circuit supervision relay, protection relay, timer, under voltage relay,
auxiliary supply supervision relay.
i) Total VA load of the indicating lamps= (Total number of H.T. Breakers)
*(Number of the indicating lamps for each breaker) *(VA load for each indicating lamp) VA load be obtained from
manufacturer’s data. If no data is available, then the load per lamp shall be assumed as 2 VA.
ii) Total auxiliary load= (Total number of H.T. Breakers) *(Auxiliary load of each breaker)
Auxiliary loads of each breaker can be assumed as 50 VA.
b) Continuous load for LT Switchboards (PCC)

Same procedure as mentioned for HT Switchboards shall be followed
c) Continuous load for MCC’S

Same procedure as mentioned above for LT Switchboards shall be followed, if applicable
d) DC Lighting load
The wattage of all the lamps operating on DC shall be added to obtain the total DC lighting load.
e) Other miscellaneous load

The wattage of all other miscellaneous load operating on DC shall be added to obtain the total miscellaneous load.
Step-2 Calculation of Total 1st Minute Load the total 1st minute load is the summation of the following loads:-
a) 1st minute load for HT Switchboards
b) 1st minute load for LT Switchboards
c) 1st minute load for MCC’S
a) 1st minute load for HT Switchboards
The total 1st minute load is the summation of the following loads:-
i) Total VA loads of trip coils of all the breakers
ii) Total VA load of Lock out relay
iii) Total auxiliary load in VA
iv) Total continuous load
i) Total VA load of trip coils of all the breakers =(Number of breakers)*(VA load of trip coil of each
individual breaker) VA load of trip coil shall be obtained from manufacturer’s data. In the absence of any
Data, the load may be assumed as 250 VA.
ii)Total VA load of Lock out relay of the breakers= (Number of breakers) * (VA load of the relay)VA load of lockout
relay shall be obtained from manufacturer’s data. In the absence of any data, the load may be taken as 150
VA. The number of breakers shall be 3 incoming and approximately 3outgoing feeders.
iii) Total auxiliary load i.e. VA, may include load for relay, for auxiliary relays, timers etc.
Total auxiliary load = Total number of breakers * auxiliary load for each breaker feeder.
Auxiliary load of each breaker feeder can be taken as 15 VA.
iv) Total Continuous load is obtained in Step-1 above.

b) 1st minute load for LT Switch boards (PCC) Same procedure as mentioned above for HT Switchboards shall be
followed.
c) 1st minute load for MCC’s the procedure is the same as mentioned above for LT Switchboards, if applicable.
Step-3 - Calculation of Total 60th Minute Load

The total 60th minute load is the summation of the following loads:-
i) Total 60th minute load for HT switchboards
ii) Total 60th minute load for LT switchboards (PCC)
iii) Total 60th minute load for MCCs.
iv) Total 60th minute load for HT switchboards
The total 60th minute load is the summation of the following loads:-
a) Total VA loads of closing coils of the number of breakers which will close at a time.
b) Total VA load of Spring Charging motors of all the breakers, if DC operated
c) Total continuous load.
a) Total VA loads of closing coils = (Number of breakers which will close at a time)
*(VA load of closing coil of each individual breaker)
Number of breakers which will close at a time will depend on the operating philosophy of the plant (2 Incomer, 1
Bus coupler, & 2 to 4 Outgoing feeders). The VA load of closing coils of each individual breaker will be
obtained from manufacturer’s data.
b) Total VA load of the Spring Charging Motors =(Number of breakers)
*(VA load of spring charging motor of each individual breaker)
The VA load of spring charging motor of each individual breaker shall be obtained from manufacturer’s data.
c) Total Continuous load is obtained in Step 3.1 above.
ii) Total 60th minute load for LT Switchboards (PCC)

Same procedure as mentioned above for HT Switchboard shall be followed. Total 60th minute load for MCC’s
The procedure is the same as mentioned above for LT Switchboards.
Step-4 -Calculation of Load Cycle Currents

Nominal DC Voltage = V
Considering ±10 % voltage variation minimum DC voltage = 0.9 V N = Number of Cells.
Therefore,
End Cell Voltage = (Minimum DC Voltage) / (Number of Cells) = (0.9 V) /( N )
Calculation of total 1st minute load cycle current total 1st minute load (in VA) is obtained in clause 3.2 above.
Total 1st minute load current = (Total 1st minute load in VA)/ (Minimum DC Voltage) = (Total 1st minute load in
VA)/ (0.9 V)
Calculation of total Continuous load current

Total Continuous load (in VA) is obtained in clause 3.1 above.
Total continuous load current = (Total continuous load in VA ) / (Minimum DC Voltage ) =(Total continuous load in
VA) / (0.9 V )
Calculation of 60th minute load cycle current

Total 60th minute load (in VA) is obtained in clause 3.3 above Total 60th minute load current
= (Total 60th minute load in VA) / (Minimum DC Voltage) = (Total 60th minute load in VA) / (0.9 V)
Step-5 Calculation For Battery Sizing
The following factors are to be considered for battery sizing:
a) Performance factor
This factor is considered to estimate the performance of the battery at a discharge rate other than the nominal
rate. The performance factor is defined as the ratio of the amperes that can be drawn from the battery for‘t’
minutes to the rated capacity (AH), for a particular end cell voltage. Performance factor = Amperes (in‘t’ minutes) /
(Rated AH)
b) Temperature Correction Factor

This factor is considered to take care of the variations in performance of the battery at different temperatures.
While high temperature results in higher performance, lower than nominal temperature (27°C) lead to lower
performance due to sluggish chemical activities. The performance factor is divided by the temperature correction
factor to obtain the corrected performance factor.
c) Aging factor
The performance of a battery comes down with the time of usage. The battery reaches the end of its useful life
when it fails to deliver 80% of its rated capacity. In order to deliver its rated capacity even at the end of the
estimated life of the battery, a correction factor of 1.25 (= 1 / 0.8) is taken as aging factor. However, customer’s
design basis shall also be referred for any specific requirements regarding aging factor.
d) Spare capacity factor

A spare capacity factor shall be considered to take care of any future additional load. Customer’s design basis shall
be referred for any customer requirements regarding spare capacity. In the absence of any specific customer
requirements, a spare capacity factor of 1.2 (20% additional capacity) can be considered.
Calculation of Ampere Hour requirement for the first minute

i) Total time duration = 1 min
ii) The 1st minute load current is obtained from calculation in clause 3.4.1above
iii) The end cell voltage is obtained in clause 3.4 above.
iv) For the value of end cell voltage, the performance factor corresponding to the value of load current
shall be obtained from manufacturer’s data. Typically for an end cell voltage of 1.14 volts per cell,
corresponding to a load of 212A for 1 min, the performance factor = 212 / 145 = 1.46
v) Let the minimum ambient temperature = t° C. Corresponding to the minimum ambient temperature,
the temperature correction factor is obtained from manufacturer’s data. Typically for a minimum
ambient temperature of 10° C, the temperature correction factor is 1.11
vi) The performance factor is divided by the temperature correction factor to obtain the corrected
performance factor Corrected performance factor= (Performance factor ) / (Temperature correction
factor) here in our case, the corrected performance factor = 1.46 / 1.11 = 1.31
vii) Ampere Hour Opening Balance = 0
viii) Ampere Hour Capacity required for the 1st minute shall be calculated from the formula mentioned
below.
AH capacity required = (Load current) / (Corrected Performance Factor)
ix) Ampere Hour Capacity Drained shall be calculated from the formula mentioned below: -
AH capacity drained = (Load Current) * (Time Duration in mins) / (60)
x) AH Balance = AH Required - AH Drained
xi) AH to be added = AH required - AH Opening Balance.
For the 1st minute, AH Opening Balance = 0

Therefore AH to be added = AH Required
Calculation of Ampere Hour Requirement from the first minute to the 60th minute
Total time duration = 58 min
AH Opening Balance = AH balance at the end of 1st minute obtained from calculation in clause 3.5.1 x) above.
The value of end cell voltage is the same as obtained in clause 3.5.1above.
The load current drawn from the battery during this time duration is the total continuous load current. The value
of continuous load current is obtained from calculation in clause 3.4.2 above.
For the value of end cell voltage, the performance factor corresponding to the value of load current shall be
obtained from manufacturer’s data. For the determination of performance factor, even through the actual time
duration is 58 min, the time duration shall be considered as 60 min. From the attached manufacturer’s data, for an
end cell voltage of 1.14 Volts per cell, corresponding to load current of 129A for 60 min,
Performance factor = 129 / 285 = 0.45
The value of temperature correction factor is obtained in clause 3.5.1 x) above.
The performance factor is divided by the temperature correction factor obtain the corrected performance factor.
In this case, corrected performance factor = 0.45 / 1.11 = 0.4
AH Capacity required shall be calculated from the formula mentioned in clause 3.5.1 viii) above.
AH capacity drained shall be calculated from formula mentioned in clause 3.5.1 ix) above.
AH Balance = AH required - AH drained.
AH to be added = AH required - AH opening Balance.
AH opening balance is already obtained in 3.5.2 ii) above.2.5.3. Calculation of Ampere Hour Requirement for the
60th minute
Total time duration = 1 min AH Opening Balance = AH Balance at the end of 58th minute as obtained from
calculation in clause 3.5.2 x) above. The value of end cell voltage is same as obtained in clause 3.5.1 above.
The value of current drawn from the battery during this period is obtained in clause 3.4.3 above.
The value of performance factor shall be obtained by the method shown in clause 3.5.2 v) above.
The value of temperature correction factor is already obtained in clause3.5.1 v) above.
The value of corrected performance factor is obtained by the method shown in clause 3.5.2vii) above.
AH capacity required shall be calculated from the formula mentioned in clause 3.5.1 viii) above.
AH capacity drained shall be calculated from formula mentioned in clause 3.5.1 ix) above.
AH Balance = AH required - AH drained
AH to be added = AH required - AH Opening Balance. AH Opening Balance is already obtained in clause 3.5.3 ii)
above.
Calculation of Battery AH capacity

Minimum AH capacity required = (AH to be added for 1st minute) + (AH to be added from 1st minute to 60th
minute) + (AH to be added for 60th minute)
Aging Factor = 1.25 or as specified in customer’s design basis

Spare Capacity Factor = 1.2 or as specified in customer’s design basis
Hence battery AH capacity required = (Minimum AH Capacity) * (Aging factor) * (Spare Capacity Factor)
The nearest battery AH capacity as per manufacturer’s rating shall be selected. For example, if the calculated value
of AH Capacity is 645 AH & the nearest rating as per manufacturer is 690 AH, then 690 AH shall be selected.
STEPS FOR BATTERY CHARGER SIZING

The customer’s design basis shall be referred for any customer requirements regarding battery charger sizing. In
the absence of any specific customer requirements, the method mentioned below shall be followed: -
Sizing of Boost Charger

Battery Boost Charger Current Rating = 1.15 * 0.14 * AH rating of battery
AH capacity of battery is obtained from calculation in clause 3.5.4 above.
Sizing of Float Charger

Battery Float Charger Current Rating = 1.15 * Average DC load+ float charge current
Average DC load = (Area under the battery duty cycle curve) / (Battery duty cycle duration)
In this case,
Average DC load = (1 / 60) * {(Total 1st minute load current) * 1 + (Total continuous load current) * 58
+ (Total 60th minute load current) * 1}
Float charger Current = (Float Charge factor) * (Battery AH Capacity)
The value of float charge factor shall be obtained from battery charger manufacturer. However, for preliminary
battery charger sizing calculation it can be assumed as 0.01 (1 % max) batteries AH capacity.
However, the same shall be checked & confirmed with charger manufacture.
Selection of Battery Charger Current Rating
The battery charger current rating shall be selected based on Boost charge current or float charge current,
whichever is higher. A spare capacity factor, on the basis of customer design basis, shall be considered for future
use. In the absence of any specific customer requirements, a spare capacity factor of 1.25 (25 % spare capacity) can
be considered. Battery Charger rating = (Float charge current or Boost charge current whichever is higher*(Spare
capacity factor)
UNITERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY (UPS)
An uninterruptible power supply (UPS), also known as a battery back-up, provides emergency power
and, depending on the topology, line regulation as well to connected equipment by supplying power
from a separate source when utility power is not available. It differs from an auxiliary or emergency
power system or standby generator, which does not provide instant protection from a momentary
power interruption. A UPS, however, can be used to provide uninterrupted power to equipment,
typically for 5-15 minutes until an auxiliary power supply can be turned on, utility power restored, or
equipment safely shut down. While not limited to safeguarding any particular type of equipment, a UPS
is typically used to protect computers, data centers, telecommunication equipment or other electrical
equipment where an unexpected power disruption could cause injuries, fatalities, serious business
disruption or data loss. UPS units come in sizes ranging from units which will back up a single computer
without monitor (around 200 VA) to units which will power entire data centers or buildings (several
megawatts).
Types of UPS
1. STATIC UPS
2. DYNAMIC UPS
STATIC UPS
A static UPS is a solid-state system relying solely on battery power as an emergency source. A static UPS
consists of a rectifier, inverter, a static bypass switch (SBS) and an energy storage device, i.e., one or
more batteries. The inverter in the static UPS also includes components for power conditioning.
Modern static UPS systems are constructed with ratings ranging from about 220 VA to over 1 MVA.
Static UPSs ranging from 220 VA to 1 MVA are constructed without paralleling internal components.
UPS with output higher than 1 MVA are built with some parallel internal components, which result in
decreasing reliability. Figure shows a simple static UPS. Design, installation, and maintenance
requirements should follow the latest version of applicable codes and standards from recognized
industry and commercial groups.
Static UPS systems are employed where a reliable high-quality power supply is necessary for sensitive
loads, Static UPS systems have a high efficiency, compact dimensions, low maintenance requirements
and are highly reliable. Available in single or three phase input - single phase output, and three phase
input - three phase output typically from 350VA to 500KVA. Due to the modular construction of static
UPS units, additional capacity, or redundancy as a means of increasing reliability can be achieved at
relatively low costs. Under mains power interruption, power supply is fed by the battery to the static
inverter system to facilitate continuous operation. Continuous operation implies that, with the mains
supply healthy, the power is supplied continuously to the load through the rectifier and the inverter. In
this mode of operation, the rectifier fulfills two functions:
• Supply of power to the inverter;
• Charging or float-charging of the battery.
The battery is used in the standby parallel mode - i.e. in normal operation it is in the floating condition
and on failure of the mains supply it supplies the inverter without break and without any switching
operation. To perform this function, it is permanently connected to a D.C. link. The static bypass is a
facility whereby the frequency and voltage are the same at the input and the output terminals. It
converts the mains supply to the “secure bus”, with due regard to permissible tolerances, if;
• The inverter is overloaded;
• Short circuits occur in the load circuit;
• Excessive inrush currents are drawn by transformers downstream of the inverter;
• Switch-on peak currents occur;
• The inverter fails.
RECTIFIER
Rectifier is a device which converts AC power into DC power.
Rectification- Rectification is the conversion of ac power to dc power. Rectification is accomplished by
using unidirectional devices such as SCRs or IGBTs. Rectifiers can be built to convert single-phase or
three-phase ac power to controlled or uncontrolled dc power. In a controlled rectifier, the output dc
voltage can be continuously maintained at any desired level whereas in an uncontrolled rectifier the
output dc voltage (at no load) is a fixed ratio of the input ac voltage. Moreover, the output dc voltage of
an uncontrolled rectifier varies with the load level due to voltage drops in the various circuit elements.
Generally, single-phase rectifiers may be used in ratings up to 5 kilowatt (kW) whereas three-phase
rectifiers are used in higher ratings. When controlled dc voltage is required, SCRs are normally used.
SCR based 6 pulse phase controlled rectifiers. These are the lowest cost, have severe waveform
notching, high distortion (30%) at full load, even higher at light load and are slow, 6 decisions per cycle.
Filters are required to reduce distortion. SCR based 12 pulse phase controlled rectifiers. These are low
cost, have severe waveform notching, lower but still high distortion (12%) at full load, higher at light
load and are slow, 12 decisions per cycle. Filters are required to reduce distortion IGBT rectifiers. These
are highest cost, no waveform notching, have low distortion (3% at full load, 5% at 50% load), 30 to 100
decisions per cycle no filters required Diode Bridge/IGBT rectifiers. These are hybrid design with high
cost, no waveform notching, low distortion (6% at full load, 9% at 50% load) (small filter is generally
included). Diode bridge portion just operates without decisions required and IGBT portion operates at
30 to 100 decisions per cycle.
INVERTER
Inverter is a device which converts DC power into AC power.
Inversion inversion is the conversion of dc power to ac power. Inversion can be accomplished using
SCRs or IGBTs. In high power applications, IGBTs have been used. Inverters for static UPS systems can
be single-phase or three-phase. Single-phase inverters are used in ratings up to approximately 75 kVA;
at higher ratings three-phase inverters are used Inverter voltage control. The common methods of
inverter output voltage control are pulse width control, PWM, and use of a ferroresonant transformer.
Any of these methods may be used for output voltage control. In some designs a combination of pulse
width control and modulation is used. However, a ferroresonant transformer is never used in
combination with either of the other two methods. The pulse width control technique has become less
common than the PWM technique and the use of ferroresonant transformers. Also, some
manufacturers advocate the use of PWM while others favor the use of ferroresonant transformers.
Although each method may have some advantages over the others, the voltage control method is
normally not specified when specifying UPS systems. Either type may be used provided it meets the
performance requirements.
6 step SCR similar to 6 pulse rectifiers, low cost, largest filter required.
12 step SCR similar to 12 pulse rectifier, low cost, still filtered
IGBT similar to, often identical to, IGBT rectifier, no filter required.
In the early 1980’s most UPS were 12 pulse rectifiers and 12 step inverters. The IGBT rectifiers with
IGBT inverters have the following benefits, ¨ Rectifier speed matches with inverter needs
¨ Handles high step loading without using battery or bypass
¨ Maximizes battery life as battery is not required to support inverter for harmonic and step load needs
¨ Eliminates transfers to bypass for step loading
¨ Rectifier puts out low ripple which maximizes battery life
¨ well suited for high performance in parallel UPS design
¨ Only design that should be selected for isolated redundant designs
Use of a ferroresonant transformer

A ferroresonant transformer connected across the inverter's output can be used to regulate the output
voltage and reduce its harmonic content. The ferroresonant transformer is basically a two-winding
transformer with an additional small secondary compensating winding and a series low pass filter
connected across part of the main secondary winding. The filter presents low impedance to the lower
order harmonics and reduces their amplitude in the output to a low acceptable value. The
compensating winding voltage is added to the secondary output voltage 180° out-of-phase thus
maintaining the output voltage within a narrow regulation band. However, with the use of a
ferroresonant transformer, the output voltage is not continuously adjustable as in the previous
techniques
Three-phase inverters
Three-phase inverters are commonly made up of three single phase inverters connected to the same dc
supply. The secondaries of the three single phase inverter output transformers are connected in wye
configuration. To generate a three-phase output, the firing signals for phase B inverter SCRs are delayed
120° from those of phase A inverter. Similarly the firing signals for phase C inverter SCRs are delayed
120° from those of phase B inverter. The resulting phase-to-neutral voltages for 180° pulses and the
line-to line secondary voltages
EA-B = EA-N - EB-N
EB-C = EB-N - EC-N
EC-A = EC-N - EA-N
In this case as with the single-phase inverter, the output wave shape is a square wave and means for
conditioning the output to a sinusoidal waveform is required. The three-phase inverter output voltage
control can be accomplished by the same techniques used for single-phase inverters. However, the use
of ferroresonant transformers is not feasible in many three-phase applications. This is due to the fact
that a slight load current unbalance can cause substantial phase shifts in the ferroresonant
transformers output voltages. With substantial voltage phase shift, the three lines to neutral voltages
may have the same magnitude but the line-to-line voltages may be extremely unbalanced. However,
PWM technique can also be used as in the case of single-phase inverters.
UPS static switch

A static transfer switch, like an electromechanical transfer switch, is used to transfer loads from one
power source to another, manually or automatically. However, unlike an electromechanical transfer
switch, the static transfer switch total transfer time is in the order of one fourth of a cycle which will
provide power to the loads without interruption. When an UPS equipment problem occurs, the load is
automatically transferred by the static switch bypass to an alternate power source to prevent power
interruption to the loads. The static switch is also useful in clearing load faults downstream of the UPS.
The static switch will transfer to the alternate power source on a setting of 110 to 125 percent of rated
load. Without this feature, the inverter would be driven to current limit on a fault. The inverter would
not supply sufficient current to trip the breaker and would continue to feed the fault causing a potential
hazard. The transfer of the fault to the alternate power source by the static switch allows full short
circuit current to pass through, thus tripping the circuit breaker. The static switch will then transfer back
to the UPS for normal operation. Because the circuit cannot differentiate between an inrush and a fault
current, it is common for the initial energization of a load to cause a temporary transfer to the alternate
source power. When the inverter logic drops below a predetermined value, the bypass SCRs are gated-
on by the static switch logic board and the UPS bypass line will supply the load. Retransfer to the UPS
module can occur automatically when the logic senses that the UPS output problem has been
eliminated. The logic system circuitry maintains the inverter output in synchronization with the UPS
bypass power.
Introduction
The static transfer switch (STS) is an electrical device that allows instantaneous transfer of power
sources to the load. This superior switching time means that if one power source fails, the STS switches
to the back-up power source so quickly that the load never recognizes the transfer made. The STS is
classified as low voltage STS (voltages up to 600V, current ratings from 200 amps to 4,000 amps) and
medium voltage STS (voltages from 4.16KV to 34.5KV).
Fast-acting STS's that can transfer between two power sources in four to 20 milliseconds are
increasingly being applied to protect large loads and entire facilities from short-duration power
disturbances. These products use solid-state power electronics or "static" switching as compared to
electromechanical switches, which are too slow for the application. Electromechanical switches are
found in automatic transfer switches (ATS) for transferring building loads to emergency or stand-by
generators.
The basic STS unit consists of three major parts:

• Controls and metering
• Silicon-controlled rectifiers
• Breaker/bus assembly
The STS monitors two power sources and automatically shifts to the better one on sensing the failure or
degradation of either source. There is no wear and tear associated with this process.
Low Voltage Static Transfer Switch (LV-STS)

ALV-STS can transfer at a low voltage (less than 600V) between two power sources in four to 20
milliseconds. LV-STSs are applied to protect large loads and entire facilities. LV-STS includes both static
and hybrid types. LV-STS can be used as a stand-alone system or in conjunction with power distribution
units or uninterruptible power supplies (UPS). These low voltage switches are available in voltages up to
600V in current ratings from 200 amps to 4,000 amps. LV-STS are applied to the critical equipment or to
groups of loads or at the service entrance of a building. A LV-STS is often employed synergistically with
UPSs. However, it also competes with UPSs and other power quality equipment types for applications.
For example
• Data centers typically isolate the critical load and may employ LV-STS with dual-redundant UPSs as
the power sources
• An industrial plant may choose to use LV-STS with dual-redundant UPS's as the power sources
• An industrial plant may choose to use LV-STS on isolated groups of critical process equipment
The same industrial user may instead choose a facility-scale system (medium-voltage STS, custom
power, micro SMES, or BESS) to protect the entire plant, particularly if the critical process cannot be
easily isolated from other independent manufacturing steps. Capital cost for LV-STS equipment is
typically lower than it is for a UPS, provided two independent power sources are available. From an
operating expense point of view, LV-STS has lower costs over continuously operating UPSs because
there is no large rectifier/inverter subsystem to power. LV-STS takes less real estate than a UPS, and at
least the transformer components of LV-STS are capable of outdoor installation.
Some application areas where LV-STS are used:
• Critical IT operations
• Telecommunication
• Network operations centers
• Fiber optic nerve center
• Process control
• Data centers
• Airport security system
• Commercial buildings
• Power generation plants
• Utilities
The demand for LV-STS will depend on the growth in end-user application areas. The data centers,
telecommunication, airport security system, banks and financial institutions, manufacturing and service
industry among others will contribute to the growth of the LVSTS market. Some of the major
manufacturers of the LV-STS include Liebert Corporation, Cyberex, MGE UPS, Socomec, Level 3
Communication (Power Paragon), Piller, Inc., Chloride Power, GE Zenith, PDI, and Silicon Power
Corporation.
Medium Voltage Static Transfer Switch (MV-STS)
The MV-STS, which was introduced in the market in 1995, can transfer at a medium voltage (4.16 kV to
34.5 kV) between two power sources in four milliseconds or less. MVSTS and custom power products
are applied at the substation or service entrance of large facilities. The MV-STS is increasingly being
applied to protect large loads and entire facilities by rapidly transferring to a second power source upon
detection of a power disturbance on the primary supply. A typical application of the MV-STS would be
at the substation or service entrance of a large industrial plant.
Some applications of the MV-STS are:
• Automated manufacturing
• Automotive assembly lines
• Telecommunication centers
• Computer networks
• E-commerce businesses
• R&D labs
• Commercial buildings
• Power quality and industrial parks
• Commercial printing machines
• Internet data centers
• Semiconductor industry
MV-STS have the design goal of protecting an entire building or facility from power disturbances
originating from utility feeders. Nationwide surveys have demonstrated that the greatest number of
power disturbances is the result of faults on utility systems that are cleared in less than 10 seconds.
Fast switching of MV-STS to an alternate feeder will solve many of these problems especially if the
alternate feeder is on a different substation transformer. MV-STS is technically unique in their ability to
protect at the facility, campus, or wide-area level. The demand for MV-STS will depend on the growth in
end-user application areas. The semiconductor automated manufacturing, car assemblers,
telecommunication; pharmaceuticals among others will contribute to the growth of the MV-STS
market. Some of the major manufacturers of the MV-STS include S&C Electric, Silicon Power
Corporation, SatCon Power Systems (Invert power Controls), ABB, and Cutler-Hammer.
UPS static switch with circuit breaker (SS-CB) - A hybrid UPS system uses an electromechanical switch in
the inverter output with the reverse parallel SCRs provided only in the UPS bypass line. With an UPS
output malfunction, the UPS bypass static switch will be turned on before the inverter output circuit
breaker automatically opens. This type of hybrid switching will need only a short-term static switch
current carrying (heat) rating and provides a normally reliable configuration if there are no problems
with the circuit breaker closing in the static switch's 300 milliseconds (ms) rating. Figure 2-4 shows a SS-
CB configuration where circuit breaker SS-CB closes after the UPS bypass static switch closes. The circuit
breaker SSCB provides a bypass for the static switch and therefore allows for the use of a short-term
static switch current carrying (heat) rating. To prevent any damage to the static switch the circuit
breaker must be able to close within the static switch's short time rating. There have been problems
even though manufacturers quote a 450,000-hour mean-time-before-failure, so this system cannot be
considered as reliable as a fully rated UPS bypass static switch. Hybrid switching is used as a method of
combining the merits of both a static switch and a circuit breaker, that is, both speed and economy.
Maintenance by pass circuit breaker A bypass circuit breaker is provided to bypass the complete UPS
system when maintenance of the UPS system is required. The UPS bypass line provides power
continuity during UPS module malfunction periods. If the malfunction is such as to require UPS
maintenance, then the load must be shifted to a maintenance bypass line. An explanation as to why
such a transfer is needed and the how such a transfer is configured is basic to comprehending UPS
maintenance procedures.
(a) Purpose of maintenance bypass switch. It is unsafe to work on an energized UPS system. The
complete system must be isolated from ac inputs, ac outputs, and the dc link whenever maintenance
requires that the cabinet doors be opened and/or protective panels be removed. There are lethal
voltages present in UPS cabinetry, resulting from the ac power applied to the converter or the dc power
available from the battery. When energized, these circuits provide high voltage. Any portions of the
system providing a redundant path, such as more than one UPS module or the static bypass, are tied
together by the system logic so partial system shut down for maintenance is not acceptable. Shutting
off the battery for maintenance and running the UPS portion as a power conditioner should not be
attempted since this also impacts on the system logic. After shutdown, all UPS systems should be load
tested off-line. Approximately 85 percent of system failures occur after maintenance shutdowns which
were not off-line load tested to assure proper operation. In order to shut down the complete UPS
system, the load must be transferred to a line which is isolated electrically from the power and logic
circuitry of the entire UPS installation.
(b) Operation of maintenance bypass switch. Close the UPS static bypass, which automatically opens
the UPS module output circuit breaker (UPS-CB), allowing closing of the maintenance bypass circuit
breaker (MBP-CB) before opening the UPS output circuit breaker (OUTPUT-CB). A closed transition has
been made to an alternate supply for input to the critical load with no interruption. Now the UPS
system as a whole can be reenergized for maintenance and off-line load testing. This is the basis for the
interlocking requirements.
c. Test mode. Off-line load testing of UPS systems after installation and scheduled maintenance is
always necessary. A permanent load test tap or a circuit breaker and interlocking circuitry may be
provided as part of the installation. Otherwise a temporary connection must be provided.
d. Characteristics and limitations. To avoid drawing heavy inrush currents from the power source upon
initial energization, the battery charger is designed to assume the load gradually. Normally, the start-up
current is limited to a maximum of 25 percent of the full load current. The current is then automatically
increased gradually to the full load value in 15 to 30 seconds; this time is termed the "walk-in" time. For
this reason all loads cannot be switched simultaneously if the battery has been fully discharged. Upon
sudden application or removal of a load, the inverter's output voltage will drop or rise beyond the
steady-state level. The voltage then returns to the steady-state condition after some short time which
depends on the inverter's voltage control circuit design. These voltage variations are termed "transient
voltage response" and the time required to return to steady-state conditions is termed the "recovery
time.” Generally, due to the absence of feedback regulating circuits in inverters with a ferroresonant
transformer, the transient response is slower than that of inverters with pulse width or pulse width
modulation (PWM) control techniques. SCRs have a limited overload capability. Also, heavy load
currents may cause commutation failures. Therefore, the rectifier and inverter are designed to be self
protected from overloads. The self protection circuit reduces the output voltage at currents exceeding
the full load current. Normally, the inverter is designed to reduce the output voltage to zero at
overloads of 115 to 135 percent rated load. The value of over current at which the voltage is reduced to
zero is termed "current limit.” The inverter may reach the current limit condition when energizing a
load with a high inrush current or during a load branch circuit fault.
e. Basic static UPS system without a dedicated battery. The basic system discussed above utilizes a
dedicated battery as a backup source. The UPS system is provided with a controlled rectifier to supply
the inverter and float/equalize charge the battery. In other applications, a large battery bank may be
available for supplying the UPS system as well as other loads. In such applications, a separate battery
charger is provided to supply the connected load and float/equalize the battery. In this case, the UPS
system is provided with a rectifier that only supplies the inverter and is isolated from the battery and
other loads by a blocking diode. The blocking diode allows current to flow from the battery to the
inverter while blocking the flow of current from the rectifier to the battery. Upon failure of the ac input
power, the battery supplies the inverter as discussed above.
Operation
Normal operation: During normal operation, the rectifier converts the ac input power to dc power with
regulated voltage. The rectifier output is normally set at the battery float voltage to charge the battery
while supplying dc power to the inverter. The rectifier output voltage is periodically set at the battery
equalize voltage to maintain the battery capacity.
The dc filter (inductor) is provided for smoothing out the rectifier output current to reduce the current
ripple content. The battery acts as a capacitor and in conjunction with the filter, smoothes out the
output voltage and reduces the dc voltage ripple content. The inverter converts the dc power to ac
power with regulated voltage and frequency. An internal oscillator maintains the inverter frequency by
controlling the timing of the silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) firing signals and matches the ac input
frequency. The filters at the output transformer secondary are provided to filter out the harmonics in
the inverter output. Tuned L-C filters are used - when required - to filter out the 5th and 7th harmonics
while a capacitor is adequate for filtering out the higher order harmonics.
(1) Loss of normal power. Upon loss of ac power supply or upon failure of the rectifier, the battery
maintains the dc supply to the inverter. The battery can maintain the dc supply to the inverter until the
ac supply is restored or to the end of the battery duty cycle. Under this condition, the inverter
continues to supply the connected loads without interruption. This mode of operation continues until
the system is shut down if the battery reaches the discharged state before the charger output is
restored. A system shutdown may be initiated manually or automatically by a dc under-voltage sensing
device.
(2) Restoration of power. Upon restoration of the ac supply after extended outage while the battery
has been discharged, the rectifier output voltage is set at the equalizing voltage to recharge the battery.
This can be done manually or automatically. The charger will also supply the inverter while recharging
the battery. At the end of the battery recharging time the battery charger returns to the floating mode
and the system returns to normal operation.
(3) Momentary loss of power. During momentary ac power interruptions or when the ac supply voltage
sags below acceptable limits, the battery maintains the dc supply to the inverter. Under this condition,
the inverter continues to supply the connected loads with regulated power without interruption.
Bypass mode. The static UPS systems may have three bypass switching arrangements: the UPS static
switch (SS) the UPS static switch circuit breaker (SS-CB), and the maintenance circuit breaker. Harmonic
correction techniques. The measurements of harmonic currents and voltages require special
techniques. The inductive and capacitive impedance is variable because of harmonic variations;
therefore, its effects are usually unpredictable. More and more the power system is becoming
susceptible to the operation of the sensitive electronic equipment, as much as or more than the
sensitive electronic device is susceptible to the power source. If harmonic problems have been
identified as causing problems, certain procedures are recommended. The following are some of the
procedures. Provide oversized neutral conductors. Derated transformers, generators, motor, and UP if
necessary. Insure all controls, especially those involving generator speed and paralleling, are properly
shielded and filtered and are designed to respond as quickly as is necessary. Use of unfiltered voltage
regulators and non-electronic governors will probably cause problems, especially for generators
supplying more than a 25- percent non-linear load. Provide line filters to suppress the harmonics
emanating from the power source. Increase power source capacities so as to lower output impedance
and minimize voltage distortion. Use UPS outputs which have no neutrals.
Where neutral voltages are required, provide isolation transformers as close to their loads as possible
to shorten oversized neutral installations. Use true RMS sensing for circuit breaker trip units, relays,
meters, and instruments.
Advantages and disadvantages of static UPS systems

Static UPS systems have several advantages. They provide disturbance free uninterrupted power,
operate at low sound levels, have high reliability and short repair times, require minimal maintenance,
simple installation, and lend themselves to future expansion and reconfiguration. However, they also
have some disadvantages. Some of the disadvantages are that they introduce harmonics into the
power supply system, have a high initial cost to purchase, require large space, require regulated
environment, require skilled technicians for trouble shooting and repairs, and have a somewhat low
efficiency.
TYPES OF STATIC UPS

The general categories of modern UPS systems are on-line, line-interactive, and standby. An on-line
UPS uses a "double conversion" method of accepting AC input, rectifying to DC for passing through the
battery (or battery strings), then inverting back to AC for powering the protected equipment. A line-
interactive UPS maintains the inverter in line and redirects the battery's DC current path from the
normal charging mode to supplying current when power is lost. In a standby ("off-line") system the load
is powered directly by the input power and the backup power circuitry is only invoked when the utility
power fails. Most UPS below 1 kVA are of the line-interactive or standby variety which is usually less
expensive.
1. Offline / standby
The Offline / Standby UPS (SPS) offer only the most basic features, providing surge protection and
battery backup. Usually the Standby UPS offers no battery capacity monitoring or self-test capability,
making it the least reliable type of UPS since it could fail at any moment without warning. These are
also the least expensive. The SPS may be worse than using nothing at all, because it gives the user a
false sense of security of being assured protection that may not work when needed the most. With this
type of UPS, a user's equipment is normally connected directly to incoming utility power with the
same voltage transient clamping devices used in a common surge protected plug strip connected across
the power line. When the incoming utility voltage falls below a predetermined level the SPS turns on its
internal DC-AC inverter circuitry, which is powered from an internal storage battery. The SPS then
mechanically switches the connected equipment on to its DC-AC inverter output.
The switchover time is stated by most manufacturers as being less than 4 milliseconds, but typically can
be as long as 25 milliseconds depending on the amount of time it takes the Standby UPS to detect the
lost utility voltage
Line-interactive
The Line-Interactive UPS is similar in operation to a Standby UPS, but with the addition of a multi-tap
variable-voltage autotransformer. This is a special type of electrical transformer that can add or
subtract powered coils of wire, thereby increasing or decreasing the magnetic field and the output
voltage of the transformer. This type of UPS is able to tolerate continuous under voltage brownouts and
overvoltage surges without consuming the limited reserve battery power. It instead compensates by
auto-selecting different power taps on the autotransformer. Changing the autotransformer tap can
cause a very brief output power disruption, so the UPS may chirp for a moment, as it briefly switches to
battery before changing the selected power tap. Autotransformers can be engineered to cover a wide
range of varying input voltages, but this also increases the number of taps and the size, weight,
complexity, and expense of the UPS. It is common for the autotransformer to only cover a range from
about 90v to 140v for 120v power, and then switch to battery if the voltage goes much higher or lower
than that range.
In low-voltage conditions the UPS will use more current than normal so it may need a higher current
circuit than a normal device. For example to power a 1000 watt device at 120 volts, the UPS will draw
8.32 amps. If a brownout occurs and the voltage drops to 100 volts, the UPS will draw 10 amps to
compensate. This also works in reverse, so that in an overvoltage condition, the UPS will need fewer
amps of current.
Double-conversion / online
The Online UPS is ideal for environments where electrical isolation is necessary or for equipment that is
very sensitive to power fluctuations. Although once previously reserved for very large installations of
10kW or more, advances in technology have permitted it to now be available as a common consumer
device, supplying 500 watts or less. The Online UPS is generally more expensive but may be necessary
when the power environment is "noisy" such as in industrial settings, for larger equipment loads like
data centers, or when operation from an extended-run backup generator is necessary. The basic
technology of the online UPS is the same as in a Standby or Line-Interactive UPS. However it typically
costs much more, due to it having a much greater current AC-to-DC battery-charger/rectifier, and with
the rectifier and inverter designed to run continuously with improved cooling systems. It is called a
Double-Conversion UPS due to the rectifier directly driving the inverter, even when powered from
normal AC current. In an Online UPS, the batteries are always connected to the inverter, so that no
power transfer switches are necessary. When power loss occurs, the rectifier simply drops out of the
circuit and the batteries keep the power steady and unchanged. When power is restored, the rectifier
resumes carrying most of the load and begins charging the batteries, though the charging current may
be limited to prevent the high-power rectifier from overheating the batteries and boiling off the
electrolyte. The main advantage to the on-line UPS is its ability to provide an electrical firewall between
the incoming utility power and sensitive electronic equipment. While the Standby and Line- Interactive
UPS merely filter the input utility power, the Double-Conversion UPS provides a layer of insulation from
power quality problems. It allows control of output voltage and frequency regardless of input voltage
and frequency.
The Standby-Ferro UPS

The Standby-Ferro UPS was once the dominant form of UPS in the 3-15kVA range. This design depends
on a special saturating transformer that has three windings (power connections). The primary power
path is from AC input, through a transfer switch, through the transformer, and to the output. In the
case of a power failure, the transfer switch is opened, and the inverter picks up the output load. In the
Standby-Ferro design, the inverter is in the standby mode, and is energized when the input power fails
and the transfer switch is opened. The transformer has a special "Ferro-resonant" capability, which
provides limited voltage regulation and output waveform "shaping". The isolation from AC power
transients provided by the Ferro transformer is as good as or better than any filter available. But the
Ferro transformer itself creates severe output voltage distortion and transients, which can be worse
than a poor AC connection. Even though it is a standby UPS by design, the Standby-Ferro generates a
great deal of heat because the Ferro-resonant transformer is inherently inefficient. These transformers
are also large relative to regular isolation transformers; so standby-Ferro UPS are generally quite large
and heavy. Standby-Ferro UPS systems are frequently represented as On-Line units, even though they
have a transfer switch, the inverter operates in the standby mode, and they exhibit a transfer
characteristic during an AC power failure.
High reliability and excellent line filtering are this design’s strengths. However, the design has very low
efficiency combined with instability when used with some generators and newer power-factor
corrected computers, causing the popularity of this design to decrease significantly. The principal
reason why Standby-Ferro UPS systems are no longer commonly used is that they can be
fundamentally unstable when operating a modern computer power supply load. All large servers and
routers use “Power Factor Corrected” power supplies which draw only sinusoidal current from the
utility, much like an incandescent bulb. This smooth current draw is achieved using capacitors, devices
which ‘lead' the applied voltage, Ferro resonant UPS system utilize heavy core transformers which have
an inductive characteristic, meaning that the current 'lags' the voltage. The combination of these two
items form which is referred to as a 'tank' circuit? Resonance or 'ringing' in a tank circuit can cause high
currents, which jeopardize the connected load.
The Delta Conversion On-Line UPS

This UPS design, illustrated in Figure 5, is a newer, 10 year old technology introduced to eliminate the
drawbacks of the Double Conversion On-Line design and is available in sizes ranging from 5kVA to
1.6MW. Similar to the Double Conversion On-Line design, the Delta Conversion On-Line UPS always has
the inverter supplying the load voltage. However, the additional Delta Converter also contributes
power to the inverter output. Under conditions of AC failure or disturbances, this design exhibits
behavior identical to the Double Conversion On-Line. A simple way to understand the energy efficiency
of the delta conversion topology is to consider the energy required to deliver a package from the 4th
floor to the 5th floor of a building as shown in Figure 6. Delta Conversion technology saves energy by
carrying the package only the difference (delta) between the starting and ending points. The Double
Conversion On-Line UPS converts the power to the battery and back again whereas the Delta Converter
moves components of the power from input to the output. In the Delta Conversion On-Line design, the
Delta Converter acts with dual purposes. The first is to control the input power characteristics.
This active front end draws power in a sinusoidal manner, minimizing harmonics reflected onto the
utility. This ensures optimal utility and generator system compatibility, reducing heating and system
wear in the power distribution system. The second function of the Delta Converter is to control input
current in order to regulate charging of the battery system. The Delta Conversion On-Line UPS provides
the same output characteristics as the Double Conversion On-Line design. However, the input
characteristics are often different. Delta conversion on-line designs provide dynamically-controlled,
power factor corrected input, without the inefficient use of filter banks associated with traditional
solutions. The most important benefit is a significant reduction in energy losses. The input power
control also makes the UPS compatible with all generator sets and reduces the need for wiring and
generator over sizing. Delta Conversion On-Line technology is the only core UPS technology today
protected by patents and is therefore not likely to be available from a broad range of UPS suppliers.
During steady state conditions the Delta Converter allows the UPS to deliver power to the load with
much greater efficiency than the Double Conversion design.
RATING OF UPS UNIT

In selecting the size of a UPS unit, the electrical load and supply characteristics should initially be
considered:
• Steady load
The total load requirement, P, is the sum of the individual loads to be supplied divided by the power
factor, Total load (P) KVA = sum of individual loads, kW power factor
To allow for future additions, it is advisable to apply a factor of between 1.2 to 2.0 to obtain maximum
steady load, Pu = Px (1.2 to 2) Inrush currents should be specified for each load in peak amperes and
related duration. The UPS should be capable of switching an agreed inrush current onto a steady load
(e.g. 25% of the total defined load starting coincidentally on to the 75% load already operating).
• Transient load fluctuations
When the UPS with its rated voltage and at no load is switched onto blocks of symmetrical loads, the
voltage regulation under transient conditions should be acceptable to the loads. Otherwise, the UPS
would have to be oversized to cater for such conditions. Similar considerations should be taken into
account in unloading the UPS.
• Voltage Tolerance
The UPS input should be between +15% and -20%; narrower limits are needed for some applications. If
the input voltage strays beyond these limits, the UPS should step in with the output voltage limited to
between ±1percent in a steady state. On connection or withdrawal of full load to/from the UPS, an
output voltage deviation of up to 20% is generally acceptable provided that the voltage can recover to
within typically 96% to 105% of the nominal value within 20ms.
• Harmonics
Harmonics fed back to the power supply system due to the rectification of the AC quantities to the DC
quantities for the purposes of inversion back to the AC quantities should be investigated. High contents
of harmonics fed back to the power supply system may not be accepted by other connected loads, and
will affect the sizing of any standby generator upstream of the UPS. Typical acceptable values of
Harmonic Distortion Output are: 3% maximum for single harmonics, 5% maximum for total harmonic
distortion.
• Frequency Tolerance
Output frequency should be synchronized to the input frequency within 0.5Hz of the nominal value and
at a rate of change of frequency of 0.2Hz/s.
2. Rotary UPS (Dynamic UPS)
A Rotary UPS uses the inertia of a high-mass spinning flywheel to provide short-term ride-through in
the event of power loss. The flywheel also acts as a buffer against power spikes and sags, since such
short-term power events are not able to appreciably affect the rotational speed of the high-mass
flywheel. It is also one of the oldest designs, predating vacuum tubes and integrated circuits.
It can be considered to be online since it spins continuously under normal conditions. However, unlike a
battery-based UPS, flywheel based UPS systems typically provide 10 to 20 seconds of protection before
the flywheel has slowed and power output stops. It is traditionally used in conjunction with standby
diesel generators, providing backup power only for the brief period of time the engine needs to start
running and stabilize its output. The Rotary UPS is generally reserved for applications needing more
than 10,000 watts of protection, to justify the expense of an extremely large and heavy power system
that can only be transported by forklift or crane. A larger flywheel or multiple flywheels operating in
parallel will increase the reserve running time or capacity. Because the flywheels are a mechanical
power source, it is not necessary to use an electric motor or generator as an intermediary between it
and a diesel engine designed to provide emergency power. By using a transmission gearbox, the
rotational inertia of the flywheel can be used to directly start up a diesel engine, and once running, the
diesel engine can be used to directly spin the flywheel. Multiple flywheels can likewise be connected in
parallel through mechanical countershafts, without the need for separate motors and generators for
each flywheel.
They are normally designed to provide very high current output compared to a purely electronic UPS,
and are better able to provide inrush current for inductive loads such as motor startup or compressor
loads, as well as medical MRI and catch lab equipment. It is also able to tolerate short-circuit conditions
up 17 times larger than an electronic UPS, permitting one device to blow a fuse and fail while other
devices still continue to be powered from the Rotary UPS. Its life cycle is usually far greater than a
purely electronic UPS, up to 30 years or more. But they do require periodic downtime for mechanical
maintenance, such as ball bearing replacement. Battery-based designs do not require downtime if the
batteries can be hot-swapped, which is usually the case for larger units. Newer Rotary units use
technologies such as Magnetic bearings and air-evacuated enclosures to increase standby efficiency
and reduce maintenance to very low levels. Typically, the high-mass flywheel is used in conjunction
with a motor-generator system. These units can be configured as:
1. A motor driving a mechanically connected generator,
2. A combined synchronous motor and generator wound in alternating slots of a single rotor and stator
3. A Hybrid Rotary UPS, designed similar to an Online UPS, except that it uses the flywheel in place of
batteries. The rectifier drives a motor to spin the flywheel, while a generator uses the flywheel to
power the inverter.
In case #3 the motor generator can be synchronous/synchronous or induction/synchronous. The motor

side of the unit in case #2 and #3 can be driven directly by an AC power source (typically when in
inverter bypass), a 6-step double-conversion motor drive, or a 6 pulse inverter. Case #1 uses an
integrated flywheel as a short-term energy source instead of batteries to allow time for external,
electrically coupled gensets to start and be brought online.
Case #2 and #3 can use batteries or a free-standing electrically coupled flywheel as the short-term
energy source.
Typical protection time: 20 - 60 seconds
Capacity expansion: Several seconds
Advantages and disadvantages of rotary UPS systems: The rotary UPS system has
both advantages and disadvantages that should be considered at the time of selection.
(1) Rotary advantages. There are many advantages to a rotary UPS system. The rotary system low
output impedance makes it able to supply higher fault currents to operate a circuit breaker during fault
conditions. They provide total isolation of sensitive loads from power supply system transients. They
provide disturbance free uninterrupted power. Systems without storage batteries have a low initial
cost. Efficiency is higher than comparable static UPS systems. The rotary UPS systems have higher
tolerance to adverse environments. Some require small space, especially systems without a storage
battery. They do not cause power supply system voltage distortion. High ratings, e.g., above 1000 kVA
can be built in the rotary UPS design. A rotary system has a lower number of components than a
comparable static system and hence has a lower failure rate. It has low output impedance which makes
its output voltage less susceptible to harmonic distortion as may be caused by non-linear loads.
(2) Disadvantages. While there are several advantages to the rotary UPS, it does have some short
comings. Some of them are that they operate at high sound levels unless equipped with special
silencing enclosures. They require more maintenance and long repair times. Also, they require special
foundations. Their installation is more complex. They do not easily lend themselves to future
expansion, paralleling, or reconfiguration. Their performance requirements and configurations are not
commonly standardized. Fewer manufacturers produce rotary UPS systems as compared to static UPS
systems. The rotary UPS has a short backup time and requires either a battery or backup diesel
generator for longer backup power.
Applications of AC power capacitors in UPS

There are two principal applications of AC power capacitors employed in most UPSs today. AC
capacitors using a wrapped metalized film construction are used for input and output filters as well as
controlling power factor. A UPS may contain hundreds of AC and DC capacitors in various internal
applications like snubbers and DC electrolytic capacitors.
Difficulties faced with generator use

The voltage and frequency of the power produced by a generator depends on the engine speed. The
speed is controlled by a system called a governor. Some governors are mechanical, some are electronic.
The job of the governor is to keep the voltage and frequency constant, while the load on the generator
changes. This may pose a problem where, for example, the startup surge of an elevator can cause short
"blips" in the frequency of the generator or the output voltage, thus affecting all other devices powered
by the generator. Many transmission sites will have backup diesel generators - in the case of AM, the
load presented by the transmitters changes in line with the signal level. This leads to the scenario
where the generator is constantly trying to correct the output voltage and frequency.
It is possible for a UPS unit to be incompatible with a generator or a poor mains supply; in the event
that its designers had written the microprocessor code to require need exactly a 50.0Hz (or 60.0Hz)
supply frequency in order to operate; with this condition not met the UPS could remain on battery
power, being unable to reconnect the unsuitable supply voltage. This problem of input frequency
requirements should not be an issue through the use of a Double Conversion / online UPS. A UPS of this
topology should be able to adapt to any input frequency, using its own internal clock source to
generate the required 50 or 60Hz supply frequency. A problem in the combination of a "double
conversion" UPS and a generator is the voltage distortion created by the UPS. The input of a double
conversion UPS is essentially a big rectifier. The current drawn by the UPS is non-sinusoidal. This causes
the voltage from the generator also to become non-sinusoidal. The voltage distortion then can cause
problems in all electrical equipment connected to the generator, including the UPS itself! This level of
"noise" is measured as a percentage of "Total Harmonic Distortion of the current" (THD (i)) Classic UPS
rectifiers have a THD (i) level of around 25-30%. To prevent voltage distortion, this requires generators
more than twice as big as the UPS. There are several solutions to reduce the THD(i) in a double
conversion UPS: Classic solutions such as passive filters reduce THD(i) to 5-10% at full load. They are
reliable, but big and only work at full load, and present their own problems when used in tandem with
generators. An alternative solution is an active filter. Through the use of such a device, THD(i) can drop
to 5% over the full power range. The newest technology in double conversion UPS units is a rectifier
that doesn't use classic rectifier components (Thyristors and Diodes) but high frequency components
(IGBTs).
SIZING OF UPS
The maximum current to be supplied by the battery is determined as follows:
Max.1Bat (A) = (UPS power in kVA) x (Power factor 0.8) x (Rectifier efficiency = 0.97)(1) (overall UPS
efficiency) x (minimum DC voltage)
Battery tables are available which give the maximum current supplied by the selected battery in
function of the requested discharge time and end voltage per cell. Discharge curves are also available.
The battery type which can supply a maximum current equal or higher than the current calculated by
the formula (1) is selected. If the closest battery type is higher than (1), then a higher discharging time
at same ends voltage or higher voltage at same discharging time will be the outcome. Number of cells =
minimum DC voltage of UPS end voltage of one battery The maximum number of cells = maximum DC
voltage of UPS Charging voltage of one battery cell Nickel-cadmium batteries are the most reliable and
robust but expensive. Other choices are plate type batteries and low maintenance sealed type
batteries.
POWER SYSTEM STUDIES
The planning, design, and operation of industrial and commercial power systems require several studies
to assist in the evaluation of the initial and future system performance, system reliability, safety, and
the ability to grow with production and/or operating requirements. The studies most likely to be
needed are load flow studies, cable amp-city studies, short-circuit studies, coordination studies,
stability studies, and routine motor-starting studies. Additional studies relating to switching transients,
reliability, grounding, harmonics, and special motor-starting considerations may also be required. The
engineer in charge of system design must decide which studies are needed to ensure that the system
will operate safely, economically, and efficiently over the expected life of the system. For a plant
engineer to solve a power system analysis problem, he or she must be thoroughly familiar with the
fundamentals of power electrical engineering. He or she can then analyze the problem, prepare the
necessary equivalent circuits, and obtain appropriate system data before using a computer program to
perform repetitive calculations. Failure to use a valid analytical procedure to establish a sound basic
approach to the problem could lead to disastrous consequences in both the design and operation of a
system. Furthermore, a basic understanding of power engineering is essential to correctly interpret the
results of computer calculations. It is important to emphasize the need for a thorough foundation and
base of experience in power system engineering in addition to modern, effective computer software.
Power system analysis engineering software is an excellent tool for studying power systems, but it
cannot be used as a substitute for knowledge and experience. To set up a computer program for
system analysis, certain basic data must be gathered with accuracy and proper presentation. The extent
of system representation, restrictions in terms of nodes (buses) and branches (lines and transformers),
balanced three-phase network and single-line diagram, impedance diagram, etc., are all important
inputs to a meaningful system study.
The following chapters address the most common studies for the design or operation of an industrial or
commercial power system:
Load flow studies determine the voltage, current, active, and reactive power and power factor in a
power system. Load flow studies are an excellent tool for system planning. A number of operating
procedures can be analyzed, including contingency conditions, such as the loss of a generator, a
transmission line, a transformer, or a load. These studies will alert the user to conditions that may
cause equipment overloads or poor voltage levels. Load flow studies can be used to determine the
optimum size and location of capacitors for power factor improvement. Also, they are very useful in
determining system voltages under conditions of suddenly applied or disconnected loads. The results
of a load flow study are also starting points for stability studies. Digital computers are used extensively
in load flow studies due to the complexity of the calculations involved.
Short-circuit studies
Short-circuit studies are done to determine the magnitude of the prospective currents flowing
throughout the power system at various time intervals after a fault occurs. The magnitude of the
currents flowing through the power system after a fault varies with time until they reach a steady-state
condition. This behavior is due to system characteristics and dynamics. During this time, the protective
system is called on to detect, interrupt, and isolate these faults. The duty imposed on this equipment is
dependent upon the magnitude of the current, which is dependent on the time from fault inception.
This is done for various types of faults (three phase, phase-to-phase, double-phase-to-ground, and
phase-to-ground) at different locations throughout the system. The information is used to select fuses,
breakers, and switchgear ratings in addition to setting protective relays.
Stability studies
The ability of a power system, containing two or more synchronous machines, to continue to operate
after a change occurs on the system is a measure of its stability. The stability problem takes two forms:
steady-state and transient. Steady-state stability may be defined as the ability of a power system to
maintain synchronism between machines within the system following relatively slow load changes.
Transient stability is the ability of the system to remain in synchronism under transient conditions, i.e.,
faults, switching operations, etc. In an industrial power system, stability may involve the power
company system and one or more in-plant generators or synchronous motors. Contingencies, such as
load rejection, sudden loss of a generator or utility tie, starting of large motors or faults (and their
duration), have a direct impact on system stability. Load-shedding schemes and critical fault-clearing
times can be determined in order to select the proper settings for protective relays. These types of
studies are probably the single most complex ones done on a power system. A simulation will include
synchronous generator models with their controls, i.e., voltage regulators, excitation systems, and
governors. Motors are sometimes represented by their dynamic characteristics as are static var
compensators and protective relays.
Motor-starting studies
The starting current of most ac motors is several times normal full load current. Both synchronous and
induction motors can draw five to ten times full load current when starting them across the line. Motor-
starting torque varies directly as the square of the applied voltage. If the terminal voltage drop is
excessive, the motor may not have enough starting torque to accelerate up to running speed. Running
motors may stall from excessive voltage drops, or under voltage relays may operate. In addition, if the
motors are started frequently, the voltage dip at the source may cause objectionable flicker in the
lighting system. By using motor-starting study techniques, these problems can be predicted before the
installation of the motor. If a starting device is needed, its characteristics and ratings can be easily
determined. A typical digital computer program will calculate speed, slip, electrical output torque, load
current, and terminal voltage data at discrete time intervals from locked rotor to full load speed. Also,
voltage at important locations throughout the system during start-up can be monitored. The study can
help select the best method of starting, the proper motor design, or the required system design for
minimizing the impact of motor starting on the entire system.
Harmonic analysis studies

A harmonic-producing load can affect other loads if significant voltage distortion is caused. The voltage
distortion caused by the harmonic-producing load is a function of both the system impedance and the
amount of harmonic current injected. The mere fact that a given load current is distorted does not
always mean there will be undue adverse effects on other power consumers. If the system impedance
is low, the voltage distortion is usually negligible in the absence of harmonic resonance. However, if
harmonic resonance prevails, intolerable harmonic voltage and currents are likely to result.
Some of the primary effects of voltage distortion are the following:
a) Control/computer system interference
b) Heating of rotating machinery
c) Overheating/failure of capacitors
When the harmonic currents are high and travel in a path with significant exposure to parallel
communication circuits, the principal effect is telephone interference. This problem depends on the
physical path of the circuit as well as the frequency and magnitude of the harmonic currents. Harmonic
currents also cause additional line losses and additional stray losses in transformers. Watt hour meter
error is often a concern. At harmonic frequencies, the meter may register high or low depending on the
harmonics present and the response of the meter to these harmonics. Fortunately, the error is usually
small. Analysis is commonly done to predict distortion levels for addition of a new harmonic producing
load or capacitor bank. The general procedure is to first develop a model that can accurately simulate
the harmonic response of the present system and then to add a model of the new addition. Analysis is
also commonly done to evaluate alternatives for correcting problems found by measurements. Only
very small circuits can be effectively analyzed without a computer program. Typically, a computer
program for harmonic analysis will provide the engineer with the capability to compute the frequency
response of the power system and to display it in a number of useful graphical forms. The programs
provide the capability to predict the actual distortion based on models of converters, arc furnaces, and
other nonlinear loads.
Switching transient studies

Switching transients severe enough to cause problems in industrial power systems are most often
associated with inadequate or malfunctioning breakers or switches and the switching of capacitor
banks and other frequently switched loads. The arc furnace system is most frequently studied because
of its high frequency of switching and the related use of capacitor banks. By properly using digital
computer programs or a TNA, these problems can be detected early in the design stage. In addition to
these types of switching transient problems, digital computer programs and the TNA can be used to
analyze other system anomalies, such as lightning arrester operation, Ferro resonance, virtual current
chopping, and breaker transient recovery voltage.
Reliability studies
When comparing various industrial power system design alternatives, acceptable system performance
quality factors (including reliability) and cost are essential in selecting an optimum design. A reliability
index is the probability that a device will function without failure over a specified time period. This
probability is determined by equipment maintenance requirements and failure rates. Using probability
and statistical analyses, the reliability of a power system can be studied in depth with digital computer
programs. Reliability is most often expressed as the frequency of interruptions and expected number of
hours of interruptions during one year of system operation. Momentary and sustained system
interruptions, component failures, and outage rates are used in some reliability programs to compute
overall system reliability indexes at any node in the system, and to investigate sensitivity of these
indexes to parameter changes. With these results, economics and reliability can be considered to select
the optimum power system design.
Cable Ampacity studies
Cable ampacity studies calculate the current-carrying capacity (ampacity) of power cables in
underground or above ground installations. This ampacity is determined by the maximum allowable
conductor temperature. In turn, this temperature is dependent on the losses in the cable, both I2R and
dielectric, and thermal coupling between heat-producing components and ambient temperature. The
ampacity calculations are extremely complex. This is due to many considerations, some examples of
which are heat transfer through the cable insulation and sheath, and, in the case of underground
installations, heat transfer to duct or soil as well as from duct bank to soil. Other considerations include
the effects of losses caused by proximity and skin effects. In addition, depending on the installation, the
cable-shielding system may introduce additional losses. The analysis involves the application of thermal
equivalents of Ohm’s and Kirchoff’s laws to a thermal circuit.
Ground Mat studies

Under ground-fault conditions, the flow of current will result in voltage gradients within and around the
substation, not only between structures and nearby earth, but also along the ground surface. In a
properly designed system, this gradient should not exceed the limits that can be tolerated by the
human body. The purpose of a ground mat study is to provide for the safety and well-being of anyone
that can be exposed to the potential differences that can exist in a station during a severe fault. The
general requirements for industrial power system grounding are similar to those of utility systems
under similar service conditions. The differences arise from the specific requirements of the
manufacturing or process operations.
Some of the factors that are considered in a ground-mat study are the following:
a) Fault-current magnitude and duration
b) Geometry of the grounding system
c) Soil resistivity
d) Probability of contact
e) Human factors such as
f) Body resistance
g) Standard assumptions on physical conditions of the individual
Coordination studies
The objective of a protection scheme in a power system is to minimize hazards to personnel and
equipment while allowing the least disruption of power service. Coordination studies are required to
select or verify the clearing characteristics of devices such as fuses, circuit breakers, and relays used in
the protection scheme. These studies are also needed to determine the protective device settings that
will provide selective fault isolation. In a properly coordinated system, a fault results in interruption of
only the minimum amount of equipment necessary to isolate the faulted portion of the system. The
power supply to loads in the remainder of the system is maintained. The goal is to achieve an optimum
balance between equipment protection and selective fault isolation that is consistent with the
operating requirements of the overall power system. Short-circuit calculations are a prerequisite for a
coordination study. Short-circuit results
establish minimum and maximum current levels at which coordination must be achieved and which aid
in setting or selecting the devices for adequate protection. Traditionally, the coordination study has
been performed graphically by manually plotting time-current operating characteristics of fuses, circuit
breaker trip devices, and relays, along with conductor and transformer damage curves—all in series
from the fault location to the source. Log-log scales are used to plot time versus current magnitudes.
These “coordination curves’’ show graphically the quality of protection and coordination possible
with the equipment available. They also permit the verification/confirmation of protective device
characteristics, settings, and ratings to provide a properly coordinated and protected system. With the
advent of the personal computer, the light-table approach to protective device coordination is being
replaced by computer programs. The programs provide a graphical representation of the device
coordination as it is developed. In the future, computer programs are expected to use expert systems
based on practical coordination algorithms to further assist the protection engineer.
DC auxiliary power system analysis

The need for direct current (dc) power system analysis of emergency standby power supplies has
steadily increased during the past several years in data processing facilities, long distance telephone
companies, and generating stations. DC emergency power is used for circuit breaker control, protective
relaying, inverters, instrumentation, emergency lighting, communications, annunciators, fault
recorders, and auxiliary motors. The introduction of computer techniques to dc power systems analysis
has allowed a more rapid and rigorous analysis of these systems compared to earlier manual
techniques.
Fundamentals
The following list identifies the more important analytical solution methods that are either available as,
or is the basis for, valid techniques in solving power system network circuit problems:
a) Linearity
b) Superposition
c) Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits
d) Sinusoidal forcing function
e) Phasor representation
f) Fourier representation
g) Laplace transforms
h) Single-phase equivalent circuit
i) Symmetrical component analysis
j) Per unit method
Linearity
Probably the simplest concept of all, linearity is also one of the most important because of its influence
on the other principles. Linearity is best understood by examination of the simplified network
represented by the single-impedance element Z. Linear for the chosen excitation and response
functions, if a plot of response magnitude (current) versus source excitation magnitude (voltage) is a
straight line.
When linearity exists, the plot applies either to the steady state value of the excitation and response
functions or to the instantaneous value of the functions at a specific time. When linear dc circuits are
involved, the current doubles if the voltage is doubled. The same holds for linear ac circuits if the
frequency of the driving voltage is held constant. In a similar manner, it is possible to predict the
response of a constant impedance circuit (that is, constant R,L, and (elements) to any magnitude of dc
source excitation or fixed frequency sinusoidal excitation based on the known response at any other
level of excitation. For the chosen excitation function of voltage and the chosen response function of
current, both dotted curves B and C are examples of the response characteristic of a nonlinear element.
With the circuit element represented by any of the response curves (including the linear element
depicted by curve A), the circuit will, in general, become nonlinear for a different response function—
for example, power. If, for example, the element was a constant resistance (which would have a linear
voltage-current relationship), the power dissipated would increase by a factor of 4 if voltage were
doubled (P=I2R). An important limitation of linearity, therefore, is that it applies only to responses that
are linear for the circuit conditions described (that is, a constant impedance circuit will yield a current
that is linear with voltage). This restraint must be recognized in addition to the previously mentioned
limitations of constant source excitation frequency for ac circuits and constant circuit element
impedances for ac or dc circuits. Excitation sources, if not independent, must be linearly dependent.
This restraint forces a source to behave just as would a linear response (which, by definition, is also
linearly dependent).
Superposition
This very powerful principle is a direct consequence of linearity and can be stated as in any linear
network containing several dc or fixed frequency ac excitation sources (voltages), the total response
(current) can be calculated by algebraically adding all the individual responses caused by each
independent source acting alone, i.e., all other sources inactivated (voltage sources shorted by their
internal impedances, current sources opened) The equation written is for the sum of the currents from
each individual source V1andV2 although Figure also illustrates a way this principle might actually be
used, more often its main application is in support of other calculating methods. The only restraint
associated with superposition is that the network should be linear. All limitations associated with
linearity apply.
The non applicability of superposition is why all but the very simplest nonlinear circuits are almost
impossible to analyze using hand calculations. Although most real circuit elements are nonlinear to
some extent, they can often be accurately represented by a linear approximation. Solutions to network
problems involving such elements can be readily obtained. Problems involving complex networks
having substantially nonlinear elements can practically be solved only through the use of certain
simplification procedures, or through the adjustment of calculated results to correct for nonlinearity.
But both of these approaches can potentially lead to significant inaccuracy. Tiresome iterative
calculations performed in an instant by the digital computer make more accurate solutions possible
when the nonlinear circuit elements can be described mathematically.
Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits

The Thevenin equivalent circuit is a powerful analysis tool based on the fact that any active linear
network, however complex, can be represented by a single voltage source, VOC, equal to the open-
circuit voltage across any two terminals of interest, in series with the equivalent impedance, ZEQ of the
network viewed from the same two terminals with all sources in the network inactivated (voltage
sources shorted by their internal impedances, current sources opened). Validity of this representation
requires only that the network be linear. Existence of linearity is a necessary restraint. Application of
the Thevenin equivalent circuit can be appreciated by referring to the simple circuit of Figure and
developing the
Thevenin equivalent for the network with the switch in the open position
After connecting the 6 ohm load to the Thevenin equivalent network by closing the switch, the solution
for IL is the same as before, 1 A. Use of the simple Thevenin equivalent shown for the entire left side of
the network makes it easy to examine circuit response as the load impedance value is varied. The
Thevenin equivalent circuit solution method is equally valid for complex impedance circuits. It is the
basis for making per unit short-circuits calculations, although the actual values for the source voltage
and branch impedances would be substantially different from those used in this case. (The circuit
property of linearity would, incidentally, allow them to be scaled up or down.) The network shown in,
with the 6 ohm resistance shorted and the other resistances visualized as reactance’s, might well serve
as an oversimplified representation of a power system about to experience a bolted fault with the
closing of the switch.
The V1 branch of the circuit would correspond to the utility supply while the V2 branch might represent
a large motor running unloaded, immediately adjacent to the fault bus, and highly idealized so as to
have no rotor flux leakage. For such a model, the 5 V source corresponds to the pre-fault, air-gap
voltage behind a stator leakage (sub transient) reactance of 3 ohm
In a more realistic situation where rotor leakage is evident, a model that accurately describes the V2
branch in detail before and after switch closing is much more difficult to develop, because the air-gap
voltage decreases (exponentially) with time and varies (linearly) with the steady-state rms magnitude of
the motor stator current following application of the fault. The problem of accounting for motor
internal behavior is avoided altogether by use of a Thevenin equivalent. This permits theV2 branch to
be represented by the apparent motor impedance effective at the time following switch closure. In
shunt with the equivalent impedance for the remainder of the network, the Thevenin equivalent
impedance, ZEQ, for the motor (at any point in time of interest) is simply connected in series with the
pre-fault open-circuit voltage, VOC , to obtain the corresponding current response to switch closing.
The current response obtained in each branch of a network using a Thevenin equivalent circuit solution
represents the change of current in that branch. The actual current that flows is the vector sum of
currents before and after the particular switching event being considered.
The current flowing in the V 2 branch circuit is shown to be 1/3 A. A more detailed representation of
the Thevenin equivalent circuit previously examined. Here, the solution for the same current IV2
is determined by subtracting the current flowing in theV2 branch prior to closing the switch [5/6 A from
inspection from the current I V2= 1/2 A, calculated to be flowing in the Thevenin equivalent for thisV2
branch. In the branch of the circuit defined by the switch itself, the change of current due to closing is
normally the response of interest. This means the solution to the Thevenin equivalent is sufficient.
The resultant current in the other branches, however, cannot be determined by the solution to the
Thevenin equivalent network alone. In the case where theV2 branch represents a motor switched onto
a bolted fault, the motor contribution is the locked-rotor current minus the pre-fault current as
illustrated in Figure and not just the locked-rotor current as it is so often carelessly described.
As a rule, this effect is never as significant as the example suggests, even when the motor is loaded
prior to the fault; the load current is much smaller than the locked-rotor current and almost 90° out of
phase with it. A Norton equivalent circuit, which can be developed directly from the Thevenin
equivalent circuit, consists of a current source of magnitude, VOC, /, ZEQ, to account for the voltage
sources in each separate branch of the network in parallel with the same equivalent impedance for that
branch, ZEQ. This representation of circuits can be useful in power system analysis work if some of
the sources are true current sources, as is often the case when performing harmonic studies.
Sinusoidal forcing function
It is a most fortunate truth in nature that the excitation sources (driving voltage) for electrical networks,
in general, have a sinusoidal character and can be represented by a sine wave plot of the type. There
are two important consequences of this circumstance. First, although the response (current) for a
complex R,L,C network represents the solution to at least one second order differential equation, the
result will also be a sinusoid of the same frequency as the excitation and different only in magnitude
and phase angle. The relative character of the current with respect to the voltage for simple R, L, and C
The second important concept is that when the sine wave shape of current is forced to flow in a general
impedance network of R, L, and C elements, the voltage drop across each element will always exhibit a
sinusoidal shape of the same frequency as the source. The sinusoidal character of all the circuit
responses makes the application of the superposition technique to a network with multiple sources
surprisingly manageable. The necessary manipulation of the sinusoidal terms is easily accomplished
using the laws of vector algebra, which evolve from the next technique to be reviewed. The only
restraint associated with the use of the sinusoidal forcing function concept is that the circuit must be
comprised of linear elements, that is, R,L, and C are constant as current or voltage varies.
Phasor representation
Phasor representation allows any sinusoidal forcing function to be represented as a phasor in a
complex coordinate system. As indicated, the expression for the phasor representation of a sinusoid
can assume any of the following shorthand forms:
Exponential: Eejθ
Rectangular: Ecosθ + jEsinθ
Polar: E Lθ
For most calculations, it is more convenient to work in the frequency domain where any angular
velocity associated with the phasor is ignored, which is equivalent to assuming the coordinate system
rotates at a constant angular velocity of. The impedances of the network can likewise be represented as
phasor using the vectorial relationships shown. As illustrated, the circuit responses (current) can be
obtained through the simple vector algebraic manipulation of the quantities involved. The need for
solving complex differential equations to determine the circuit responses is completely eliminated. The
restraints that apply are as follows:
a) Sources must all be sinusoidal
b) Frequency must remain constant
c) Circuit R, L, and C elements must remain constant (that is, linearity must exist)
Fourier representation
This powerful tool allows any non-sinusoidal periodic forcing function, of the type plotted in Figure, to
be represented as the sum of a dc component and a series (infinitely long, if necessary) of ac sinusoidal
forcing functions. The ac components have frequencies that are integral multiples of the periodic
function fundamental frequency. The general mathematical form of the
The importance of the Fourier representation is immediately apparent. The response to the original
driving function can be determined by first solving for the response to each Fourier series component
forcing function and summing all the individual solutions to find the total superposition. Since each
component response solution is readily obtained, the most difficult part of the problem becomes the
determination of the component forcing function. The individual harmonic voltages can be obtained,
occasionally in combination with numerical integration approximating techniques through several well-
established mathematical procedures. There are several abstract mathematical conditions that must be
satisfied to use a Fourier representation. The only restraints of practical interest to the power systems
analyst are that the original driving function must be periodic (repeating) and the network must remain
linear.
Laplace transform
In the solution of circuit transients by classical methods, the models of circuit elements are represented
with sets of differential equations. In addition, for a specific problem, a set of initial conditions must be
known in order to solve the differential equations for the unknown quantity. An alternative technique
for solving a transient problem is by the use of the Laplace transform. The proper use of this technique
eliminates the need for the solution of the differential equations and simplifies all mathematical
manipulations to elementary algebra. It is helpful to keep in mind that the concept of mathematical
transformations to simplify the solution to a problem is not new. For example, the mathematical
operations of multiplication and division are transformed into the simpler operations of addition and
subtraction by means of the logarithm transform. Once the addition/subtraction is performed, the
solution to the problem is obtained by using the inverse transform, or antilog operation. The
transformation is designed to create a new “domain” where the mathematical manipulations are easier
to carry out. Once the unknown is found in the new domain, it can be inverse-transformed back to the
original domain .In circuit analysis, the Laplace transform is used to transform the set of differential
equations from the time domain (t) to a set of algebraic equations in the new domain called the
complex frequency domain or, alternatively, the s -domain. The Laplace transform is also denoted by
the notation F (s) This notation emphasizes that once the above integral has been evaluated, the
resulting expression is a function of s . Since the exponent of the e in Equation must be dimensionless, s
must have the units of reciprocal time, hence the use of the alternate terms “frequency domain” and “
s -domain” to describe the realm of the transformed function. It can be shown that the
“transformation” (or, more briefly, “transform”) described by Equation has special mathematical
properties. Given an original expression involving both an unknown function (i.e., current, voltage, etc.),
and operations on that function (i.e., derivatives, integrals, etc.), the s -domain expression that results
when each term is transformed according to Equation can be manipulated by ordinary algebraic
procedures to yield a solution for the unknown function. The solution for the unknown function in the
s-domain can then be transformed back to the time domain to produce the desired result. These
mathematical methods can be used to greatly simplify the solution of complex differential equations.
Transient analysis by Laplace transforms

The transient analysis of a circuit using Laplace transforms is a straightforward application of
elementary algebra. Both the excitation sources and the impedance elements of the system under
study must be replaced with their s -domain equivalent circuits. The Laplace transform of the driving
voltages and/or currents in the studied circuit must be determined for use in the s-domain equivalent
circuit. Using, one of two possible s-domain equivalent circuits ust be chosen for each impedance
element in the circuit. Once the s -domain network has been developed, the circuit equations can be
solved algebraically.
Single-phase equivalent circuit

The single-phase equivalent circuit is a powerful tool for simplifying the analysis of balanced three-
phase circuits, yet its restraints are probably most often disregarded. Its application is best understood
by examining a three-phase diagram of a simple system and its single-phase equivalent, as shown in
Figure. Also illustrated is the popular single-line diagram representation commonly used to describe the
same three-phase system on engineering drawings. If a three-phase system has a perfectly balanced
symmetrical source excitation (voltage) and load, as well as equal series and shunt system and line
impedances connected to all three phases [, imagine a conductor (shown as a dotted line) carrying no
current connected between the effective neutrals of the load and the source. Under these conditions,
the system can be accurately described by either Figure 3-14(b) or Figure. The single-phase equivalent
circuit is particularly useful since the solution to the classical loop equations is much easier to obtain
than for the more complicated three-phase network .To determine the complete solution, it is only
necessary to realize that the other two phases will have responses that are shifted by 120° and 240° but
are otherwise identical to the reference phase. Anything that upsets the balance of the network
renders the model invalid. A subtle way this might occur is illustrated in Figure. If the switching devices
operate independently in each of the three poles, and for some reason the device in phase A becomes
opened, the balance or symmetry of the circuit is destroyed. Neither the single-phase equivalent nor
the single-line diagram representation is valid. Even though the single-phase and the single-line
diagram representations would imply that the load has been disconnected, it continues to be energized
by single-phase power. This can cause serious damage to motors and result in unacceptable operation
of certain load apparatus.
Single-line impedance diagram
More importantly, if only one switching device operates in response to a fault condition in the same
phase, as depicted at location X, the system sources would continue to supply fault current from the
other unopened phases through the impedance of the load. The throttling effect of the normally
substantial load impedance, possibly in combination with additional arc impedance, can reduce the
level of the current to a point where detection may not occur in phases B and C. Needless to say,
substantial damage can result before the fault finally burns enough to involve the other phases directly
and accomplish complete interruption. Meanwhile, both of the single-line representations fail to
recognize the problem, and in fact, suggest that the condition has been safely disconnected. Therefore,
the restraints of this calculating aid are as follows:
a) Symmetry of the electrical system, including all switching devices and applied load.
b) Any of the other previously described restraints that apply to the analytical technique being used in
combination with the single-phase equivalent.
Symmetrical component analysis
This approach comes to the analyst’s rescue when he or she is confronted with an unbalance, the most
common circuit condition that invalidates the single-phase equivalent circuit solution method. The
symmetrical component analysis allows the response to any unbalanced condition in a three-phase
power system to be investigated and correctly synthesized by the sum of the responses to as many as
three separate balanced system conditions. The application of an unbalanced set of voltage phasors,
such as those displayed in Figure, to a balanced downstream load is the sum of the responses of the
balanced components that vectorially add to form the original unbalanced set. Similar conclusions
apply when the voltages are balanced, but the connected phase impedances and/or loads and the line
currents are unbalanced.
Here, the unbalanced current phasors are the sum of up to three balanced sets that flow through the
balanced system impedances on either or both sides of the unbalance, producing voltage drops that
satisfy the needs of the applied voltages and the boundary conditions at the point of unbalance. The
mathematical expression for three unbalanced phasors as a function of the balanced phasor
components is as follows:
A=A0+A1+A2
B=B0+B1+B2
C=C0+C1+C2
The positive (1), negative (2), and zero (0) sequence vector components of any phase always have the
angular relationship with respect to one another as described by the vector diagram. The operator a
causes a counterclockwise rotation through an angle of 120 and is defined as a=1L20=- 0.5 + j0.866
These are assigned a counterclockwise direction of rotation in the time domain as illustrated. In the
space domain, the negative sequence phasors will produce exact l y the same results as a set of equal
magnitude phasors that are displaced from one another by 120 and that rotate clockwise with time.
The proof that a set of unbalanced vectors can be completely represented by N sets of balanced vectors
is seldom presented in texts dealing with the subject of symmetrical components. The derivation of
symmetrical component analysis is most meaningful when applied to three-phase systems, that is,
systems where N = 3. First, it is postulated that it might be possible to describe three arbitrary but
defined vectors, A, B, andC, by summing their respective symmetrical components (as previously
shown). Using the vector identities of Figure, the set of equations for the unbalanced vectors, A,B, and
C, can be simplified into the linear set of three equations involving three unknowns as follows:
A=A0+A1+A2
B A0 + a2= A1 + aA2
C=A0+aA1+aA2
Rearranging, as shown in the following three equations, produces three independent equations for
three unknowns (A0, A1, andA2), which is everything required to uniquely and completely describe
A0,A1, and A2, and therefore substantiate their existence A0 13-- = A+B+C
The merit of the symmetrical component analysis is that a relatively complicated and often unwieldy
problem can be solved by simply vectorially summing the solution to no more than three balanced,
independent networks. The three independent networks are referred to as the positive, negative, and
zero sequence networks and are illustrated in Figure for the system shown in Figure prior to
application of the line to ground fault. It should be noted in these diagrams that the system voltage
source (EL-N) and the load pre-fault open-circuit voltage (VD) are both balanced, positive sequence
voltages, and they appear only in the positive sequence network. Also, the impedance elements the
load (RD, XD) and the remainder of the system in each network are, as discussed in 3.2.3, intended to
represent the Thevenin equivalent impedances at the point in time of interest after the (unbalanced)
event. Typically, the three impedance networks are symbolically represented in shorthand fashion by
an empty block diagram for the phase most definitive of the condition being studied up to the
unbalance or other point of interest, as shown in Figure. Here, the final interconnections of the
networks are shown that satisfy the necessary boundary conditions describing the system at the point
of concern in this case, the line-to-ground fault on phase A. In all cases, the analyst can fill the block
diagrams with the proper sources and impedances, including loads, in each sequence network, properly
connect any fault or other impedance involved with the imbalance, and solve the single-phase loop
equations. The three current or voltage sequence responses are produced in each of the respective
networks, which then add vectorially to produce the resultant responses in the phase represented. The
other phase responses then can be obtained by adding vectorially the individual sequence solutions
shifted by the appropriate multiple of 120°.
Per-unit method
The per-unit method of calculation and its close companion, the percentage method, are well
documented. As a result, they will only be mentioned in passing here. Fundamentally, the per-unit
method and the percentage method amount to a shorthand calculating procedure for which all
equivalent system and circuit impedances are converted to a common kVA and kV base. This permits
the ready combination of circuit elements in a network where different system voltages are present
without the need to convert impedances each time responses are to be determined at a different
voltage level. Associated with each impedance element and its kVA base is a line-to-line kV base
(Usually the nominal line voltage at which the element is connected to the system), along with the
resulting base impedance and base current related by the following expressions:
NOTE: Each of the above relationships involving kVA base are sometimes expressed in terms of the
corresponding MVA base, where MVA base = kVA base/1000. This results in the convenient expression
of /MVA base for Z base for both three-phase and single-phase networks. To illustrate the use of the
per-unit method, consider the example in Figure 3-19. The first step in a per-unit calculation is the
arbitrary selection of the system base kVA. Second, the choice of base kV must be made at one voltage
level from which the base value at the other voltage level is dictated by the turn’s ratios of the
transformers in the network.
Per-unit representations
In power system calculations, variables are routinely expressed using the per-unit system instead of
actual quantities such as ohms, volts, etc. While both representations will yield identical results, the
per-unit method is generally preferred for hand calculations because it will do the job much more
conveniently, especially if the system being studied has several different voltage levels. Also, the
impedances of electric apparatus are usually given in per unit or percent by manufacturers. The per-
unit value of any quantity is its ratio to the chosen base quantity of the same dimensions, expressed as
a dimensionless number. For example, if base voltage is taken to be 4.16 kV, voltages of 3 740 V, 4 160
V, and 4 330 V will be 0.9, 1.00, and 1.04, respectively, when expressed in per unit on the given base
voltage. The chosen base voltage, 4.16 kV, is referred to as base voltage, 100% voltage, or unit voltage.
There are four base quantities in the per-unit system: base kVA, base volts, base ohms, and base
amperes. They are so related that the selection of any two of them determines the base values of the
remaining two. It is a common practice to assign study base values to kVA and voltage. Base amperes
and base ohms are then derived for each of the voltage levels in the system. In power system studies,
the base voltage is usually selected as the nominal system voltage at one point of the system, such as
the voltage rating of a generator or the nominal voltage at the delivery point of the utility supply. The
base kVA can be similarly taken as the kVA rating of one of the predominant pieces of system
equipment, such as a generator or a transformer; but usual practice is to choose a convenient round
number such as 10 000 for the base kVA. The latter selection has some advantage of commonality
when several studies are made, while the former choice means that at least one significant component
will not have to be converted to a new base.
The basic relationships for the electrical per unit quantities are as follows: per-unit volts
For three-phase systems, the nominal line-to-line system voltages are normally
used as the base voltages. The base kVA is assigned the three-phase kVA value. The derived values of the
remaining two quantities are as follows:
It is convenient in practice to convert directly from ohms to per-unit ohms

without first determining base ohms according to the following expression
For a three-phase system, the impedance is in ohms per phase, the base kVA is the three phase value, and the base
kV is line-to-line. Where two or more systems with different voltage levels are interconnected through
transformers, the kVA base is common for all systems; but the base voltage of each system is determined by the
turns ratio of the transformer connecting the systems, starting from the one point for which the base voltage has
been declared. Base ohms and base amperes will thus be correspondingly different for systems of different voltage
levels. Once the system quantities are expressed as per-unit values, the various systems with different voltage
levels can be treated as a single system during the solution for the unknown variables. Ideal transformers are
typically eliminated from the circuit model by a prudent choice of voltage bases. Only when reconverting the per-
unit values to actual voltage and current values is it necessary to recall that different base voltages exist
throughout the system. When impedance values of devices are expressed in terms of their own kVA and voltage
ratings, which differ from the base values of a circuit, it is necessary to refer these values to the system base
values. This typically happens due to equipment kVA bases being different from the chosen system kVA base. In
such cases, the per-unit impedance of the device must be changed to either a new base kVA or new base voltage,
or both, by the following equation:
Short Circuit Currents — General

The amount of current available in a short circuit fault is determined by the capacity of the system voltage sources
and the impedances of the system, including the fault. Voltage sources include the power supply (utility or on-site
generation) plus all rotating machines connected to the system at the time of the fault. A fault may be either an
arcing or bolted fault. In an arcing fault, part of the circuit voltage is consumed across the fault and the total fault
current is somewhat smaller than for a bolted fault, so the latter is the worst condition, and therefore is the value
sought in the fault calculations. Basically, the short circuit current is determined by applying Ohm’s Law to an
equivalent circuit consisting of a constant voltage source and time varying impedance. Time varying
impedance is used in order to account for the changes in the effective voltages of the rotating machines during the
fault. In an ac system, the resulting short circuit current starts out higher in magnitude than the final steady state
value and asymmetrical (due to the dc offset) about the X-axis. The current then decays toward a lower
symmetrical steady-state value. The time varying characteristic of the impedance accounts for the symmetrical
decay in current. The ratio of the reactive and resistive components (X/R ratio) accounts for the dc decay,
The fault current consists of an exponentially decreasing direct current component superimposed upon a decaying
alternating-current. The rate of decay of both the dc and ac components depends upon the ratio of reactance to
resistance (X/R) of the circuit. The greater this ratio, the longer the current remains higher than the steady-state
value which it would eventually reach. The total fault current is not symmetrical with respect to the time-axis
because of the direct-current component; hence it is called asymmetrical current. See Table
The dc component depends on the point on the voltage wave at which the fault is initiated for multiplying factors
that relate the rms asymmetrical value of Total Current to the rms symmetrical value, and the peak asymmetrical
value of Total Current to the rms symmetrical value. The ac component is not constant if rotating machines are
connected to the system because the impedance of this apparatus is not constant. The rapid variation of motor
and generator impedance is due to these factors: Sub transient Reactance (x "d ), determines fault current during
the first cycle, and after about 6 cycles this value increases to the transient reactance. It is used for the
calculation of the momentary interrupting and/or momentary withstand duties of equipment and/or system.
Transient Reactance (x 'd), which determines fault current after about 6 cycles and this value in 1/2 to 2 seconds
increases to the value of the synchronous reactance. It is used in the setting of the phase OC relays of generators
and medium voltage circuit breakers. Synchronous Reactance (x d ), which determines fault current after steady
state condition is reached. It has no effect as far as short circuit calculations are concerned but is useful in the
determination of relay settings. Transformer Impedance, in percent, is defined as that percent of rated primary
voltage that must be applied to the transformer to produce rated current flowing in the secondary, with secondary
shorted through zero resistance. Therefore, assuming the primary voltage can be sustained (generally referred to
as an infinite or unlimited supply), the maximum current a transformer can deliver to a fault condition is the
quantity of (100 divided by percent impedance) times the transformer rated secondary current. Limiting
the power source fault capacity will thereby reduce the maximum fault current from the transformer. The electric
network which determines the short circuit current consists of an ac driving voltage equal to the prefault system
voltage and impedance corresponding to that observed when looking back into the system from the fault location.
In medium and high voltage work, it is generally satisfactory to regard reactance as the entire impedance;
resistance may be neglected. However, this is normally permissible only if the X/R ratio of the medium voltage
system is equal to or more than 25. In low voltage (1000 volts and below) calculations, it is usually worthwhile to
attempt greater accuracy by including resistance with reactance in dealing with impedance. It is for this
reason, plus ease of manipulating the various impedances of cables and buses and transformers of the low voltage
circuits, that computer studies are recommended before final selection of apparatus and system arrangements.
When evaluating the adequacy of short circuit ratings of medium voltage circuit breakers and fuses, both the rms
symmetrical value and asymmetrical value of the short circuit current should be determined. For low voltage
circuit breakers and fuses, the rms symmetrical value should be determined along with either: the X/R ratio of the
fault at the device or the asymmetrical short circuit current.
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS/STUDY
Introduction
One of the most common computational procedures used in power system analysis is the load flow calculation.
The planning, design, and operation of power systems require such calculations to analyze the steady-state
(quiescent) performance of the power system under various operating conditions and to study the effects of
changes in equipment configuration. These load flow solutions are performed using computer programs designed
specifically for this purpose. The basic load flow question is this: Given the load power consumption at all buses of
a known electric power system configuration and the power production at each generator, find the power flow in
each line and transformer of the interconnecting network and the voltage magnitude and phase angle at each bus.
Analyzing the solution of this problem for numerous conditions helps ensure that the power system is designed to
satisfy its performance criteria while incurring the most favorable investment and operation costs.
Some examples of the uses of load flow studies are to determine the following:
— Component or circuit loadings

— Steady-state bus voltages
— Reactive power flows
— Transformer tap settings
— System losses
— Generator exciter/regulator voltage set points
— Performance under emergency conditions
Modern systems are complex and have many paths or branches over which power can flow. Such systems form
networks of series and parallel paths. Electric power flow in these networks divides among the branches until a
balance is reached in accordance with Kirchoff’s laws. Computer programs to solve load flows are divided into two
types—static (offline) and dynamic (real time). Most load flow studies for system analysis are based on static
network models. Real time load flows (online) that incorporate data input from the actual networks are typically
used by utilities in automatic Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems. Such systems are used
primarily as operating tools for optimization of generation, var control, dispatch, losses, and tie line control. This
discussion is concerned with only static network models and their analysis. Because the load flow problem pertains
to balanced, steady-state operation of power systems, a single-phase, positive sequence model of the power
system is used. Three phase load flow analysis software is available; but it is not normally needed for routine
industrial power system studies. A load flow calculation determines the state of the power system for a given load
and generation distribution. It represents a steady-state condition as if that condition had been held fixed for some
time. In actuality, line flows and bus voltages fluctuate constantly by small amounts because loads change
constantly as lights, motors, and other loads are turned on and off. However, these small fluctuations can be
ignored in calculating the steady-state effects on system equipment.
As the load distribution, and possibly the network, will vary considerably during different time periods, it may be
necessary to obtain load flow solutions representing different system conditions such as peak load, average load,
or light load. These solutions will be used to determine either optimum operating modes for normal conditions,
such as the proper setting of voltage control devices, or how the system will respond to abnormal conditions, such
as outages of lines or transformers. Load flows form the basis for determining both when new equipment
additions are needed and the effectiveness of new alternatives to solve present deficiencies and meet future
system requirements. The load flow model is also the basis for several other types of studies such as short circuit,
stability, motor starting, and harmonic studies. The load flow model supplies the network data and an initial
steady-state condition for these studies. Under steady state conditions, a load flow study determines real and
reactive power flow and bus voltages in all power system circuits. The load flow solution gives the nodal voltages
and phase
System representation
Utility and industrial plant electrical systems can be extensive. A simplified visual means of representing the
complete system is essential to understanding the operation of the system under its various possible operating
modes. The system single-line diagram serves this purpose. The single-line diagram consists of a drawing
identifying buses and interconnecting lines. Loads, generators, transformers, reactors, capacitors, etc., are all
shown in their respective places in the system. It is necessary to show equipment parameters as well as their
relationship to each other. It shows the operating condition to be studied in terms of which breakers are open or
closed. Buses may be named, numbered, or both. Interconnecting lines are usually shown with their impedance
values entered or cross-referenced with tables of values. Equipment associated with a bus is shown connected to
that bus. For instance, generators are shown connected to their bus with their equipment parameters specified, as
illustrated in Figure. Similarly, a load is shown connected to bus. Motor loads are often indicated separately to aid
in their modeling in short circuit and other studies. Each line originates on a bus and terminates on a different bus.
Transformers, like lines, are shown between two buses with the primary connected to one bus and the secondary
to the other. Information to convey an off-nominal turns ratio should be given when applicable. Drawing format
will vary depending on the computer programs used and the preference of the users, but the single-line diagram
should give the necessary network information in a clear, concise manner.
Input data
The system information, shown on the single-line diagram, defines the system configuration and the location and
size of loads, generation, and equipment. It is organized into a list of data that defines the mathematical model for
each power system component and how the components are connected together. The preparation of this data file
is the foundation of all load flow analysis, as well as other analysis requiring the network model such as short-
circuits and stability analysis. It is therefore essential that the data preparation be performed in a consistent,
thorough manner. Data values must be as accurate as possible. Rounding off includes enough decimal places in
certain parameters, can lead to erroneous results. Influential parameters must not be ignored. The data is divided
into the following categories, as this organization is typical of most load flow analysis software: system data, bus
data, generator data, branch data, and transformer data. In order to illustrate the approach required when using a
typical program, the details of one such system will be described.
System data
Most load flow programs perform their calculations using a per unit representation of the system rather than
working with volts, amperes, and ohms. The input of data to the program may either be in per unit or in physical
units, depending on program convention. Converting the system data to a per unit representation requires the
selection of a base kVA and base voltage. Selection of the base kVA and base voltage specifies the base impedance
and current. The system data specifies the base kVA (or MVA) for the entire system. A base kVA of 10 000 kVA (10
MVA) is often used for industrial studies. For utility systems, the accepted convention is a base of 100 MVA.
The base kV is chosen for each voltage level. Selecting the nominal voltage to be the base voltage simplifies the
analyses and reduces the chance of errors in interpretation of results.
Bus data
The bus data describes each bus and the load and shunts connected to that bus. The data includes the following:
— Bus number
— Bus name
— Bus type
— Load
— Shunt
— Per unit voltage and angle
— Bus base kV
The bus number is normally the primary index to the information about the bus. For example, it is used to define
the line connections in the line data and will be used to get output about a bus during program execution. The bus
name is normally used only for informational purposes, allowing the user to give a descriptive name to the bus to
make program output more easily understood. Some programs allow the use of the bus name as the primary index
The bus type is a program code to allow the program to properly organize the buses for load flow solution. This
organization varies among programs and may be handled internally by the program. Typically, the four bus types
are as follows:
a) Load buses
b) Generator buses
c) Swing buses
d) Disconnected buses
The terms “load” bus and “generator” bus should not be taken literally. A load bus is any bus that does not have a
generator. A load bus need not have load; it may simply be an interconnection point for two or more lines. A
generator bus could also have load connected to it. The “swing” or “slack” bus is a special type of generator bus
that is needed by the solution process. The swing generator adjusts its scheduled power to supply the system MW
and MVar losses that are not otherwise accounted for. This is explained in more detail in the section on load flow
solution. There is normally only one swing bus. In utility studies, a large generator is picked as the swing bus. In
industrial studies, the utility supply is usually represented as the swing bus. A “disconnected” bus is a bus that is
temporarily reenergized. It is not included in the load flow solution and must not have in-service lines connected to
it. The data is retained so the bus could be reenergized (connected to the system) later in the studies. Load is
normally entered in
MW and Mvar at nominal voltage Normally, the load is treated as a constant MVA, that is, independent of voltage.
In some cases, a constant current or constant impedance component of load will also be entered so that the load is
a function of voltage as explained in 4.9. Shunts generally are entered in Mvar at nominal voltage. Care must be
taken to ensure the proper sign convention is used to distinguish reactors from capacitors as defined for the
particular load flow program being used. The bus base kV is often entered to allow output reports to show voltages
in kV and currents in amperes.
Generator data
Generator data is entered for each generator in the system including the system swing generator. The data defines
the generator power output and how voltage is controlled by the generator. The data items normally entered are
as follows: — Real power output in MW
— Maximum reactive power output in Mvar (i.e., machine maximum reactive limit)
— Minimum reactive power output in Mvar (i.e., machine minimum reactive limit)
— Scheduled voltage in per unit
— Generator in-service/out-of-service code
Other data items that may be included are the generator MVA base and the generator’s internal impedance for
use in short-circuit and dynamic studies. The use of the above data items to determine the generator voltage and
reactive power output is discussed in 6.4. Some programs may allow a generator to regulate a remote bus voltage.
Branch data
Data is also entered for each branch in the system. Here the term “branch” refers to all elements that connect two
buses including transmission lines, cables, series reactors, series capacitors, and transformers. The data items
include the following:
— Resistance
— Reactance
— Charging susceptance (shunt capacitance) — Line ratings
— Line in-service/out-of-service code
— Line-connected shunts
Lines are represented by a model with series resistance and reactance and one-half of the charging susceptance
placed on each end of the line. The resistance, reactance, and susceptance are usually input in either per unit or
percent, depending on program convention. Line rating is normally input in amperes or MVA. Current ratings can
be converted to
MVA with the formula:
ratingMVA 3 X kVBASE XratingA

= -------------------------------------------------------
1000
A series reactor, series capacitor, or transformer would not have a charging susceptance term. The modeling of the
charging susceptance is often ignored for short overhead lines and industrial plant systems.
Transformer data
Additional data is required for transformers. This can either be entered as part of the branch data or as a separate
data category depending on the particular load flow program being used. This additional data usually includes the
following: — Tap setting in per unit
— Tap angle in degrees
— Maximum tap position
— Minimum tap position
— Scheduled voltage range with tap step size or a fixed scheduled voltage using a continuous tap approximation
The last three data items are needed only for load tap changing (LTC) transformers that automatically vary their
tap setting to control voltage on one side of the transformer. The organization of transformer tap data requires an
understanding of the tap convention used by the load flow program to ensure the representation gives the correct
boost or buck in voltage. Transformers whose rated primary or secondary voltages do not match the system
nominal (base kV) voltages on the terminal buses will require an off-nominal tap representation in the load flow
(and possibly require corresponding adjustment of the transformer impedance).
LOAD FLOW CALCULATION METHOD
The load flow calculation allows the determination of the voltages, currents, active and reactive powers
established and flowing on the electrical system, starting from the absorbed power on each bus bar. In addition
the calculation gives the power losses in system components (cables and transformers). The load flow study of a
power system can be performed as follows: given the desired power at each bus in the system
P (desired) = PG - PL
Q (desired) = QG - QL
Where PG, QG are generations, PL, QL are loads, find the bus voltages V such that the desired power is matched by
the power absorbed by the power network allowing an error (or mismatch) within a certain, specified range.
A power network in the load flow study is represented by its Y-matrix:
I = YV
or Ii=∑YijV
(i = 1, … n ).j=1
[I] is the vector of total positive sequence currents flowing into the network nodes (buses) [V] is the vector of
positive sequence voltages at the network nodes (buses) [Y] is the network admittance matrix. Above Equation is a
linear algebraic equation with complex coefficients. If either [I] or [V] were known, the solution for the unknown
quantities could be obtained by application of widely used numerical solution techniques for linear equations.
Partly because of tradition and partly because of the physical characteristics of generation and load, the terminal
conditions at each bus are normally described in terms of active and reactive power (P and Q). The bus current at
bus i is related to these quantities as follows:
where * designates the conjugate of a complex quantity. Combining both Equations
Equation is nonlinear and cannot be readily solved by closed-form matrix techniques.

Because of this, load flow solutions are obtained by procedures involving iterative
techniques.
Iterative solution algorithms the Gauss-Seidel technique and the Newton-Raphson technique are the widely used
techniques. The preferred techniques used by most commercial load flow software are variations of the Newton
technique. All of these techniques solve bus equations in admittance form, as described in the previous section.
This system of equations has gained widespread application because of the simplicity of data preparation and the
ease with which the bus admittance matrix can be formed and changed in subsequent cases.
In a load flow study, the primary parameters are as follows:
P is the active power into the network
Q is the reactive power into the network |V | is the magnitude of bus voltage
Φ is the angle of bus voltage referred to a common reference
In order to define the load flow problem to be solved, it is necessary to specify two of the four quantities at each
bus. For generating units, it is reasonable to specify P and |V | because these quantities are controllable through
governor and excitation controls, respectively. For loads, one generally specifies the real power demand P and the
reactive power Q. Since there are losses in the transmission system and these losses are not known before the load
flow solution is obtained, it is necessary to retain one bus where P is not specified. At this bus, called a swing bus,
|V | as well as Φ are specified. Since Φ is specified (that is, held constant during the load flow solution), it
is the reference angle for the system. The swing bus is therefore also called the reference bus. Since the real
power, P, and reactive power, Q, are not specified at the swing bus, they are free to adjust to “cover” transmission
losses in the system. The classifications “generator bus” and “load bus” should not be taken as absolute. There will,
for example, be occasions where a pure load bus may be specified by P and |V |. Bus specification is the tool with
which the engineer manipulates the load flow solution to obtain the desired information. The objective of the load
flow solution is to determine the two quantities at each bus that are not specified. The generator specification of
holding the bus voltage constant and calculating the reactive power output will be overridden in the load flow
solution if the generator reactive output reaches its maximum or minimum var limit. In this case, the generator
reactive power will be held at the respective limit, and the bus voltage will be allowed to vary. Gauss-Seidel
iterative technique Descriptions of load flow solution techniques can become rather complicated, due more
to the notation required for complex arithmetic rather than the basic concepts of the solution method. In the
following sections, therefore, the basic techniques are developed by The Gauss-Seidel solution algorithm, although
not the most powerful, is the easiest to understand. Accelerated gauss-seidel Method. It is found in practice that
the process of convergence due to G-S method is slow i.e , it requires a large number of iterations before a solution
is obtained. The process of convergence can be speeded up if the voltage correction during consecutive iteration is
modified. A suitable value of α for a particular system can be obtains by running trial load flows. α = 1.6 for general
recommended value for most of the systems.
Newton-Raphson iterative technique

Not all load flow problems can be solved efficiently using the Gauss-Seidel technique. For some problems, this
scheme converges rather slowly. For others, it does not converge at all. Problems that cannot be solved using the
Gauss-Seidel technique may often be solved using the Newton-Raphson technique. This approach utilizes the
partial derivatives of the load flow relationships to estimate the changes in the independent variables required to
find the solution. In general, the Newton- Raphson technique achieves convergence using less iteration than the
Gauss-Seidel technique. However, the computational effort per iteration is somewhat greater. The Newton-
Raphson method is considered to be the most useful of all methods proposed so far. Load flow analysis by
Newton-Raphson method begins with the linearization of the nonlinear system of equations. The coefficients of
these linear equations are arranged in a matrix form known as Jacobian matrix.
The absorbed power can be calculated by the following equation:
where ε is the tolerance or deviance defined by the user, the load flow problem has converged. For generator
buses, instead of Q, the bus voltage is checked against the desired bus voltage. The tolerance can be defined in %,
pu or kVA, and the relationship among them is as follows:
εpu = ε% / 100 = εkVA / base kVA

As the accuracy and the convergence of a load flow study are directly controlled by the tolerance, it is very
important to choose the proper values for them. If the load at a bus is too small compared to the others, the load
flow results may be inaccurate even if they are converging. The value of base power used in simulations is 100,000
kVA. The used tolerance value is 0.01% (10 kVA).
Comparison of load flow solution techniques

The techniques described in the previous sub-clauses are the basic load flow solution techniques. There are many
variations and improvements to these techniques that have been developed and incorporated into load flow
programs to improve the starting or convergence characteristics. Although it is useful to understand how load flow
solution techniques work, it is more important to understand the characteristics they exhibit. Because their
convergence characteristics are dependent upon network, load, and generator conditions, each of the
iterative techniques discussed has its own strengths and weaknesses. Gauss-Seidel methods generally exhibit poor
convergence characteristics when compared to Newton methods and thus are no longer widely used for load flow
studies. Most of the research into load flow solution techniques has centered on Newton methods. Variations of
the Newton methods have been developed to overcome the weaknesses of the original methods, especially the
ability to converge from a poor initial voltage estimate. The modified Newton methods employed by commercial
load flow programs combine good convergence characteristics and solution algorithm robustness. Details on such
algorithms are available in the references.
APPROXIMATION TO NEWTON-RAPHON METHOD

A small change in phase angle changes the flow of active power and does not affect much the flow of reactive
power. Similarly a small change in nodal voltage affects the flow of reactive power whereas active power
practically doesn’t change
[▲P] = [J1 0 ][ ▲Φ]
[▲Q] [0 J4][I ▲V I]
Fast-Decoupled Load Flow
This is an extension of Newton-raphon method formulated in polar coordinates with certain approximation which
results into a fast algorithm for load flow solution.
Load flow analysis

A load flow solution determines the bus voltages and the flows in all branches for a given set of conditions. A load
flow study is a series of such calculations made when certain equipment parameters are set at different values, or
circuit configuration is changed by opening or closing breakers, adding or removing a line, etc. Load flow studies
are performed to check the operation of an existing system under normal or outage conditions, to see if the
existing system is capable of supplying planned additional loads, or to check and compare new alternatives for
system additions to supply new load or improve system performance. Generally, the study engineer has a
predefined set of criteria that the system must meet. These include the following:
— Voltage criteria, such as defined in IEEE Std 141-19932
— Flows on lines and transformers must be within defined thermal ratings
— Generator reactive outputs must be within the limits defined by the generator capability curves
The voltage criteria are usually divided into an acceptable voltage range for normal conditions and a wider range of
acceptable voltage under outage conditions. The thermal criteria for lines and transformers may also have such a
division, allowing for a temporary overload capability due to the thermal time constant of the equipment or
additional forced cooling capabilities of transformers. A study normally begins with the preparation of base cases
to represent the different operating modes of the system or plant. The operating condition normally chosen is
maximum load. (Here maximum load refers to the maximum amount of coincident loaded, not the sum of all the
loads. See 4.9 for an explanation of load diversity and load modeling.) When maximum load occurs at different
times on different parts of the system, several base cases may be needed. The base cases should represent realistic
operating conditions. Abnormal conditions and worst-case scenarios will be addressed later in the study. The base
cases are analyzed to determine if voltages and flows are within acceptable ranges. Sample outputs are shown in
6.6. If voltages or overload problems are noted, system changes can be made to the load flow data and the case
resolved to see if the changes are effective in remedying the problem. To remedy low voltage problems, possible
changes include the following:
Change in transformer tap positions

— Increase in generator schedule voltage
— Addition of shunt capacitors
— System reconfiguration to shift load to less heavily loaded lines
— Disconnection of shunt reactors
— Addition of lines or transformers
To remedy heavy line or transformer loadings, most of the same remedies apply. In general, the first two of the
above remedies will not help heavy loadings due to large real power (watt) flows. Real power flows from the
generators to the loads. Real power flow is determined by the phase angle of the supply bus leading the phase
angle of the load bus, with voltage magnitudes having a secondary effect. However, reactive power flow is
primarily determined by the voltage magnitude with reactive power flowing from the higher voltage bus to the
lower voltage bus. Real and reactive power flow, being primarily influenced by different constraints, can flow in
different directions on the same line. Transformer off-nominal taps can change the relative relationship of the
voltage on the primary and secondary bus and thus can change the reactive power flow, while the real power flow
is largely unaffected by a change in tap position. When the base case voltages and flows are in the desired range,
the system must be examined to check operation under abnormal conditions (contingency analysis). These
conditions include the following:
— Loss of a transmission line or cable
— Loss of a transformer
— Loss of a generator
— Abnormal supply conditions
When the load flow model is changed, for example, to represent a line outage, a new solution is obtained. The
voltage and flows are checked against their respective criterion. If necessary, further system changes are made to
correct the problems noted. In contingency analysis, it is important to note that several outages may cause system
problems; but the different remedies applied may not help equally for all outages. To minimize the number and
cost of the remedies, it is necessary to choose those remedies that have the most beneficial effects for the most
outages. The load flow analysis is used to design a system that has a good voltage profile and acceptable line
loadings during normal operation and that will continue to operate acceptably when one or more lines
become inoperative due to line damage, lightning strokes, failure of transformers, etc. Performing a series of load
flow cases and analyzing the results provides operating intelligence in a short time that might take years of actual
operating experience to obtain. In addition to the benefits described above, a study of reactive power flows on the
branches can lead to reduced line losses and improved voltage distribution. Reduction in kVA demand due to
power factor correction can lead to lower utility bills for an industrial plant. The size and placement of power factor
correction capacitors and the setting of generator scheduled voltages and transformer tap positions can be studied
with load flows. Knowledge of branch flows supplies the protection engineer with requirements for proper relay
settings. The load flow studies can also provide data for automatic load and demand control, if needed.
The load flow is also used to check the effects of future load growth and the effectiveness of planned additions.
These studies are performed in the same way as studies of the present system. The future loads are determined
and entered into the model. Base case conditions are studied and additions made, if necessary, to get the system
to meet the performance criteria. Then outage conditions are studied and again system changes may be required.
Studies of future systems vary in that there are usually more alternative ways of solving the problems
encountered. The load flow is the tool that allows the alternatives to be compared in terms of their effectiveness
under normal and contingency conditions. Coupled with other studies as well as cost and reliability data, the
results lead to the selection of the best alternative.
Motor starting Study (Voltage Dip Study)
Motors on modern industrial systems are becoming increasingly larger. Some are considered large even in
comparison to the total capacity of large industrial power systems. Starting large motors, especially across-the-line,
can cause severe disturbances to the motor and any locally connected load, and also to buses electrically remote
from the point of motor starting. Ideally, a motor-starting study should be made before a large motor is purchased.
A starting voltage requirement and preferred locked rotor current should be stated as part of the motor
specification. A motor-starting study should be made if the motor horsepower exceeds approximately 15-30% of
the supply transformer(s) base kVA rating, if no generators are present. If generation is present, and no other
sources are involved, a study should be considered whenever the motor horsepower exceeds 10-15% of the
generator kVA rating, depending on actual generator characteristics. The study should also recognize contingent
condition(s), i.e., the loss of a source (if applicable). It may be necessary to make a study for smaller horsepower
sizes depending on the daily fluctuation of nominal voltage, voltage level, size and length of the motor feeder
cable, amount of load, regulation of the supply voltage, the impedance and tap ratio of the supply transformer(s),
load torque versus motor torque, and the allowable starting time. Finally, some applications may involve starting
large groups of smaller motors of sufficient collective size to impact system voltage regulation during the starting
interval. A brief discussion of major problems associated with starting large motors, or groups of motors, and
therefore, of significance in power system design and evaluation follows.
Voltage dips
Probably the most widely recognized and studied effect of motor-starting is the voltage dip experienced
throughout an industrial power system as a direct result of starting large motors. Available accelerating torque
drops appreciably at the motor bus as voltage dips to a lower value, extending the starting interval and affecting,
sometimes adversely, overall motor-starting performance. Acceptable voltage for motor-starting depends on
motor and load torque characteristics. Requirements for minimum starting voltage can vary over a wide range,
depending on the application. (Voltages can range from 80% or lower to 95% or higher.) During motor-starting, the
voltage level at the motor terminals should be maintained, as a minimum, at approximately 80% of rated voltage
or above for a standard National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) design B motor (as specified in
NEMA MG 1-1993) having a standard 150% starting torque and with a constant torque load applied. This value
results from examination of speed-torque characteristics of this type motor (150% starting torque at full voltage)
and the desire to successfully accelerate a fully loaded motor at reduced voltage (that is, torque varies with the
square of the voltage When other motors are affected, or when lower shaft loadings are involved, the minimum
permissible voltage may be either higher or lower, respectively. The speed-torque characteristics of the starting
motor along with any other affected motors and all related loads should be examined to specifically determine
minimum acceptable voltage. Assuming reduced voltage permits adequate accelerating torque, it should also be
verified that the longer starting interval required at reduced torque caused by a voltage dip does not result in the
I2t damage limit of the motor being exceeded. Several other problems may arise on the electrical power system
due to the voltage dips caused by motor-starting. Motors that are running normally on the system, for example,
will slow down in response to the voltage dip occurring when a large motor is started. The running machines must
be able to reaccelerate once the machine being started reaches operating speed. When the voltage depression
caused by the starting motor is severe, the loading on the running machines may exceed their breakdown torque
(at the reduced voltage), and they may decelerate significantly or even stall before the starting interval is
concluded. The decelerating machines all impose heavy current demands that only compound the original distress
caused by the machine that was started. The result is a “dominoing” voltage depression that can lead to the loss of
all load. In general, if the motors on the system are standard NEMA design B, the speed-torque characteristics
(200% breakdown torque at full voltage) should prevent a stall, provided the motor terminal voltage does not drop
below about 71% of motor nameplate voltage. This is a valid guideline to follow anytime the shaft load does not
exceed 100% rated, since the developed starting torque is again proportional to the terminal voltage squared
(V2), and the available torque at 71% voltage would thus be slightly above 100%. If motors other than NEMA
design B motors are used on the system, a similar criterion can be established to evaluate reacceleration following
a motor-starting voltage dip based on the exact speed-torque characteristics of each particular motor. Other types
of loads, such as electronic devices and sensitive control equipment, may be adversely effected during motor-
starting. There is a wide range of variation in the amount of voltage drop that can be tolerated by static drives and
computers. Voltage fluctuations may also cause objectionable fluctuations in lighting. Tolerable voltage limits
should be obtained from the specific equipment manufacturers. By industry standards (see NEMA ICS 1-1993,
NEMA ICS 2-1993, NEMA ICS 3-1993, NEMA ICS 4-1993, NEMA ICS 6-1993), ac control devices are not required to
pick-up at voltages below 85% of rated nameplate voltage, whereas dc control devices must operate dependably
(i.e., pick-up) at voltages above 80% of their rating. Critical control operations may, therefore, encounter difficulty
during motor-starting periods where voltage dips are excessive. A motor-starting study might be required to
determine if this is a problem with thoughts to using devices rated at 110 V rather than the normal 115 V nominal
devices. Contactors are required to hold-in with line voltage as low as 80% of their rating (NEMA Standards).
The actual dropout voltages of contactors used in industrial applications commonly range between 60-70% of
rated voltage, depending on the manufacturer. Voltages in this range, therefore, may be appropriate and are
sometimes used as the criteria for the lower limit that contactors can tolerate. Depending on where lighting buses
are located, with respect to large starting motors, this may be a factor requiring a motor-starting study. Table
summarizes some critical system voltage levels of interest when performing a motor-starting study for the purpose
of evaluating the effects of voltage dips.
Weak source generation
Smaller power systems are usually served by limited capacity sources, which generally magnify voltage drop
problems on motor-starting, especially when large motors are involved. Small systems can also have on-site
generation, which causes an additional voltage drop due to the relatively higher impedance of the local generators
during the (transient) motor-starting interval. The type of voltage regulator system applied with the generators can
dramatically influence motor-starting. A motor-starting study can be useful, even for analyzing the performance of
small systems. Certain digital computer programs can accurately model generator transient behavior and
exciter/regulator response under motor starting conditions, providing meaningful results and conclusions.
Special torque requirements

Sometimes special loads must be accelerated under carefully controlled conditions without exceeding specified
torque limitations of the equipment. An example of this is starting a motor connected to a load through gearing.
This application requires a special period of low torque cushioned acceleration to allow slack in the gears and
couplings to be picked up without damage to the equipment. Certain computer-aided motor-starting studies allow
an instant-by-instant shaft output torque tabulation for comparison to allowable torque limits of the equipment.
This study can be used for selecting a motor or a starting method, or both, with optimum speed-torque
characteristics for the application. The results of a detailed study are used for sizing the starting resistors for a
wound rotor motor, or in analyzing rheostat control for a starting wound rotor motor that might be used in a
cushioned starting application involving mechanical gearing or a coupling system that has torque transmitting
limitations. High-inertia loads increase motor-starting time, and heating in the motor due to high currents drawn
during starting can be intolerable. A computer-aided motor-starting study allows accurate values of motor current
and time during acceleration to be calculated. This makes it possible to determine if thermal limits of standard
motors will be exceeded for longer than normal starting intervals. Other loads have special starting torque
requirements or accelerating time limits that require special high starting torque (and inrush) motors.
Additionally, the starting torque of the load or process may not permit low inrush motors in situations where these
motors might reduce the voltage dip caused by starting a motor having standard inrush characteristics. A simple
inspection of the motor and load speed torque curves is not sufficient to determine whether such problems exist.
This is another area where the motor torque and accelerating time study can be useful.
Recommendations Voltage dips

A motor-starting study can expose and identify the extent of a voltage drop problem. The voltage at each bus in
the system can, for example, be readily determined by a digital computer study. Equipment locations likely to
experience difficulty during motor-starting can be immediately determined. In situations where a variety of
equipment voltage ratings are available, the correct rating for the application can be selected. Circuit changes, such
as off-nominal tap settings for distribution transformers and larger than standard conductor-sized cable, can also
be readily evaluated. On a complex power system, this type of detailed analysis is very difficult to accomplish with
time-consuming hand solution methods. Several methods of minimizing voltage dip on starting motors are based
on the fact that during starting time, a motor draws an inrush current directly proportional to terminal voltage;
therefore, a lower voltage causes the motor to require less current, thereby reducing the voltage dip.
Autotransformer starters are a very effective means of obtaining a reduced voltage during starting with standard
taps ranging from 50% to 80% of normal rated voltage. A motor starting study is used to select the proper voltage
tap and the lower line current inrush for the electrical power system during motor start. Other special reduced-
voltage starting methods include resistor or reactor starting, part-winding starting, and wye (Y)-start delta ( D) -run
motors. All are examined by an appropriate motor-starting study, and the best method for the particular
application involved can be selected. In all reduced voltage starting methods, torque available for accelerating the
load is a very critical consideration once bus voltage levels are judged otherwise acceptable. Only 25% torque
is available, for example, with 50% of rated voltage applied at the motor terminals. Any problems associated with
reduced starting torque imposed by special starting methods are automatically uncovered by a motor starting
study. Another method of reducing high inrush currents when starting large motors is a capacitor starting system.
This maintains acceptable voltage levels throughout the system. With this method, the high inductive component
of normal reactive starting current is offset by the addition, during the starting period only, of capacitors to the
motor bus. This differs from the practice of applying capacitors for running motor power factor correction. A
motor-starting study can provide information to allow optimum sizing of the starting capacitors and determination
of the length of time the capacitor must be energized. The study can also establish whether the capacitor and
motor can be switched together, or because of an excessive voltage drop that might result from the impact of
capacitor transient charging current when added to the motor inrush current, the capacitor must be energized
momentarily ahead of the motor. The switching procedure can appreciably affect the cost of final installation.
Use of special starters or capacitors to minimize voltage dips can be an expensive method of maintaining voltage at
acceptable levels (see Harbaugh and Ponsting [B6]). Where possible, off-nominal tap settings for distribution
transformers are an effective, economical solution for voltage dips. By raising no-load voltage in areas of the
system experiencing difficulties during motor-starting, the effect of the voltage dip can often be minimized. In
combination with a load flow study, a motor-starting study can provide information to assist in selecting proper
taps and ensure that light load voltages are not excessively high. The motor-starting study can be used to prove the
effectiveness of several other solutions to the voltage dip problem as well. With a wound rotor motor,
differing values of resistance are inserted into the motor circuit at various times during the starting interval to
reduce maximum inrush (and accordingly starting torque) to some desired value. Figure 9-2 shows typical speed-
torque characteristic curves for a wound rotor motor. With appropriate switching times (dependent on motor
speed) of resistance values, practically any desired speed-torque (starting) characteristic can be obtained. A
motor-starting study aids in choosing optimum current and torque values for a wound rotor motor application
whether resistances are switched in steps by timing relays or continuously adjusted values obtained through a
liquid rheostat feedback starting control. For small loads, voltage stabilizers are sometimes used. These devices
provide essentially instantaneous response to voltage fluctuations by “stabilizing” line voltage variations of as great
as ±15% to within ±1% at the load. The cost and limited loading capability of these devices, however, have
restricted their use mostly to controlling circuit power supply applications. Special inrush motors can be purchased
for a relatively small price increase over standard motors. These motors maintain nearly the same speed-
torque characteristics as standard machines, but the inrush current is limited (usually to about 4.6 times full load
current compared with 6 times full load current for a standard motor).
Analyzing starting requirements
A speed-torque and accelerating time study often in conjunction with the previously discussed voltage dip study
permits a means of exploring a variety of possible motor speed torque characteristics. This type of motor-starting
study also confirms that starting times are within acceptable limits. The accelerating time study assists in
establishing the necessary thermal damage characteristics of motors or verifies that machines with locked-rotor
protection supervised by speed switches will not experience nuisance tripping on starting. The speed
torque/accelerating time motor-starting study is also used to verify that special motor torque and/or inrush
characteristics specified for motors to be applied on the system will produce the desired results. Mechanical
equipment requirements and special ratings necessary for motor-starting auxiliary equipment are based on
information developed from a motor-starting study.
Types of studies
From the previous discussion, it is apparent that, depending on the factors of concern in any specific motor-
starting situation, more than one type of motor-starting study can be required.
The voltage drop snapshot

One method of examining the effect of voltage dip during motor-starting is to ensure the maximum instantaneous
drop that occurs leaves bus voltages at acceptable levels throughout the system. This is done by examining the
power system that corresponds to the worst-case voltage. Through appropriate system modeling, this study can be
performed by various calculating methods using the digital computer. The so-called voltage drop snapshot study is
useful only for finding system voltages. Except for the recognition of generator transient impedances when
appropriate, machine inertias, load characteristics, and other transient effects are usually ignored. This type of
study, while certainly an approximation, is often sufficient for many applications.
The detailed voltage profile

This type of study allows a more exact examination of the voltage drop situation. Regulator response, exciter
operation, and, sometimes, governor action are modeled to accurately represent transient behavior of local
generators. This type of study is similar to a simplified transient stability analysis and can be considered a series of
voltage snapshots throughout the motor-starting interval including the moment of minimum or worst-case
voltage.
The speed-torque and acceleration time analysis

Perhaps the most exacting analysis for motor-starting conditions is the detailed speed-torque analysis.
Similar to a transient stability study (some can also be used to accurately investigate motor-starting),
speed-torque analysis provides electrical and accelerating torque calculations for specified time intervals
during the motor-starting period. Motor slip, load and motor torques, terminal voltage magnitude and
angle, and the complex value of motor current drawn are values to be examined at time zero and at the
end of each time interval. Under certain circumstances, even across-the-line starting, the motor may not
be able to break away from standstill, or it may stall at some speed before acceleration is complete.
speed- torque analysis, especially when performed using a computer program, and possibly in
combination with one or more previously discussed studies, can predict these problem areas and allow
corrections to be made before difficulties arise. When special starting techniques are necessary, such as
autotransformer reduced voltage starting, speed-torque analysis can account for the autotransformer
magnetizing current and it can determine the optimum time to switch the transformer out of the circuit.
The starting performance of wound rotor motors is examined through this type of study.
HAZARDOUS AREA CLASSIFICATION
General Purpose
Hazardous area classification applies to those locations where flammable gases or vapors, flammable
liquids, or combustible liquids are processed or handled and where their release into the atmosphere
may result in their ignition by electrical systems or equipment. Areas in which combustible material is or
may be present in the atmosphere in sufficient concentration to produce an ignitable mixture such as to
require special precautions for the construction and use of electrical equipment and materials shall be
defined as hazardous. A flammable atmosphere is a mixture of flammable gas, vapor or dust with air in
such proportion that, without any further admixture, it will burn when ignited.
The flammable atmosphere concerned in this manual for the Refinery and/or Chemical Process Project is
from petroleum fluids or other flammable fluids, which are similar in physical characteristics to
petroleum fluids, and is defined as Class I by NEC Standards and Codes. Areas within the battery limits
shall be classified for the degree and the extend of hazard from flammable material in accordance with
API RP 500 and/or 505 “Classification of Location for Electrical Installations at Petroleum Facilities” and
for the purpose of selecting type of electrical equipment in hazardous areas shall follow IEC 60079
“Electrical Apparatus for Explosive Gas Atmospheres” or NEC.
The following National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) bulletins and IEC standards may be referred to
in the manner and to the extent indicated in NEC and API RP 500 and/or 505.
No. 30 Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code

No. 321 Standard on Basic Classification of Flammable and Combustible Liquids
No. 325 Fire Hazard Properties of Flammable Liquids, Gases and Volatile Solids
No. 496 Standard for Purged and Pressurized Enclosures for Electrical Equipment
No. 497 Recommended practice for Classification of Flammable Liquids, Gases, or Vapor and of
Hazardous (Classified) Locations for Electrical Installations in Chemical Process Area

No. 499 Recommended practice for Classification of Combustible Dusts and of Hazardous
Classified Locations for Electrical
Installations in Chemical Process Area

IEC 60079-10 Classification of Hazardous Area
IEC 61241-1 Electrical Apparatus for Use in the Presence of Combustible Dust
DEFINITIONS
Definitions which are more frequently used have been listed below for ease of reference:
• Explosive Gas Atmosphere: A mixture with air of flammable materials in the form of gas, vapour,
or mist, in which, after ignition, combustion spreads throughout the unconsummated mixture.
•Flammable material: Material consisting of flammable vapor, liquid and/or mist.
•Combustible Liquids - A liquid having a flash point at or above 38°C (100°F)
•Flammable (explosive) limits: The lower and upper percentages by volume of concentration of gas in a
gas-air mixture that will form an ignitable mixture.
•Flammable (explosive) Range: Flammable vapor or gas and air mixture concentrations between the
upper and lower explosive limits.
• Lower flammable limit (LFL): It is the lowest percentage by volume of gas or Vapor in a gas-air mixture
below which the mixture is too lean to be ignited.
• Upper Flammable Limit (UFL): It is the highest percentage by volume of gas or Vapor in a gas-air
mixture above which the mixture is too rich to ignite.
• Flammable Liquid - Liquids with a flash point below 38°C(100°F ) and have a vapor pressure not
exceeding 276kPA (40 paisa)at 38°C(100°F).
• Flame Propagation - The spread of a flame in a combustible environment outward from the point at
which the combustion starts.
• Flash Point: It is minimum temperature of Liquid at which vapor in sufficient concentration is given off
to form an ignitable mixture with air, near the surface of a liquid, which gives a momentary flash on
application of a small pole flame under specified conditions of test as per IS:1448 (Part-1)
• Hazardous (Flammable) Atmosphere: An atmosphere containing any flammable gas or vapor in a

concentration capable of ignition.
Lighter than air: Gases with a vapor density less than 1.0 in process industries, the boundary between
compounds which may be considered lighter-than-air is set at a relative vapor density of 0.75.
•Heavier than air gas: Gases with a vapor density greater than 1.0.
• Ignition Temperature: The lowest temperature at which ignition occurs in a mixture of explosive gas
and air when the method specified in IS: 7820 is followed.
•Ignitable Mixture: A mixture that is between the upper and lower limits of the flammable range and is
capable of propagating flame away from the source of ignition.
• Flame proof Apparatus: Apparatus in an enclosure that is capable of withstanding 4 times the
explosion pressure of an internal gas or vapor developed during an internal explosion and which
prevents transmission of the explosion to the surrounding external atmosphere thereby preventing
ignition of surrounding flammable atmosphere.
• Increased Safety Apparatus:
• Intrinsically Safe Apparatus: Apparatus that ensure the maximum level of current and voltage
measured as energy is about 1Watts or less.
•Intrinsically Safe Circuit - A circuit in which any spark or thermal effect is incapable of causing ignition of
a mixture of flammable or combustible material in air.
• Non classified Location - A location that is not classified as Class I,II or III.
• Non incendive System: A system not capable of causing ignition under normal conditions of operation.
• Pressurizing: The process of supplying an enclosure or building with clean air or inert gas at sufficient
positive pressure to prevent the entrance of hazardous dusts (Class II hazardous areas).
• Purging: The process of supplying an enclosure with clean air or inert gas or a room/building with clean
air at a sufficient flow rate and positive pressure to reduce, to an acceptably safe level, the
concentrations of any flammable gas or vapor initially present, and to maintain the safe level by positive
pressure with or without continuous flow (Class I hazardous areas).
• Temperature Identification Number (T-Rating): A number proceeded by the letter "T" designating the
maximum surface temperature of a piece of equipment.
• Source and Grade of Release: A point or location from which a flammable gas, vapor, mists or liquid
may be released into the atmosphere so that a hazardous atmosphere could be formed.
• Ventilation, Adequate: Ventilation (natural or artificial) that is sufficient to prevent the accumulation of
quantities of vapor-air mixtures in concentrations above 25 percent of their lower flammable (explosive)
limit (LFL).
• Ventilation, Inadequate: Rooms, buildings or spaces that do not have a natural or a mechanical
ventilation system providing for adequate ventilation.
• Class I, Zone O: A Class I, Zone O location is a location (1) in which ignitable concentrations of
flammable gases or vapors are present continuously; or (2) in which ignitable concentrations of
flammable gases or vapors are present for long periods of time.
Class I, Zone 1: A Class I, Zone 1 location is a location (1) in which ignitable concentrations of flammable
gases or vapors are likely to exist under normal operating conditions; or (2) in which ignitable
concentrations of flammable gases or vapors may exist frequently because of repair or maintenance
operations or because of leakage; or (3) in which equipment is operated or processes are carried on, of
such a nature that equipment breakdown or faulty operations could result in the release of ignitable
concentrations of flammable gases or vapors and also cause simultaneous failure of electrical equipment
in a mode to cause the electrical equipment to become a source of ignition; or (4) that is adjacent to a
Class I, Zone O location from which ignitable concentrations of vapors could be communicated, unless
communication is prevented by adequate positive pressure ventilation from a source of clean air and
effective safeguards against ventilation failure are provided.
• Class I, Zone 2: A Class I, Zone 2 location is a location (1) in which ignitable concentrations of
flammable gases or vapors are not likely to occur in normal operation and if they do occur will exist only
for a short period; or (2) in which volatile flammable liquids, flammable gases, or flammable vapors are
handled, processed, or used, but in which the liquids, gases, or vapors normally are confined within
closed containers of closed systems from which they can escape, only as a result of accidental rupture or
breakdown of the containers or system, or as the result of the abnormal operation of the equipment
with which the liquids or gases are handled, processed, or used; or (3) in which ignitable concentrations
of flammable gases or vapors normally are prevented by positive mechanical ventilation, but which
may become hazardous as a result of failure or abnormal operation of the ventilation equipment; or (4)
that is adjacent to a Class I, Zone 1 location, from which ignitable concentrations of flammable gases or
vapors could be communicated, unless such communication is prevented by adequate positive-
pressure ventilation from a source of clean air, and effective safeguards against ventilation failure are
provided.
•Gas groups: For purposes of testing, approval, and area classification, various air mixtures (not oxygen
enriched) are grouped as in below.
• Group I: A term used by IEC 79-10 to describe atmospheres containing firedamp (a mixture of gases,
composed mostly of methane, found underground, usually in mines). Since this recommended practice
does not apply to installations underground in mines, this term is not used further.
• Group II: The group used to describe gases found aboveground and is subdivided into IIC, IIB, and
IIA, , according to the nature of the gas or vapor, for protection techniques “d”, “ia”, “ib” [ia], and [ib],
and, where applicable, “n” and “o”.
• Group IIA: Atmospheres containing acetone, ammonia, ethyl alcohol, gasoline, methane, propane, or
flammable gas, flammable liquid produced vapor, or combustible liquid produced vapor mixed with
air that may burn or explode having either a maximum experimental safe gap (MESG) value greater than
0.90 mm (35 mils) or a minimum igniting current ratio (MIC ratio) greater than 0.80. (NFPA 497)
• Group 11B: Atmospheres containing acetaldehyde, ethylene, or flammable gas, flammable liquid
produced vapor, or combustible liquid produced vapor mixed with air that may burn or explode having
either a maximum experimental safe gap (MESG) value greater than 0.50 mm (20 mils) and less than or
equal to 0.90 mm (35 mils) or a minimum igniting current ratio (MIC ratio) greater than 0.45 and less
than or equal to 0.80. (NFPA 497).
• Group IIC: Atmospheres containing acetylene, hydrogen, or flammable gas, flammable liquid
produced vapor, or combustible liquid produced vapor mixed with air that may burn or explode, having
either a maximum experimental safe gap (MESG) value less than or equal to 0.50 mm (20 mils) or a
minimum igniting current ratio (MIC ratio) less than 0.45. (NFPA 497)
• Hazardous (classified) location: A location where fire or explosion hazards may exist due to flammable
gases or vapors, flammable liquids, combustible dust, or ignitable fibers or flying. Unless specifically
indicated otherwise, locations containing combustible dust, ignitable fibers or flying are outside the
scope of this recommended practice.
•Unclassified location (non-hazardous location): A location not classified asClass I, Zone O, Zone 1, or
Zone 2.
•Combustible liquid (Class II, IIIA, and IIIB Liquids): Any liquid that has a closed-cup flash point at or
above 37.8”C (100”F), as determined by the test procedures and apparatus outlined in NFPA 30.
Combustible Liquids are subdivided as follows:

Class II liquids-liquids having flash points at or above 37.8”C (100°F) and below 60°C (140°F).
Class IIIA liquids-liquids having flash points at or above 60°C (140°F) and below 93°C (200°F).
Class IIIB liquids-liquids having flash points at or above 93°C (200°F).
Area classification of flammable gas/vapor and liquids
Three grades of release are defined in terms of their likely frequency and duration:
1. Continuous Grade Release: A release that is continuous or nearly so or that occurs for long periods
which occur frequently (1000 hours/ year) normally leads to Zone 0.
2. Primary Grade Release: A release that is likely to occur periodically or occasionally in normal
operation (100 hours/ year) normally leads to a Zone 1.
3. Secondary Grade Release: A release that is not likely to occur in normal operation or may occur for a
very short period (10 hours/ year) normally leads to a Zone 2.
4. Adjacent Hazardous Zones In many locations where a hazardous area is identified and numbered as
0, 1 or 2 the immediate surroundings are given the next higher number, except for an original Zone 2
area, which automatically is surrounded by a non-hazardous area. A Zone 0 area is surrounded by a Zone
1 area, which in turn is, surrounded by a Zone 2 area. A Zone 2 area stands alone. During the preparation
of drawings that show the extent and shapes of the areas surrounding a source, it is usually found that
overlapping areas create complicated geometrical shapes, e.g. two adjacent circular boundaries
almost touching each other. In these situations the shapes should be simplified by using tangent lines.
Local pockets within the geometry should be absorbed into a more uniform shape, especially non-
hazardous pockets in Zone 2 geometry. Experience shows that equipment located in a non-hazardous
area that is ‘near’ to a Zone 2 area will usually be of the same specification as that which is to be
installed in the Zone 2 area. The same approach is sometimes used for Zone 2 areas near to a Zone 1
area if the equipment is small items e.g. Junction boxes, lighting fittings, instrument casings, and local
control stations.
Basic Conditions for a Fire or Explosion
National Electrical Code Criteria
Article 500 of NFPA 70, National Electrical Code, designates as hazardous (classified) any location in
which a combustible material is or may be present in the atmosphere in sufficient concentration to
produce an ignitable mixture.
Article 500 defines three major categories of hazardous location:
(1) Class I ; in which the combustible material is a gas or vapor

(2) Class Ⅱ ; in which the combustible material is a dust
(3) Class Ⅲ ; in which the combustible material is a fiber or flying
The intent of Article 500 is that electrical equipment and systems in the hazardous (classified) locations
should not provide a means of ignition for ignitable mixture, dust cloud or layer.
Condition Necessary for Ignition
In a Class I location, three basic conditions must exist in order for a fire or explosion to occur as a result
of an electrical installation.
A flammable gas or vapor must be present in classifying a particular location, the likelihood of the
presence of a flammable gas or vapor is a significant factor in determining the division classification.
The decision is based principally on whether the flammable mixture may be present
(a) Under normal conditions, or under abnormal conditions (including equipment breakdown).
(2) The gas or vapor must be mixed with air or oxygen in the proportions and quantities required
producing a flammable or ignitable mixture. This condition is important in determining the limit or
extent of the classified location. The quantity of the substance that might be liberated, its physical
characteristics, the operating pressure and the natural tendency of gases and vapors to disperse in the
atmosphere should be considered.
(3) The mixture must be ignited. When classifying locations, the potential source of ignition is
understood to be an electrical installation operating at energy levels sufficient to release incendiary
energy.
In Class Ⅱ location, ignition may occur under three different sets of conditions.
(1) In the first set of conditions,
a) A combustible dust must be present
b) The dust must be suspended in the air in the proportions required to produce an ignitable mixture.
Further, within the context of this manual, a sufficient quantity of this suspension must be present in
the vicinity of the electrical equipment.
c) There must be a release of energy intense enough to cause ignition of the suspended mixture. Within
context of this manual, the energy release is understood to originate within the electrical system.
(2) In the second set of conditions,

1) A combustible dust must be present
2) The dust must be layered on the electrical equipment sufficiently thick to interfere with the
dissipation o f heat and allow the layer to reach the ignition temperature of the dust.
3) The external temperature of the electrical equipment must be high enough to cause the dust to reach
its ignition temperature directly or dry out the dust and cause it to self-heat.
(3) In the third set of conditions,
1) A Group E dust must be present.
2) The dust must be layered or in suspension in hazardous quantities.
3) Tracking must be sufficient to cause ignition. (See 3.2.2)
3. Flammable and Combustible Materials

3.1 Class I Material (Flammable and Combustible Liquids, Gases and Vapors)
3.1.1 Flammable and Combustible Liquids
Flammable and combustible liquids are classified in accordance with their closed cup flash points and
vapor pressure, as follows:
(1) Highly Volatile Liquids (HVLS)

Highly volatile liquids, such as butane, ethane, ethylene, propane, propylene, liquefied natural gas,
natural gas liquids and mixtures of such. Vapor pressure of these liquids exceeds 40 pounds per square
inch absolute (276 kilo-Pascal’s) at 37.8℃ (100℉). When released to the atmosphere, HVLS vaporize,
creating large volumes of cooled gases whose densities exceed that of air, HVLS shall be treated
very conservatively in considering the extent of the area affected, especially when released at or near
ground level. Under such conditions, the heavy gases can travel along the ground for great distances if
air currents do not assist dispersion. When HVLS are released at higher elevations or are directed
upward at substantial velocity, diffusion and dilution of the upper-air mixture are faster, and the
distance from the point of release where lower flammable limit (LFL) concentrations are present is less.
(2) FP - Class I
Flammable liquids having a closed cup flash point below 37.8℃ (100℉) and a vapor pressure not
exceeding 40 pounds per square inch absolute (276 kilo-pascales) at 37.8℃ (100℉), such as gasoline.
Class I liquids usually are handled at temperatures above the liquid's flash point and consequently may
produce a flammable atmosphere with respect to electrical area classifications. Where released in
appreciable quantities to the atmosphere, they produce large volumes of vapor. This is particularly true
for the more volatile Class I liquids. The less volatile Class I liquids release vapors more slowly at normal
temperatures and are ignitable only near the surfaces of the liquids. At elevated temperatures, however,
these heavier liquids give off larger volumes of vapor can spread. These vapors, even when evolved
rapidly, have a natural tendency to disperse into the atmosphere and, thus, rapidly become diluted to
concentrations below their lower flammable limit. This tendency is greatly accelerated by air
movement. A specific classification for crude oil is not possible since it is a mixture of hydrocarbons or
widely varying the composition.
However, crude oil usually is classified as a Class I flammable liquid, and its flash point generally is
accepted as -6.7 to 32.2℃ (20 to 90℉).
(3) FP - Class Ⅱ
Combustible liquids having a closed cup flash point at or above 37.8℃ (100℉) and below 60℃ (140℉),
such as kerosene, diesel fuel oil. With Class Ⅱ liquids, the probability of an ignitable vapor-air mixture is
low because the liquids typically are handled at temperatures below their flash point and consequently
do not produce sufficient vapors to form an ignitable mixture. When these liquids are heated above
their flash point, additional vapors are generated and the possibility of ignition is increased.
Class Ⅱ liquids should be considered capable of producting an ignitable mixture near the point of
release when handled, processed, or stored under conditions where the liquid may exceed its flash
point.
(4) FP - Class Ⅲ
Combustible liquids having a flash point at or above 60℃ (140℉). Class Ⅲ liquids normally do not
produce vapors of sufficient quantity to be considered for electrical classification purposes. Class Ⅲ
liquids will release vapor in the flammable range at their surfaces if heated above their flash points, but
the extent of the classified location ordinarily will be very small and near the point of release.
3.1.2 Flammable Lighter - Than - Air Gases Petroleum facilities frequently handle lighter-than-air natural
gases (methane or mixtures of methane and small quantities of low-molecular-weight hydrocarbons).
Lighter-than-air gases released from an opening often will disperse rapidly because of their relatively low
density and usually will not affect as extensive an area as the vapors of flammable liquids or heavier-
than-air gases. Lighter-than-air gases seldom produce large volumes of ignitable mixtures in open
locations close to grade where most electrical installations are made; however, ignitable mixtures can
accumulate inside enclosed spaces. Hydrogen must be given special consideration because of its
properties of wide explosive-mixture range, high flame-propagation velocity, low vapor density, low
minimum-ignition-energy level, and relatively high ignition temperature [585℃(1085℉)].
3.1.3 National Electrical Code Grouping of Atmospheric Mixtures
When classifying locations for electrical installations, the appropriate NEC Groups (A, B, C or D) should
be determined for all atmospheric mixtures of flammable liquids, gases and vapors present.
The grouping of various atmospheric mixtures is upon the basis of their flammability characteristics.
A partial listing follows; for a more complete listing refer to NFPA No. 497.
Group A: Atmospheres containing acetylene.
Group B: Atmospheres such as butadiene, ethylene oxide, propyleneoxide, acrolein or hydrogen (or
gases or vapors equivalent in hazard to hydrogen, such as certain manufactured gases).
Group C: Atmospheres such as cyclopropane, ethylene, hydrogen sulfide, or gases or vapors of

equivalent hazard.
Group D: Atmospheres such as acetone, alcohol, ammonia, benzene, benzol, butane, gasoline, hexane,
lacquer solvent vapors, methane, naphtha, natural gas, propane, or gases or vapors of equivalent hazard
Most petroleum products are placed in Group D. However, ethylene production, catalytic reforming,
ammonia synthesis, and other process may involve other groups, particularly Group B and C. In mixtures
of hydrogen sulfide and natural gas, it is recommended that the mixture be considered Group D, if the
hydrogen sulfide constitutes less than 25 percent of the mixture by volume. In mixtures of manufactured
gases, it is recommended that the mixture shall be considered Group B, if the gases contain more than
30 percent hydrogen by volume.
3.2 Class Ⅱ Materials (Combustible Dusts)

Class Ⅱ combustible dusts are divided into three groups (Groups E, F, and G) based upon the nature of
the dusts.
3.2.1The definitions of the three dust groups are as follows:
(1) Group E: Atmospheres containing combustible metal dusts, including aluminum, magnesium, and
their commercial alloys, or other combustible dusts whose particle size, abrasiveness, and conductivity
present similar hazards in the use of electrical equipments.
(2) Group F: Atmospheres containing combustible carbonaceousdusts, including carbon black, charcoal,
coal, or coke dusts that have more than 8 percent total entrapped volatiles (see ASTM D3175-82 for coal
and coke dusts) or that have been sensitized by other materials so that they present an explosion
hazard.
(3) Group G: Atmospheres containing other combustible dusts ,including flour, grain, wood flour, plastic,
and chemicals.
3.2.2 For the purpose of classification, only Group E dusts shall be considered conductive. Group E dusts
are sensitive to a phenomenon whereby an electric current finds the path of least resistance through
dusts particles in its path and thus providing a source of ignition. Thus, an electric arc may
ignite a dust layer or a dust cloud. This phenomenon is commonly known as tracking.
3.2.3 Certain metal dusts may have characteristics that require safeguards beyond those required for
atmospheres containing the dusts of aluminum, magnesium, and their commercial alloys. For example,
zirconium, thorium, and uranium dusts have extremely low ignition temperatures (as low as 20℃) and
minimum ignition energies lower than any material classified in any of the Class I or Class Ⅱ groups.
3.2.4 All areas where Group E dusts are present in hazardous quantities are classified as Division 1
(Zone 1) location. There are no Division 2 (Zone 2) locations for Group E dusts.
3.2.5 A listing of selected combustible dusts appears in NFPA 499, Recommended Practice for
Classification of Combustible Dusts and of Hazardous (Classified ) Locations for Electrical Installations in
Chemical Process Area, with their group classification and auto ignition temperature of the cloud or
layer, whichever is less.
3.3 Ignition Temperature Classification
3.3.1 All material, equipment and enclosures of any electrical apparatus to be used within hazardous
locations shall be classified with a temperature class, with regard to the maximum permitted surface
temperature and to the minimum ignition temperature of the substances that may present. The
temperature limit of each group shall be as follows in each standard.
Ignition Temperature
Max. Surface NEC (U.S.A) IEC (International) RIIS (Japan)

Temperature ( ) Temp. ID. No. Temp. Class Ignition Temp.
450 T1 T1 G1
300 T2 T2 G2
280 T2A
260 T2B
230 T2C
215 T2D
200 T3 T3 G3
180 T3A
165 T3B
160 T3C
135 T4 T4 G4
120 T4A
100 T5 T5 G5
85 T6 T6 G6
Gas group classifications
Gases are classified in accordance to the amount of energy required for ignition. They are denoted by
three digit code, the first two digits may be I or II and third digit is A, B or C.
Example of Gases NFPA 70 NFPA 70 IEC 60079-0

Article Article 505 CENELEC
500, NFPA 497 EN 50014
NFPA 497 Note c, d Note e
Note b, d
Acetylene A IIC IIC
Hydrogen B IIC IIC +H2
PropyleneOxide B IIB IIB

Ethyl Oxide
Butadiene
Cyclopropane C IIB IIB
Ethyl ether
Ethylene
Acetone D IIA IIA
Benzene
Butane
Propane
Hexane
Naturalgas
Gases and Vapors are categorized according to their maximum experimental safe
gaps (MESG).
3.3.2 Class I equipment shall not have any exposed surface that operates at a temperature in excess of
the ignition temperature of the specific gas or vapor. Class equipment shall not have an external
temperature higher than that specified below table. The maximum surface temperature of Class
equipments under operating conditions shall not exceed 165 (329) equipment that is not subject to
overloading, and 120 (248) equipment (such as motors or power transformers) that may be overloaded.
Equipment that Is Not Subject to Equipment (such as Motors or Power Transformers ) that
Overloading May Be Overloaded
Normal Operation Abnormal operation

Class Group Degrees Degrees Degrees Degrees Degrees Degrees
E 200 392 200 392 200 392
F 200 392 150 302 200 392
G 165 329 120 298 165 329
3.3.2 The flammable gases, flammable and combustible liquids, and combustible dusts have been
identified to allow their classification into the groups and temperature by NFPA 497 M and IEC 60079.
3.3.3 Electrical apparatus shall be selected and installed taking the ignition temperature and the
classification from the explosive characteristics of the gas, vapor or dust involved as well as the area
classification into consideration.
4 Classification Criteria
The decision to classify a location is based upon the probability that flammable gases or vapors and
ignitable mixture of dust may be present. Having decided that a location should be classified, and having
designated the gas or vapor as Group A, B, C or D and the dust as Group E, F or G, the next step is to
designate the location as either Division 1 ( Zone 1) (Zone 0, Zone 1) or Division 2 ( Zone 2) (Zone 2).
This latter step must consider the probability of whether a flammable gas or vapor and ignitable dust
release is likely to occur during normal operations, or only as a result of an unusual occurrence or
abnormal condition.
4.1 Class I Locations

Class I locations are those in which flammable gases or vapors are, or may be, present in the air in
quantities sufficient to produce explosive or ignitable mixtures. Class I locations include the followings;
4.1.1 Class I, Division 1 (Zone 0) Locations Class I, Zone 0. Locations are a location;
(1) In which ignitable concentrations of flammable gases or vapors are present continuously:
(2) In which ignitable concentrations of such gases or vapors are present for long periods of time:
4.1.2 Class I, Division 1 (Zone 1).

(1) In which ignitable concentrations of flammable gases or vapors exist under normal operating
conditions:
(2) In which ignitable concentrations of such gases or vapors may exist frequently because of repair or
maintenance operations or because of leakage: or
(3) In which breakdown or faulty operation of equipment or process might release ignitable
concentrations of flammable gases or vapors, and might also cause simultaneous failure of electrical
equipment that could become a source of ignition; or
(4) that is adjacent to a Class 1, Zone 0 location from which ignitable concentrations of vapors could
be communicated, unless communication is prevented by adequate positive pressure ventilation from a
source of clean air and effective safeguards against ventilation failure are provided.
4.1.3 Class I, Division 2 (Zone 2). Locations
(1) In which volatile flammable liquids or flammable gases are handled, processed or used, but in which
the liquids, vapors or gases normally will be confined within closed containers or closed systems from
which they can escape only in case of accidental rupture or breakdown of such containers or systems,
or in case of abnormal operation of equipment:
(2) In which ignitable concentrations of gases or vapors normally are prevented by positive ventilation,
and that might become ignitable through failure or abnormal operation of the ventilating equipment.
(3) Which are adjacent to a Division 1 ( Zone 1) location (and not separated by a vapor-tight barrier), and
to which ignitable concentrations of gases or vapors might occasionally be communicated unless
such communication is prevented by adequate positive-pressure ventilation from a source of clean air,
and effective safe guards against ventilation failure are provided; or
(4) that is adjacent to a Class 1, Zone 1 location from which ignitable concentrations of vapors could
be communicated, unless communication is prevented by adequate positive pressure ventilation from a
source of clean air and effective safeguards against ventilation failure are provided
4.2 Class Ⅱ Locations Class Ⅱ locations are those in which ignitable dusts are, or may be, present in the
air in quantities sufficient to produce explosive or ignitable mixtures. Class Ⅱ locations include the
followings; for a more detail refer to NFPA No. 499.
4.2.1 Class Ⅱ, Division 1 (Zone 1). Locations a condition for Division 1 (Zone 1) is whether the location is
likely to have an ignitable dust cloud or a thick layer of dust present under normal condition. For example,
the presence of ignitable dust suspensions and layer of dust in the vicinity of an open bagging operation is
normal and requires a Division 1 (Zone 1) classification.
4.2.2 Class Ⅱ, Division 2 (Zone 2). Locations the criterion for a Division 2 (Zone 2) location is whether the
location is likely to have ignitable dust suspensions or hazardous dust accumulations only under abnormal
conditions. The term “abnormal” is used here in a limited sense and does not include a major
catastrophe.
4.3 Unclassified Locations
4.3.1 Gas or Vapor (Class I material Locations)

Experience has shown that certain locations may be unclassified regardless of the ventilation rate, since
the occurrence of flammable gas or vapor liberation from some apparatus is so infrequent. Examples of
such locations include the following:
(1) Locations where flammable substances are contained in;
1) All-welded closed piping systems without valves, flanges or similar devices, or

2) Continuous metallic tubing without valves fittings, flanges, or similar devices.
(2) Locations where flammable liquids, gases or vapors are transported or stored in certain containers or
vessels.
(3) Locations surrounding continuous or intermittent ignition sources, such as unprotected fired vessels
and flare tips, may be unclassified.
(4) Other non-enclosed locations that contain hydrocarbon handling apparatus may be unclassified.
4.3.2 Dusts (Class material Locations)

Experience has shown that the release of ignitable dust suspensions from some operations and apparatus
is so infrequent that area classification is not necessary. For example, it is usually not necessary to classify
the following locations where combustible ground up solids are processed, stored, or handled:
(1) Locations where materials are stored in sealed containers- bags, drums, fiber packs - palletized or
racked.
(2) Locations where materials are transported in well maintained closed piping system.
(3) Locations where palletized materials with minimal dust are handled or used.
(4) Locations where closed tanks are used for storage and handling.
(5) Locations where mechanical dust collection systems on equipment prevent
(a) Visual dust clouds (b) layer accumulations that make surface colors indiscernible.
(6) Locations where excellent housekeeping is maintained and there are

(a) No visual dust suspensions or
(b) Layer accumulations that make surface colors indiscernible.
(7) Mechanical dust collection systems that are provided on equipment to allow a non-classified location
must have adequate safeguards and warnings against failure.
(8) Open flames and hot surface associated with the operation of certain equipment, such as boilers and
fired heaters, provide inherent thermal ignition source. Electrical classification is not appropriate in the
immediate vicinity of these facilities. Dust containing operations should be cut off by blank walls or
located away from such facilities. Where pulverized coal or ground up solid waste is used to fire a boiler
or incinerator, consideration should be given to potential leak source in fuel feed lines to the burners to
avoid installing electrical devices that could in them become primary ignition sources for such leaks.
4.4 Ventilation
(1) General
1) The decision to classify a location as Division 1 (Zone 1), Division
2 (Zone 2), or unclassified, depends in part on the degree of ventilation of the location.
2) Providing ventilation to allow the reclassification of an enclosed area from classified to unclassified is
not allowed in enclosed areas containing devices handling hydrocarbons.
3) In general, a naturally ventilated location (building, room, or space) should be substantially open and
free from obstruction to the natural passage of air through it, vertically or horizontally. Such locations
may be roofed and/or partially closed on the sides.
(2) Adequate Ventilation
1) Adequate ventilation is defined as ventilation (natural or artificial) that is sufficient to prevent the
accumulation of significant quantities of vapor-air mixtures in concentration above 25 percent of their
lower flammable (explosive) limit.
2) The source of air used for ventilation should from an area classified no higher than the desired
classification; for example, air from a Division 1 ( Zone 1) area may not be used to ventilate a Division 2
(Zone 2)area. If practical, the source of air should be from an unclassified area.
(3) Inadequately Ventilated Areas

Inadequately ventilated areas are defined as rooms, buildings, or spaces that do not have a natural or a mechanical
ventilation system providing for adequate ventilation. It is possible to have portions of buildings adequately
ventilated while other portions are inadequately ventilated. For example, the lower portion of a compressor
building (shed) without walls (from the floor) might be adequately ventilated, while the upper portion of the shed
(particularly if without ridge vents or the like) might be inadequately ventilated.
4.5 Adjacent Area
(1) A non-enclosed adequately ventilated area that is adjacent to a classified area, and which is not
separated from the classified area by a vapor-tight barrier, shall be classified to the extent designated
area. (Fig. 4.7a of API RP 500 and/or 505)
(2) An enclosed area that is adjacent to a classified area, and which is separated from the classified area
by a vapor-tight barrier, is unclassified, considering only the external source (Fig. 4.7b of API RP 500
and/or 505)
(3) An enclosed area that is adjacent to a classified area, and which is not separated from the classified
area by a vapor-tight barrier, shall be classified the same as the highest classification included. (Fig. 4.7c
and 4.7d of API RP 500 and/or505)
(4) It may be possible to reduce the classification of enclosed areas adjacent to classified areas if the
enclosed area is purged in accordance with NFPA No. 496.
(5) The hazardous area classification drawings will show the geographical limits of the various areas,
Divisions (Zone) and Groups with the source of release points located and identified.
(6) The contractor shall study the hazardous area classification plans (as issued during the Basic
Engineering Package), with a view to rationalizing the electrical equipment to be installed with battery
limit.
Extent of a Classified Location: Class I Locations
The extent of a classified location shall require careful consideration of the following factors:
(1) The flammable or combustible material

(2) The vapor density of the material
(3) The temperature of the material
(4) Process or storage pressure release
Ventilation
The volumes of liquid or gas that could be released, and the rate at which it could be released, are of
extreme importance in determining the extent of a classified location.
Outdoor Locations
(1) In the absence of walls or other barriers, and in the absence of air currents or similar disturbing
forces, it must be assumed that a gas or vapor will disperse uniformly in all directions, as governed by the
gas or vapor density and velocity (that is heavier-than-air vapors principally downward and outward;
lighter-than-air gases principally upward and outward).
(2) For heavier-than-air vapors released at or near grade level, the locations where potentially
ignitable concentrations are most likely to be found are below grade; those at grade are next most likely;
and as the height above grade increases, the potential decreases. In open locations away from the
immediate point of release, freely drifting heavier-than-air vapors from a source near grade seldom are
above the lower flammable limits at elevations more than a few feet above grade. For lighter-than-air
gases the opposite is true; there is little potential of an ignitable mixture below grade, and greater
potential above grade.
(3) Elevated or below grade sources of gas or vapor release, or release of gas or vapor under pressure,
may substantially alter the outline of the limits of the classified location. Also, low velocity movement
(e.g., a very mild breeze) may extend these limits in the direction of air movement. However,
higher velocity air movement (e.g., a stronger breeze) can so accelerate the dispersion of gases or vapors
that the extent of the classified location would be greatly reduced. Thus, dimensional limits
recommended for Division 1 ( Zone 1) or Division 2 ( Zone 2) locations are based on experience as well as
theoretical diffusion of gases or vapors of the types prevalent in petroleum operations.
(4) Air currents and volatility combine to affect the extent of a classified location. Vapors are rapidly
dispersed in a well-ventilated location; for this reason, outdoor locations and locations having ventilation
equivalent to normal outdoor conditions often can be classified as Division 2 (Zone 2). However, where
ventilation is inadequate, vapor-air mixtures are more likely to reach flammable limits, and the situation
may justify a larger classified area.
Enclosed Locations
(1) Some enclosed locations (e.g. large building) used for diverse petroleum operations have mechanical
ventilation provided. Also, construction design may permit a substantial degree of natural
ventilation that when coupled with such factors as volumetric content of the enclosed location, floor
area, lineal dimensions of walls, and ceiling height, could justify considering that enclosed location as
adequately ventilated.
(2) If adequate ventilation is provided, mechanically or naturally, many enclosed locations may be
classified Division 2 (Zone 2) instead of Division 1 (Zone 1). A careful evaluation of prior experience with
the same or similar types of installations, including the temporary use of tarpaulins or similar devices
as windbreaks, should always be a part of the classification criteria.
Class Ⅱ Locations
References to Division 2 (Zone 2) locations apply only to Group F or G dusts. Careful consideration of
the following factors is necessary in determining the extent of Division 1 ( Zone 1) or Division 2 ( Zone
2) locations:
(1) The combustible material involved

(2) The bulk density of the material
(3) The particle sizes of the material
(4) The density of the particles
(5) The process or storage pressure
(6) The size of the leak opening
(7) The quantity of the release
(8) The dust collection system
(9) The housekeeping
(10) The presence of any flammable or combustible gas
In addition, walls, partitions, enclosures, or other barriers and strong air currents will also affect the
distance that dust particles will travel and extend the Division 1 (Zone 1) and Division 2 (Zone 2) locations.
Where there are walls that limit the travel of the dust particles, area classifications do not extend beyond
the walls. Enclosing rooms, walls, and partitions are a primary means of limiting the extent of the
hazardous locations. There are no effective walls involved the extent of the Division 1 (Zone 1) and
Division 2 (Zone 2) locations can be estimated as follows:
(1) By visual observation of the existing area using the guidelines of NFPA 499
(2) By experience with similar dusts and similar operations and taking into consideration any new
equipment, any new enclosures, any new mechanical dust collection, and any changes in housekeeping
rules and methods.
(3) By calculation.
Tight equipment, mechanically ventilated hoods and pickup points, adequate maintenance, and
housekeeping should limit Division 1 (Zone 1) locations to the inside of process for transfer of material
such as from conveyors to grinders to storage bins to bags. Similarly, such good engineering will also
limit the Division 2 (Zone 2) location surrounding the Division 1 (Zone 1) location.
The size of building and its walls will influence the classification of the enclosed volume. In the case of a
small room, it may be appropriate to classify the entire volume as Division 1 (Zone 1) or Division 2
(Zone 2)
Wherever possible with large buildings, walls should be used to cut off dusty operations to avoid extensive use of
special electrical equipment. Where walls are not possible, the concentric volume approach of a Division 1 (Zone 1)
location surrounded by a large Division 2 (Zone 2) location may be satisfactory.
Where a number of dusty operations are located in a building, it may be satisfactory to have a multiplicity of
Division 1 (Zone 1) locations with the intervening Division 2 (Zone 2) and non-classified locations.
The quantity of dust released and its distance of travel is of extreme importance in determining the extent of a
hazardous location, and it is this consideration that necessitates the greatest application of sound
engineering judgment. However, one cannot lose sight of the purpose of this judgment; the location is classified
solely for the installation of electrical equipment.
Determining the Degree and Extent of Hazardous (Classified) Location

Diagrams and Recommendations
(1) This chapter contains a series of diagram that illustrate the recommended extent of classified locations around
typical sources of flammable gases or vapors. These locations may be assumed to contain an ignitable
atmospheric mixture under the conditions described. Some of the diagrams are for single-point sources; others
apply to multiple sources in an enclosed spare or in an operating area.
(2) The intended use of the diagrams is to aid in developing electrical classification maps of operating units,
process plants, or buildings. Elevations or sectional views may be required where different classifications apply at
different levels.
(3) An operating unit will have many interconnected sources of combustible material, including pumps,
compressors, vessels, tanks, and heat exchangers. These will, in turn, present sources of leaks such as
flanged and screwed connections, fittings, valves, meters, etc. Thus, considerable judgment will be required to
establish the boundaries of the Division 1 (Zone 1) and Division 2 (Zone 2) locations.
(4) In some cases, individual classification of a multitude of point sources within an operating unit is neither
feasible nor economical. In such cases, the entire unit may be classified as a single source entity. However, this
should be considered only after a thorough evaluation of the extent and interaction of the various sources, both
within the unit and adjacent to it.
(5) In developing these diagrams, vapor density is generally assumed to be greater than that of air. Lighter-than-air
gases, such as hydrogen and methane, will quite readily disperse, and the diagrams for lighter-than-air gases
should be used. However, if such gases are being evolved from the cryogenic state (i.e., liquefied hydrogen or
LNG), caution must be exercised because, for some finite period of time, these gases will be heavier than air due to
their low temperature when first released.
Bases for Recommendations
(1) The practices of the petroleum refining industry are published in the American Petroleum Institute’s RP 500
and/or 505, Classification of Locations for Electrical Installations in Petroleum Refineries. These practices are based
on a survey and an analysis of the practices of a large segment of the industry, experimental data, and careful
weighing of pertinent factors. Refinery operations are characterized by the handling, processing, and storage of
large quantities of materials, often at elevated temperatures.
The recommended limits of classified locations for refinery installations may therefore be stricter than are
warranted for more traditional chemical processing facilities that handle smaller quantities.
(2) Various codes, standards, and recommended practices of the National Fire Protection Association include
recommendations for classifying hazardous location. These recommendations are based on many years of
experience. NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, and NFPA 58, Standard for the Storage and
Handling of Liquefied Petroleum Gases, are two of these documents.
(3) Continuous process plants and large batch chemical plants may be almost as large as refineries and should,
therefore, follow the practices of the refining industry. The volume of leakage from pump and agitator shaft
packing glands, piping flanges, and valves increases proportionately with process equipment size and flow rate, as
does the travel distance and area of dispersion from the discharge source. Similarly, the volume of the leakage, the
travel distance, and the area of dispersion all increase as operating pressure increases.
(4) In deciding whether to use an overall plant classification scheme or individual equipment classification, process
equipment size, flow rate, and pressure should be taken into consideration. Generally speaking, for small or batch
chemical plants, point source diagrams can be used; for large, high pressure plants, the API recommendations are
more suitable. Below table 1 gives ranges of process equipment size, pressure, and flow rate for equipment and
piping handling flammable or combustible liquids or gases.
(5) The great majority of chemical plants fall in the moderate range of size, pressure, and flow rate for equipment
and piping handling flammable or combustible liquids or gases. However, since all cases are not the same, sound
engineering judgment is required.
Procedure for Classifying Locations
The following procedure should be used for each room, section, or area being classified.
(1)Step One - Need for Classification: The area should be classified if the answer to either of the following
questions are “Yes”:
1) Are flammable liquids or flammable gases likely to be present?

2) Are combustible liquids likely to be handled, processed, or stored at temperatures above their flash points?
(2) Step Two - Assignment of Division (Zone) Classification. Assuming an affirmative answer to Step One, the
following questions should be answered to determine the correct Division classification.
1) Division 1 (Zone 1) locations are distinguished by a “Yes” answer to any one of the following questions:
(a) Is an ignitable atmospheric mixture likely to exist under normal operating conditions?
(b) Is an ignitable atmospheric mixture likely to occur frequently due to repair, maintenance, or leakage?
(c) Would a failure of process equipment, storage vessels, or piping systems be likely to cause a failure of the
electrical system simultaneous with the release of the combustible material.
(d) Is a piping system containing a combustible material in an inadequately ventilated space, and is the piping
system likely to leak?
(e) Is the space or area in question below grade level such that vapors may accumulate there?
(f) Are pressure relief valve discharges located within the area?
(a) Is a piping system containing a combustible material in an inadequately ventilated space, and is the piping
system not likely to leak?
(b) Is a process equipment system containing a combustible material in an inadequately ventilated space, and can
the material escape only during abnormal situations, such as failure of a gasket or packing?
(c) Is the location adjacent and open to a Division 1 ( Zone 1) location, or can gas or vapor be transmitted from a
Division 1 ( Zone 1) location to the location in question by trenches, pipes, or ducts?
(d) If mechanical ventilation is used, can failure or abnormal operation of the ventilation equipment permit an
ignitable atmospheric mixture?
3) Step Three- Extent of Classified Location.
The extent of the classified location may be determined by applying, with sound engineering judgment, the
distances recommended in the diagrams contained in
Class II Location
Diagrams and Recommendations
(1) This chapter contains a series of diagrams that illustrate how typical dusty sites should be classified and the
recommended extent of the various classifications.
(2) The intended use of the diagrams is to aid in developing electrical classification maps of operating units,
storage areas, and process buildings. Most of the diagrams are plan views. Elevations may be necessary to provide
the three-dimensional picture of an actual operation.
(3) These diagrams apply to operating equipment processing dusts when the specific particle density is greater
than 40 lb/cu ft (640.72 kg/m3). When dusts with a specific particle density less than 40 lb/cu ft (640.72 kg/m3) are
being handled, there is a pronounced tendency for the fine dust to drift on air currents normally present in
industrial plants for distances considerably farther than those shown on these diagrams. In those cases it will be
necessary to extend the classified area. It is difficult to recommend precise classified areas in these circumstances.
(4) Good engineering practices, good housekeeping practices, and dust control systems are necessary to limit the
extent of the classified locations and to minimize the chances of primary and the often more violent secondary
explosions.
(5) An operating unit may have many interconnected sources of pulverized combustible materials such as storage
tanks, bins and silo, piping and ductwork, hammer mills, ball mills, grinders, pulverizes, milling machines,
conveyors, bucket elevators, and bagging or other packaging machines. These in turn present sources of leaks
such as flanged and screwed connections, fittings, openings, valves, and metering and weighing devices. Thus,
actual diagrams of the equipment may be required so that the necessary engineering judgment to establish the
boundaries of Division 1 (Zone 1) and Division 2 (Zone 2) locations may be applied properly.
Procedure for Classifying Locations

The following procedure should be used for each room, section, or area being classified.
(1) Step One - Need for Classification: The area should be classified if the answer to the following question is
“Yes”
1) Are combustible dusts likely to be present?

(2) Step Two - Assignment of Division (Zone) Classification: Assuming an affirmative answer to Step One, the
following questions should be answered to determine the correct division classification.
(a) Is a Group E dust present in hazardous quantities
(b) Is a dust likely to be in suspension in air continuously, periodically, or intermittently under normal
conditions in quantities sufficient to produce explosive or ignitable mixtures.
(c) Will mechanical failure or abnormal operation of machinery or equipment cause such explosive or ignitable
mixtures to be produced, and might it also provide a source of ignition through simultaneous failure of electrical
equipment operation of protective devices or from other causes?
(d) Are there dust layers or accumulations on surfaces deeper than 1/8 in. (3.18 mm)?
2) Division 2 ( Zone 2) locations for Group F or G dusts are distinguished by a “Yes” answer to any one of the
following questions:
(a) Is the dust not normally in suspension in the air in quantities sufficient to produce explosive or ignitable
mixtures, but could it be thrown into suspension by infrequent malfunctioning of handling or processing
equipment?
(b) Are the dust accumulations insufficient to interfere with the normal operation of electrical equipment, but
could the accumulations be ignited by the abnormal operation or failure of electrical equipment?
(c) Is there a dust layer that makes the colors of the surfaces indiscernible?
(d) Would the failure of mechanical dust collection allow an ignitable suspension of dust or a layer deeper than 1/8
in. (3.18 mm) to build up?
(3) Step Three - Extent of Classified Location
The extent of the classified location may be determined by applying, with sound engineering judgment, the
methods discussed in 3.4 and the diagrams contained in the NFPA 499.
Electrical Equipment for Use in Hazardous Area

Electrical equipment for use in hazardous area shall be selected and installed in accordance with the applicable
standards and GS E&C Standard Specification No. GTP-6MSP-072
Below Table 1, 2, and 3 shall give the general guidance for more practical selection of the electrical apparatus in
the classified area.
Electrical apparatus shall be selected and installed taking the ignition temperature and the classification from
the explosive characteristics of the gas or vapor and combustible dust involved as well as the area classification
into consideration.
In processing area, more than one fluid or mixed fluid will present. The apparatus selected shall be suitable for
the most onerous condition. Though the areas surrounding continuous ignition sources, such as fired heaters,
remain unclassified, the electrical apparatus selection in the area shall conform to the adjacent area classification.
Selection of Apparatus
Procedure for Selecting Electrical Apparatus
The following factors shall be considered for proper selection of electrical equipment for use in hazardous area:
(1) Area classification, i.e. the division (zone)
(2) Gas or dust classification, i.e. the gas or dust group.
The characteristics of the gas, vapor or dust involved in relation to the igniting current or minimum ignition energy,
sensitivity and explosions severity, and safe gap data.
(3) Temperature classification.

The ignition temperature of the gas, vapor or dust involved or the lowest value of the ignition temperature if more
than one combustible material may be present
(4) Environmental conditions in which apparatus is to be installed. The selected electrical apparatus shall be
adequately protected against corrosive and solvent agencies, water ingress, thermal and mechanical stresses as
determined by the environmental conditions.
Certification of Apparatus
(1) Electrical equipment located in hazardous area shall have certification suitable for the area in which it is
installed and the gases or dust present.
(2) Electrical apparatus where used in the classified area shall be constructed and certified in accordance with
either KISCO in Korea, NEC (UL) in USA, RIIS in Japan, or CENELEC/IEC, ATEX in Europe.
(3) Certification shall be provided for all electrical apparatus selected for use in Division 1 ( Zone 1) and Division 2
(Zone 2) areas, which shall be by National Certifying Authority of countries where the apparatus is manufactured,
that is, UL or FM in USA, BASEEFA in UK, PTB in Germany, RIIS in Japan and KISCO in Korea.
(4) Apparatus approved by other authorities requires specific approval of Purchaser. Type of Protection for
Different Hazardous Areas
(1) When selecting electrical apparatus for hazardous area, the classification of the hazardous divisions (zones) is of
major importance. Table 1 shows which types of protection are permitted for the various hazardous divisions
(zones) of Class I Locations.
TYPES OF PROTECTION FOR HAZARDOUS AREAS
Most electrical equipment consists of live or active static parts, and in some cases such as motors, solenoid valves
and relays moving mechanical parts, encased in an enclosure. The electrically live conductors are kept out of touch
to prevent electric shock hazards. The detrimental effects of the atmosphere e.g. rain, sprayed water, fine dust
and particles are kept out of contact with the conductors, insulation, bearings and the like. For equipment that is to
be used in hazardous areas there is the additional requirement that gases and vapors should be restricted from
entering into the enclosure. There are various basic methods that attempt to ensure that this requirement
is achieved at a more or less degree, which generally is dependent upon the Zone of the intended area of
installation. The design of the enclosure with regard to hazardous area applications is defined by several lower case
letter codes, mostly single digits for electrical power equipment but occasionally two digits for very low energy
electronic equipment. The most frequently encountered codes are d, e, n, p and i. The lesser used codes are o, m, s
and q. Table 10.4 gives a brief description of each code. The codes are usually embraced with double or single
quotation marks or less often single round brackets ( ). The code is prefixed with the letters Ex or EEx. Occasionally
two letters are combined for special designs of equipment e.g. Ex ‘de’ for some types of motors.
Type of Protection‘d’
This type of protection is also referred to as ‘flameproof’ in some literature. An enclosure that is designed as type’s’
will be able to withstand an internal explosion of the gas-air mixture without being damaged beyond repair.
Furthermore the mating surfaces of joints e.g. terminal boxes, bearing seals on shafts, will be so designed that the
flame inside the enclosure will not pass to the outside with sufficient energy to ignite the environmental
gas-air mixture. In effect the design of the surfaces is such as to act as a very slow pressure relief system for the
internal explosion. (Care should be exercised when dismantling such an enclosure after an internal explosion has
occurred, because there may be some residual pressure internally.) By the form of the design these enclosures
are usually robust, ‘heavy duty’ and often made of thick cast iron, steel or bronze with many bolts to fasten the
fabricated sections and lids. They are therefore the most expensive enclosures when compared with the ‘e’ or ‘p’
types. It becomes impractical to manufacture‘d’ type enclosures for very large ratings of motors. The amount of
metal and machining required would not be economical and so the ‘p’ type would be an alternative. This type of
protection is mainly intended for Zone 1 areas. In addition the electrical components inside the enclosure may be
of the sparking type e.g. commutates for DC motors, local control stations with push buttons, relay boxes. When
an internal explosion occurs or under normal running conditions, the outside surface of the enclosure must not
exceed the gas-air auto ignition temperature i.e. Temperature Class. The maintenance procedures for working with
Ex‘d’ equipment need to be exercised with care so that the machined surfaces are not degraded or damaged.
BS5345 was introduced in 1976 to address this and similar subjects.
Type of Protection ‘e’
Type ‘e’ is also called ‘increased safety’ and intended for apparatus that is to be installed in a Zone 1 area. Two of
the allowable features of the type‘d’ enclosures, namely permitting sparking components and no Temperature
Class limit to the internal components, cannot be incorporated into the type ‘e’ designs. The practical aspect of this
is the removal of a source of ignition i.e. a spark or a hot surface. In many types of equipment e.g. luminaries,
terminal boxes, junction boxes, some designs of motor control stations, telephones and public address speakers;
the elimination of these two sources of ignition is not a difficult problem. For motors the removal of sparking
components, such as a commutated is not too difficult, but the prevention of a hot internal surface is a problem for
the designer. Clearly a DC motor cannot be designed as an ‘e’ type machine. The identification of hot-spots in
the windings or core of a motor at the design stage is extremely difficult. This applies especially to the rotor cage of
an induction motor. Consequently the design of an ‘e’ motor needs to be somewhat conservative. For example the
temperature rise of the windings needs to be reduced. The power output of an ‘e’ type motor for a given frame
size is generally found to be less than for type ‘d’ or ‘p’ motors. There are also restrictions on the allowable starting
current and run-up time. Hence the motor characteristics will need to be more carefully matched to the driven
machine. High inertia rotors in the driven machines should therefore be avoided. This conservativeness is also
supported by the requirement that the protective relay equipment at the motor control centre shall have special
characteristics. Hence the use of an ‘e’ type motor means that a ‘system’ of components or equipment must be
used, not just the motor by itself. This adds an element of ‘unusualness’ to the circuits in a motor control centre,
and for this reason the use of ‘e’ type motors in the oil industry is not common practice.
Type of Protection ‘i’

Intrinsically safe type ‘i’ protection is not applicable to electrical power equipment. It is mainly intended for
electronic measuring and control circuits i.e. instrumentation and telemetry. The principle behind ‘i’ protections is
that a circuit and its devices do not have sufficient operating energy or stored energy to cause a spark that will
ignite the gas-air mixture. A spark can occur but it must be inherently too weak to ignite the mixture. There are two
sub-divisions of type ‘i’, namely ‘ia’ and ‘ib’. The type ‘ia’ has a more stringent specification than ‘ib’ and is
therefore allowed to be used in a Zone 0 area. Type ‘ib’ equipment cannot be used in a Zone 0 area. Like the type
‘e’ protection of motors a ‘system’ approach is required for type ‘i’ equipment. The system includes the source of
power and its Zener Barrier, the interconnecting cables which by their nature have inductance and capacitance,
and the connected apparatus or load. If the connected apparatus has inherent capacitance or inductance then
extra attention must be paid to the design and certification of the system.
Type of Protection ‘m’

Type ‘m’ enclosures are encapsulations, for example an electronic circuit encapsulated in solid epoxy resin or fire-
resistance solid material. There are very few examples in electrical power equipment used in the oil industry.
Type of Protection ‘N’ and ‘n’

This type of protection does not have any particular title description. It also has some mixed connotations with
type of protection ‘N’ which is very similar but not identically the same. The subject of type of protection ‘N’
attracted much debate in the 1980s and 1990s, as much of which centered around whether or not sparking
equipment could be included in an enclosure. The ‘N’ was originally developed in the UK and became covered by
BS4683 Part 3. BS4683 has been superseded by BS6941, which has been updated in 1997. BS5000 part 16 covers
non sparking motors with the type of protection ‘N’. The use of type of protection ‘N’ in zone 2 areas may not be
universally assumed to be completely satisfactory, as described in Reference 5 which recommends that some
action should be taken to reduce the hazardous situation when a release of gas occurs. Taking appropriate action
manually may not be achievable on a highly reliable basis in practice. A form of automatic action will be needed
such as a ‘fire and gas detection’ scheme, with alarms and tripping functions. References 1 and 5 give good
descriptions of the background to the development of the type ‘N’ concept. Type ‘n’ was not covered by the early
editions of IEC60079; it became included as Part 15 in 1987. The basic concept of type ‘n’ protection was to have
an enclosure design that would be suitable for Zone 2 areas. The application to Zone 1 areas was deliberately
excluded. Consequently it should be possible to design an enclosure which is ‘better’ than standard industrial
designs of good quality and which has some similarity with type ‘e’ designs. The intent was to have non-sparking
components inside a suitable enclosure, and to have a certifiable item of equipment for Zone 2 use. Inherent in the
concept of a good quality industrial design for use in a Zone 2 area is the need for a robust water and dust resistant
enclosure. Hence the IEC and BSI standards require a certain high level of ‘ingress protection’, see sub-section 10.6.
In most cases the minimum ingress protection is IP54, but fully insulated conductors IP44 may be used e.g. motors.
As far as motors are concerned, the emphasis on hot surfaces, high starting currents and extended run-up
times is not as great as with type ‘e’ for Zone 1 areas, due to the inherently lower risk of hazard in a Zone 2 area.
Special protective relays are not required and a ‘system’ approach is not used. Similar design features in the
mechanical part will be found e.g. clearances of fan blades, length of the air-gap between the rotor surface and the
stator inner surface. Oil company specifications often call for non-sparking materials for the construction of the
fans. Other types of equipment than motors are often chosen with type ‘n’ enclosures, e.g. luminaries, junction
boxes, terminal boxes, if the designer can be sure that they will be located in a Zone 2 or non-hazardous area.
Type of Protection ‘o’

With this type of protection the active and sparking parts of the equipment are immersed in mineral oil. The
concept is similar to that used in the manufacture of bulk oil immersed and small volume oil immersed switchgear
(both of which are seldom encountered nowadays). Oil immersion finds application with electronic and tele
metering equipment. Type ‘o’ protection is only permitted in Zone 2 and non-hazardous areas. Oil immersed
switchgear is not normally specified in the oil industry because there are far better insulating media available in
modern designs e.g. SF6 and vacuum.
Type of Protection ‘p’

This is also known as pressurization or continuous dilution. It is mainly applied to large motors, control panels,
display panels, and occasionally special purpose generators. Type ‘p’ protection is suitable for Zone 1 and Zone 2
areas. Type ‘p’ protection allows well-designed standard industrial equipment to be used in hazardous areas,
provided that the enclosure is suitable for pressurization by air or an inert gas. The enclosure should be reasonably
airtight so that the pressurization can be maintained by a modest throughput of air or gas. The pressurization
process is carried out in two parts, the first part when the equipment is ready to be energized and the second part
to cater for the running and shutdown of the equipment. The first part is called ‘purging’. Air or inert gas is passed
into and vented from the enclosure, to purge out any gas-air mixture that may be present. The equipment is
prevented from being energized until the purging cycle is complete. The purging cycle will need to pass a
prescribed volume of air or inert gas through the equipment. Measuring devices will be incorporated into the
purging equipment to ensure that the necessary volume of air or gas has been passed. If the purging equipment
fails then the enclosure cannot be energized. The purging equipment maintains a throughput of air or gas to
balance the leakage to atmosphere from joints, bearing seals, gaskets and the like, and to maintain a prescribed
pressure inside the enclosure. The purging air must be drawn from a non-hazardous area source e.g. through
suitable ducting or from a plant air compressor. If the enclosure is large, as in the case of high voltage motors, then
the use of plant air may present problems of air consumption. The purging gas for a small enclosure may be taken
from high-pressure storage cylinders, using a suitable
pressure reduction regulator. Wherever the purging medium is derived from, it should be filtered and dried so that
the enclosure is not contaminated or dampened, and the insulation of the internal components degraded.
Type of Protection ‘q’

This type of protection uses sand or similar dry powder to exclude the flammable gas-air mixture. It is mainly
intended for electronic equipment as it has very little application in the oil industry.
Type of Protection‘s’
Type‘s’ protection is also called ‘special’ protection and enables unusual designs to be designed, tested and
certified. It is a little used method and the applications are mainly suited to electronic and low power equipment.
Type of Protection ‘de’
The type of protection ‘de’ is a hybrid of the ‘d’ and ‘e’ types. It is mainly used for motors. The concept is that the
motor is type ‘d’ whilst its terminal boxes are type ‘e’. This hybrid concept evolved from the difficulties experienced
with the use of ‘direct’ and ‘indirect’ entry of the cables at their terminal boxes. A direct entry requires a barrier
gland, which is filled with a compound to displace all the air pockets inside the gland where the cable conductors
are exposed. An indirect entry does not require a barrier gland. However, with both methods the cable gland must
be of the type of protection ‘d’, with the correct threading to suit the terminal box. The type ‘e’ terminal box
contains the winding terminations, which are usually in the form of threaded studs mounted on a robust
flameproof partition or interface. The studs are sealed into ‘through-type’ insulators, which are often made of
epoxy resin compound. The arrangement ensures a strong hermetical seal between the internal volume of the
motor and that of the terminal box. Since the components inside the terminal box are of the non-sparking type and
their surface temperature is kept low by design, then the box can be certified as type ‘e’. There must be a fully
sealed barrier or interface between the type ‘d’ part and the type ‘e’ part. Barrier glands are generally unpopular in
the oil industry because of the practical difficulties associated with making and remaking the glands in difficult
environments, for example during periods of routine maintenance. The introduction of BS5345 in the mid- 1970s
focused attention on maintenance and installation of hazardous area equipment for the first time. It placed
responsibility on the user of equipment in addition to that which already existed for the manufacturers. Keeping
the materials clean and dry whilst the glanding is being prepared is sometimes difficult e.g. outdoors offshore in
bad weather, in dusty desert conditions. Overall the type ‘e’ terminal box with a non-barrier type ‘d’ gland provides
an economical as well as a very practical method of terminating cables. The method has potential with equipment
other than motors e.g. local control stations, switched socket outlets.
CERTIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS AREA EQUIPMENT

In general the installation designer and the user require confidence that manufactured equipment for use in a
hazardous area carries an internationally recognized certificate. In addition the certificate should be the result of
laboratory testing of a sample of the same equipment. The laboratory should be specialized in the type of testing
required. In the UK and Europe a certificate is required from the manufacturer for equipment that is to be used in
Zone 1 and Zone 2 areas. In some situations a certificate will be obtained for a system of components, for example
with intrinsically safe equipment. In the USA the practice is slightly different. Only equipment that will be installed
in a Division 1 area should require a certificate. For manufacturers offering a range of products, the process of
testing and obtaining a certificate is expensive and time consuming. Subsequent modification to a design can
also be a long and expensive process for retesting and re-approval. Over the last 15 years there has been a process
called ‘harmonization’ of the various national standards within the UK and Europe with the internationally
accepted IEC standards. This has made the subject of certification rather complicated, but as time passes the
results should be simpler to obtain both for the manufacturer and to the satisfaction of the user. The
harmonization process has been managed by the Committee of Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC) in
Europe. The committee standardizes many subjects of electrical and electronic engineering, not only those
pertaining to hazardous area equipment and its installation. When equipment is certified in accordance with a
CENELEC standard the symbol ‘Ex’ is odified to become ‘EEx’. This serves to give the designer and the user extra
confidence in the certification. The certification process, like so many other manufacturing functions, is now being
influenced by the generally accepted requirement for quality assurance, through the ISO9000, 9001 and 9002
standards. There are several permutations for certification involving European harmonization and countries inside
or outside the EC (European Community). Equipment can be manufactured in any country. The manufacturer may
choose to design his equipment to the national standards of his country, or he may wish to cover a wider market
by using an international or even a CENELEC standard. Once the equipment is manufactured, samples of it will
need to be tested. There may be a testing authority in the particular country, or for some reason the manufacturer
may choose to have the testing carried out in another country e.g. the testing laboratory may have a wider scope
of facilities. Eventually the manufacturer will obtain a certificate. The installation designer and the user may need
to carefully scrutinize the whole sequence of events leading up to the issuance of a valid certificate. Reference 1
explains the European situation in detail, together with the various types of certificates that are obtainable from
within Europe and from other continents. The subject is complex and requires careful study to ensure that the
correct documentation is obtained.
MARKING OF EQUIPMENT NAMEPLATES

Hazardous area equipment that has been tested and approved by a recognized laboratory should have a marking
plate attached to its surface, in a place easily seen by the user. This plate is usually the nameplate that shows the
normal information such as the name of the manufacturer, voltage, rated power, full load current, frequency,
model number, serial number, ambient temperature and date of manufacture. The additional information to be
shown for the hazardous area application should be at least the following:
• Applicable national or international standard e.g. BS5501 Part 5, IEC60079 Part 2.
• Name or abbreviation of the testing laboratory that issued the certificate, e.g. BASEEFA.
• Approved symbol for the certifying authority, and if appropriate the EEC hexagonal symbol.
• Type of protection e.g. EEx ‘d’, Ex ‘e’, Ex ‘n’.
• Gas Group e.g. IIA, IIB, IIC.
• Temperature Class e.g. T6.
• Certificate unique identification number.
Now we move on to the procedures/ steps to be followed for classification of an area into hazardous and non
hazardous.
PROCEDURES
In preparing the electrical area classification, a number of steps are followed:
Step 1- The flammable material present in the unit are defined
Step 2- Plot plan of the area for which hazardous area classification to be made
Step 3- The flammable material content per process equipment is defined
Step 4- The grade of sources of release and ventilation type is determined
Step 5- The type of zones is determined.
Step 6- Classification of temperature class.
Step 7- The extent of zones is determined.
Step 8- The minimum required types of protection for electrical and instrument equipment are determined.
To understand the steps better, we move into a depth of the steps-
STEP 1:
Flammable Material present in the project Area. The flammable materials present in the project area are to be
listed in a tabular form called Hazardous Source List. A sample source list is attached in Appendix 1. For the
purpose of area classification, the flammable materials have an indication of gas groups and temperature class.
Flammable materials are classified as by gas groups, according to their maximum experimental safe gaps and
minimum ignition currents. Gas groups are I, IIA, IIB and IIC. Gas group IIC (Hydrogen) is the most stringent. Gas
groups of the flammable materials (as determined by tests) are derived from IEC 79-12. Flammable materials are
classified by Temperature classes such that the maximum surface temperature of the electrical apparatus is below
the lowest ignition temperature of the explosive gas mixture. Temperature classes are T1 through T6 in which T6
(85 deg C) is the most stringent. This is a vital input for classification of hazardous area. This information has to
acquire from process department.
STEP-2:
Plot plan of the area for which hazardous area classification to be made. The plot plan should indicate all the
equipments like vessels, containers, tanks, pumps, flanges, valves, etc wherever there is a possibility of release of
gases. This is another vital input for classification of the area. A proper and précised plot plan depicting each
equipment of the area is very important for proper classification. This is also to be acquired and validated from
process department
STEP-3:
The flammable material content per process equipment is listed in the source list. The process equipment of the
plant often do not contain products of only one gas group but mixtures of products of different gas groups.
Unless unique gas group/ temperature class is available for a particular mixture, definition of the area is based on
following:
Upon release, gas mixtures are considered to separate immediately into their separate gases. The percentage (by
volume) of the individual components of the mixture is indicated in source list. Mixtures from flammable materials
of gas groups IIA/ IIB with hydrogen (gas group IIC), the hydrogen can be discarded if, under any process condition,
it constitutes less than 30% volume of the mixture. The definition of a certain area is based on the
minimum temperature class and most stringent gas group of any gas within a mixture, possible within that area
If the separate gases of a mixture are both lighter and heavier than air, the extent of each separate area is
indicated on the area classification layout. Conversely, when mixture is composed of lighter-than-air and heavier-
than-air gases and the mixture density is less than 75% of the density of air at standard conditions, the extent of
the classified area shall satisfy the requirements for lighter-than-air vapors. Where the mixture has a density equal
to or greater than 75% of air at standard conditions, it shall be considered as heavier-than-air vapors for area
classification purposes. This is another input, which is also a part of source list to be furnished by process
department
STEP 4:
The grade of sources of release and ventilation type unless otherwise mentioned, all sources of release are of
secondary grade (a source which is not expected to release in normal operations and, if it releases, is likely to do so
only infrequently and for short periods). This is part of source list and the information is generally furnished in the
source list.
STEP 5:
Classification of Zones
The classification of zone is based on the expected existence, the probability of existence, or the non existence of
an atmosphere, containing a concentration of vapors or gases within the flammable limits of the specific
flammable material involved. They may be classified as Zone 0, Zone 1 or Zone 2. This information can be obtained
from grade of source of release. This step and all other steps following it is part of output and is responsibility of
electrical department
STEP 6:
Classification of temperature class
Once we have the hazardous source list we must identify the temperature class of the equipment. The
temperature class depends upon the auto ignition temperature of the gas handled by the equipment. Temperature
classification should be always lower than the auto ignition temperature of the gas. Classification of temperature
class should be based on Table-3 shown above.
STEP 7:
Extent of zones
The extent of zone classification can be based on standards like IEC60079, API505, IP, and OISD113. Here in our
study we are going to adhere with API505.The extent of classifications are made on the plot plan, a well as
sectional view.
After classification of the zones and identifying extent of zones , the most vital step and aim for all the exercise is
done that is selection of equipment as per the area classification, so that the project is cost effective and safe.
STEP 8:
Types of protection
The Types of protection for electrical and instrument which are allowed to be used certain types of zones, are
based on local regulations and/or contract requirements.
Some special considerations
1. Gas / Vapour in an enclosed hazardous area can be diluted by dispersion or diffusion into the air until it's
concentration is below the lower flammable limit (LFL). Degree of ventilation (natural or artificial) can determine
the Division / Zone. For further details, refer IEC 60079-10 Annex B, API RP 500 Section 6.3.
2. In vendor supplied skids handling flammable liquids / gases, welded piping is used and skid is categorized as
general purpose. When flanged connection is used as interface with such a skid, a Class I, Div 2 (alternatively Class
I, Zone 2) area is created. This requires all devices on the skid under influence of this new hazardous area, to be
suitable for this area. This leads to a major problem with potential costly fixes. It is recommended that welded
piping be used whenever possible. Also, placing large motors / devices with contacts in the 4.6 m (15’) radius zone
of a potential leak source like a flange, shall be avoided.
In vendor supplied skids handling flammable liquids / gases, welded piping is used and skid is categorized as
general purpose. When flanged connection is used as interface with such a skid, a Class I, Div 2 (alternatively Class
I, Zone 2) area is created. This requires all devices on the skid under influence of this new hazardous area, to be
suitable for this area. This leads to a major problem with potential costly fixes. It is recommended that welded
piping be used whenever possible. Also, placing large motors / devices with contacts in the 4.6 m (15’) radius zone
of a potential leak source like a flange, shall be avoided.
3 When a mixture contains gases of different Groups, the area classification shall be based on following conditions:
Ignition temperature of that gas (or vapor) having lowest ignition temperature shall be considered. Alternatively,
tests for ignition temperature may be required. If specific gravity of resultant mixture is greater than 1 than gas
shall be considered heavier than air. If specific gravity is less than 1, than gas shall be considered lighter than air.
4 Charging of non-sealed battery cells leads to creation of Hazardous area since the cells act as primary source of
emission of Hydrogen. Battery rooms that are adequately ventilated as per guidelines laid by IEEE 484 shall be
treated as unclassified. For interiors of unventilated Battery room, electrical area classification shall be Class I,
Division I (or alternatively, Zone 1 ), Group B ( or alternatively Group IIC ).
Special precaution shall be exercised in classifying hazardous locations associated with Crude Oil. Crude oil contains
volatile “light ends “which may be released during storage and handling or upon heating. Flash point of crude oil
can range from zero to over 150°F (-17°C to 66°C). The volatile light ends of crude oils, such as propane, butane and
pentane, upon leakage or other release to atmosphere, may volatilize at ambient temperature. Being heavier than
air, the vaporized hydrocarbons may travel for considerable distances and accumulate in hazardous concentrations
Electrical Area Classification Drawing: the drawings are as per API
Here are few drawings of typical equipments and classification of the zones as per API. For any other specialized
type of equipment refer API or OISD. The extent of classification may vary from one standard to other slightly but
the basic concept remains same. Electrical installations in areas where flammable liquids, gases, or vapors are
produced, processed, stored or otherwise handled can be suitably designed if the locations of potential sources of
release and accumulation are clearly defined. Once a location has been classified, requirements for electrical
equipment and associated wiring should be determined from applicable publications. Applicable publications may
include NFPA 70 (NEC) or API RP 14F.
CABLING SYSTEM
Cables provide a highly reliable and compact method of transmitting power from its source to its consumer. Cables
are installed in open air on racks or ladders, in the ground, or underwater as in the case of submarine cables.
Power at all the voltages normally encountered in the industry i.e., less than 100 V and up to 33 kV, can be
transmitted efficiently by single and multi-core cables. Over the last 30 years there has been a progressive
improvement in the materials used in the construction of cables, especially in the non-metallic materials. This has
been due to several necessary requirements e.g,
a) To maximize the conductor temperature and hence the power transmitted.
b) To provide high resistance to mechanical wear and tear, both during the laying of the cables, and in their on-
going use when they may be disturbed in the future.
c) To withstand the effects of chemical attack from their environment e.g., when laid in polluted ground.
d) To withstand the damaging effects of steady state and transient overvoltage.
e) To withstand the impact of heat from the environment when exposed to fire and high radiant temperatures.
f) To withstand freezing temperatures and embitterment.
g) To be resistant to ultraviolet light when exposed to bright sunlight.
Not all of the above requirements are needed for a particular plant. The specification of the cable and its materials
should take account of the changes in its environment throughout a one-year cycle. The conductor current rating
should be based on the worst-case conditions if the cable is to be fully utilized and expected to give a long life time
of service.
ELECTRICALLY CONDUCTING MATERIALS USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF CABLES

Copper and aluminum are used in their highly refined form for the power conductors of cables. The total impurities
contained in high conductivity copper should be less than 0.1% and for aluminum less than 0.5%. The measured
conductivity of these metals will have its highest value when they are annealed. Hard drawn conductors will have
conductivity that is several percentage points lower than the annealed value. Note that castings made of these
materials will generally have conductivity slightly lower than their rolled and drawn forms. The presence of oxygen
in the form of oxides is the most common impurity. It slightly reduces the conductivity, malleability and ductility of
the metal. For use in most power cable applications these metals are formed into annealed conductors. Copper is
generally the preferred material for cable conductors used in the oil industry. Aluminum is seldom chosen for
conductors. It is sometimes used for the armoring of single-core cables that carry AC, or DC, if a substantial AC
ripple is present e.g., DC, motors fed from a thyristor controlled power source.
Tin
Tin metal is occasionally specified to provide a thin layer on the outer surface of copper conductors. Historically
this tin layer gave protection against corrosion of the copper surface from rubber insulation, which contained
substances such as sulphur. Large proportions of sulphur were added during the vulcanizing process to increase
the hardness and tensile strength of the rubber. The modern use of ‘plastic’ insulation instead of rubber
compounds means that the layer of tin is no longer required in most applications. Tin is beneficial in situations
where soldered lugs are used to terminate the copper conductors, although modern methods of crimping lugs
onto their conductors has tended to make the use of tin unnecessary. Tin is also used as a coating for copper armor
wires or armor braiding where rubber compounds are used in the inner or outer sheathing.
Phosphor Bronze
Phosphor bronze is an alloy of mainly copper, 5 to 10% tin and approximately 0.1% phosphorous.
The alloy has superior mechanical strength when compared with copper. It is also very resistant to corrosion,
particularly in the presence of water. Phosphor bronze is used as wire in the armoring of cables to provide
moderate protection against mechanical damage. It is formed into a tightly woven braid to form a non-magnetic,
highly conductive, armoring and electromagnetic screen. It is a practical alternative to tinned copper braid in many
applications where steel wire should not be used. The alloy is also used in the form of a thin tape for the purpose
of repelling insects e.g., ants, termites and marine teredo worms. The tapes are placed underneath the main
armoring and on top of the inner sheathing
Galvanized Steel
Galvanized steel is used for the cable armor where a high degree of mechanical protection is required, and where
high pulling forces are experienced during the installation of the cable, especially in the laying of submarine cables.
The armor wires are formed into a helical cage to give the highest protection or as a braid when flexibility
is required during the installation and a lesser level of protection can be accepted. Mild steel is used for the
armoring of cables laid on land. For submarine cables the material can be specified as carbon steel, which has a
higher tensile strength. The depth of the galvanizing is specified in the international standards. The cross-
sectional area of each armor wire (in a helix and not in a braid) varies from typically 0.9 mm for small power and
control cables e.g. 1.5 and 2.5 mm2 conductors, to 2.5 mm for 400 mm2 low voltage high power cables. For
submarine cables the wire diameter can be up to 6.0 mm and for some deep ocean applications two layers of
armor wires are used. Steel wire armor as opposed to steel wire braid has lower electrical impedance
for a given length of cable. This is an important benefit in networks that are solidly earthed at their power source.
Some special applications that require as low impedance as is practical to achieve in the cable have some of the
armor wires replaced by copper wires. Hence the parallel circuit consisting of the steel and copper wires has lower
total impedance than the steel wires on their own. The impedance of the armoring, with or without the copper
wires, is predominantly resistive and so the inductive reactance at the power frequency can therefore be ignored.
Lead
Metallic lead is occasionally used as an extruded sheath to provide protection against chemical corrosion where it
is necessary to bury cables in polluted or aggressive soils. Examples of these are found in chemical plants,
refineries, storage tank farms and areas that have high water tables. The lead is often alloyed with small amounts
of tin and antimony to improve its ability to withstand mechanical fatigue, such as fatigue experienced in long
distance transportation to site. Lead sheathed cables should not be installed where regular cyclic physical
movement will be experienced.
ELECTRICALLY NON-CONDUCTING MATERIALS USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF CABLES

Definition of Basic Terminology
Some terms are used loosely in various engineering disciplines e.g. plastic, rubber. However, they have particular
connotations in electrical engineering, especially in the field of cable manufacturing.
Rubber
Rubber is obtained in two basic forms, natural rubber and synthetic rubber. Natural rubber is the sap of the
particular species of trees called Hevea brasiliensis, which is sticky when at tropical temperature, reasonably hard
at low temperatures and oxidizes when exposed to the atmosphere. Natural rubber is a naturally occurring
compound of carbon and hydrogen, and is of little use as a basic material. It is therefore mixed with other chemical
compounds, filler materials such as carbon black and then vulcanised to produce ‘vulcanised rubber’ or more
generally called simply ‘rubber’. The vulcanizing process requires sulphur to be added and the application of heat
and pressure. The molecules of rubber are formed in long chains. Individual chains are not bonded to adjacent
chains; hence the chains can slide alongside each other with little resistance to movement. This gives processed
rubber the ability to recover without permanent deformation. Natural rubber does not necessarily recover to its
original shape, since its stability depends on its ambient temperature. Vulcanizing or ‘curing’ causes the sulphur
to cross-bond adjacent chains, which stiffens the material thereby making it more useful. By increasing the sulphur
content or extending the vulcanizing time, or a combination of both functions, the rubber becomes progressively
harder with higher tensile strength. Increasing additives such as carbon black can reduce the dielectric strength,
thereby making the rubber a poorer insulator. Carbon by itself is of course a conductor. Synthetic rubbers are also
composed of carbon and hydrogen molecules, but they are combined by manufacturing processes. A synthetic
rubber, which closely resembles natural rubber, is polyisoprene, which has the same chemical composition.
Elastomer
The term ‘elastomer’ is the most appropriate technical term for rubber, and is generally applied to synthetic
rubbers, e.g. ethylene propylene rubber. It derives its name from the well-known elastic property of rubber.
However some non-rubber compounds are also called elastomers if they exhibit a non deforming elastic property
similar to rubber at room temperature, even if the compound is relatively hard. The two main groups of non-
rubber elastomers are thermoplastics, e.g., polyvinyl chloride, polypropylene and thermosets, e.g., ethylene
propylene rubber, cross-linked polyethylene. These two groups are also covered by the term ‘plastic’.
Polymer
A polymeric compound contains several different molecules e.g., carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, silicon, chlorine,
sulphur. These molecules combine in small groups usually with a carbon molecule in the middle. The group is
repeated linearly many times in the form of a chain. Polymers can be natural or synthetic materials, which include
but are not limited to rubbers, elastomers and plastics. When two polymers are combined the resulting compound
is called a copolymer.
Plastic
This is a very widely used term to describe typical household, automobile and industrial components that are
moulded from man-made chemical compounds. In the electrical engineering field the term has a more specific
definition, especially where insulation materials are being described. Plastic materials are those that are formed
from synthetic compounds e.g., polymers or natural compounds that have previously been modified, for
example hydrocarbons refined from crude oil, natural gas or derivatives of ethane, methane and naphtha. By
definition the manufacturing of a plastic component should include a viscous flowing process that usually requires
heat and pressure, for example extrusion or injection moulding. Two important groups of insulating and sheathing
materials that also come within the definition of plastic are the thermoplastic and thermoset polymeric
compounds.
Resin
The preferred term for synthetic polymers is resin polymers or simply resins. Hence the two main groups are
thermoplastic resins and thermoset resins.
Thermoplastic resins
Thermoplastic resins (elastomers and polymers) are plastics that retain their flexibility and chemical composition
when heat is applied and removed. The applied heat is only sufficient to steadily melt the resin. The most widely
used thermoplastic resins used in cables are polyvinyl chloride (in various forms), polyethylene (in several forms),
polypropylene and polytetrafluoroethylene. In general these resins in their basic forms do not have sufficiently
good properties to make them attractive as materials for cables. The necessary properties for insulation are usually
different from those required for sheathing and bedding, even though the same basic resin may be used for these
purposes. Other substances are polymerized or mixed with the basic resin during its manufacture.
These substances are used to improve or provide:-
• High dielectric strength.
• Low dielectric loss angle.
• High insulation resistivity.
• High melting temperature.
• High tensile strength and resistance to mechanical impact.
• Good flexibility.
• Good handling properties for installation and termination.
• Good resistance to ultraviolet light.
• Good dimensional stability.
• Long service life.
• Low water absorption.
• Low emission of smoke and acid gases during fire situations.
• Low flammability.
• Low solubility in mineral oils (drilling mud), acids, alkalis, organic compounds and solvents.
• Good extrusion performance.
• High resistance to ozone.
Not all of the above can be optimized for a particular type of cable. Some sacrifices need to be made when a
particular property or overall performance is to be obtained. For example good performance during a fire inside a
building where people are present and smoke and gas must be minimized.
Thermoset resins
Thermoset resins do not melt when heated, and are irreversibly changed after the heat is removed. They are
produced from a two-stage chemical process. The second stage is called ‘cross-linking’, and is similar to vulcanizing.
The process requires heat, pressure, catalysts, or irradiation, or a combination of these additives to produce the
desired material. Thermoplastic resins can be further processed by ‘cross-linking’ techniques to produce
thermosets. The thermoset elastomers most frequently used for cables are ethylene propylene rubber and cross-
linked polyethylene. Thermosets are widely used as sheet type insulating materials, adhesives, jointing compounds
for cables and solid mouldings such as post insulators. Electrical and physical properties of thermoplastic and
thermoset resins There are many thermoplastic and thermoset resins but only a few developed for use in
manufacturing cables. Commonly Used Insulations for Cables
Mainly three types of insulating materials are used in the industry for insulation of the cables namely PVC, XLPE
and EPR. Conductor maximum continuous temperature in ◦C for PVC is 70C, for XLPE 90C and for EPR 85 to 90C.
Max conductor temp ◦C for 5 sec short circuit in accordance with IEC 502 for PVC is 160C, for XLPE 250C and For
EPR is 250C.
Conductor
The conductors are usually copper or aluminum. Aluminum is seldom used in the oil industry because it work
hardens during installation, has higher losses, has high volt-drop at rated current and requires special attention
during termination. Copper and aluminum conductors are described in IEC60228 (BS6360), which divides
them into a number of classes. Class 1 applies to single stranded conductors, but these are only used in sizes
normally less than 1.5 mm2, and even then finely stranded conductors are preferred. For sizes equal to or greater
than 1.5 mm2 Class 2 is used, and the lowest number of strands used is 7 for sizes up to 16 mm2 for marine and
off shore installations and up to 35 mm2 for onshore installations. Marine and offshore installations usually require
the cable to be more flexible for handling during laying and smaller bending radii during termination. Higher
flexibility can be obtained by finer stranding as given by Class 5 of the standard is preferred with a maximum of 400
mm2 for single core cables due to difficulties in laying larger sizes.
For LV cables having a cross-sectional area above approximately 25 mm2 the conductors would usually be formed
into sector shaped conductors. In general cable sizes above 400 mm2 are rarely used in the oil industry.
Stranding
Stranding provides flexibility to the cable needed to pull, bend, and terminate it. For most cables, Class B stranding
is sufficient. If extra flexibility is needed, Class C stranding can be specified. See ASTM B8, B496, or IEC 60228 for
additional information. Conductors are available in concentric round, compressed, compact, segmental, bunched
and rope lay constructions. Thermocouple extension cables and some specialty cables are solid conductors.
Coating
Tin or alloy coating of the copper conductors was a standard practice in the cable industry before the 1970s when
manufacturing processes and cable insulation contained sulfur. Today, the amount of sulfur used is greatly
reduced, allowing many manufacturers to offer uncoated copper conductors. The purchase of cable with
uncoated copper conductors can result in cost savings to the project by having lower conductor resistances and
weight on the cable. These savings are most evident with larger sized cables, e.g., 250 kcmil (120 sq mm) and
larger. It is recommended that 1/0 AWG (50 sq mm) and larger cables be purchased with uncoated conductors to
take advantage of the cost savings. See ASTM B33, B189 or IEC 60228 for additional information.
Conductor Semiconducting Screen

The purpose of the screen is to reduce the voltage gradient (electric stress) at the surface of the conductor where it
interfaces with the insulation. Otherwise irregularities in the interface could initiate failure of the insulation in the
longer term.
Insulation
The most frequently used insulating compounds are PVC, XLPE and EPR. For most onshore applications PVC and
XLPE are preferred because of economic reasons, and XLPE is becoming more popular than PVC. Marine and
offshore applications tend to prefer XLPE and EPR. EPR is usually more expensive than XLPE. Both compounds
have the advantage that they permit the conductors to operate at higher temperatures (85 to 90◦C) than those of
PVC (70◦C). PVC compounds can be specially manufactured to tolerate conductor temperatures up to 85◦C. Silicon
rubber can be specified if high conductor temperatures (up to 180◦C), and for even higher temperatures (up to
260◦C) Insulation Semiconductor Screen
The insulation screen is important in three-core cables because it prevents the inter-core electric stressing that
would occur if the screen were not present. It maintains a radial stress pattern in each core, which is independent
of the other cores.
Inner Sheath
An inner sheath, usually made of extruded polymer, is used to cover the insulation screen, and to fill in the
interstices between the cores of a multi-core cable. It is important to fill the interstitial spaces for two reasons.
Firstly to ensure good circularity and dimensional accuracy of the finished cable, and secondly to prevent an
internal passage within the cable along which flammable gases could travel. The transmission of such gases along a
cable must be eliminated by design and construction for cables that are used in hazardous areas.
Lead Sheathing
Lead is used as a sheathing material for protecting the cable from chemical attack whilst it is buried directly in
hostile ground conditions, e.g. in chemical and refinery plants.
Armouring
In order to minimize the possible damage to a cable, and to provide a safe path for electrical earth return currents,
it is necessary to specify a metallic armoring. There are several types of metallic armouring used in the oil industry,
i.e. galvanized steel wires (GSWA), aluminum wires (AWA), tinned copper wire braid (TCUWB), phosphor bronze
wire braid (PBWB)
Outer Sheath
Oil industry cables are usually finished with an extruded heavy-duty polymeric sheath such as PVC, PE. For
situations where resistance to heat, oil and flames is necessary it is the practice to use special elastomeric that are
identified as HOFR types. These compounds include EVA, EMA, CPE, and EPR together with suitable fillers that are
used during their curing processes. BS7655 details the requirements for HOFR cables, and IEC60332 for their fire
retardance.
Voltage grade of cable

For cables the AC rms voltages are defined for example in IEC60502, in terms of their line-to-earth and line-to-line
values. Note that occasionally u0 is quoted as the value obtained by dividing u by 1.732 and rounding to one
decimal place to be consistent with Table 5.1 where 20% upward margin is added to obtain um before rounding is
applied.
IEC standard rated voltages of power cables
Line-to- earth voltage Line-to-Line Voltage Maximum value of the highest

system line-to-line voltage
uo u um
600 1,000
1,800 3,000 3,600
3,600 6,000 7,200
6,000 10,000 12,000
8,700 15,000 17,500
12,000 20,000 24,000
18,000 30,000 36,000
Notation of cable
a) Letters used in Type designations:
A = Appearing as a first letter denotes Aluminum Conductor.

Y = (PVC) Insulation or (PVC) Sheath depending on the position in which it appears. 2X = X (Cross-linked
Polyethylene) Insulation.
W = Round Steel Wire Armouring.
WW = Double Round Steel Wire Armouring.
F = Formed Steel Wire (Strip) Armouring.

FF = Double Formed Steel Wire (Strip) Armouring. C = Metallic Screening (Usually of Copper).
CE = Metallic Screening (usually of Copper) over each individual core. Gb = Holding Helix Tape (of Steel)
Wa = Aluminum Round Wire & Aluminum Formed Wire (Strip) Fa Armouring
b) Type Designations:
AYY Aluminum Conductor, PVC Insulated, PVC Outer Sheathed Non Armoured Cables.
AYWY Aluminum Conductor, PVC Insulated, Galvanized Round Steel Wire Armoured and PVC Outer Sheathed
Cables.
AYFY Aluminum Conductor, PVC Insulated, Galvanized Flat Steel Wire (Strip) Armoured and PVC Outer Sheathed
Cable.
AYCY Aluminum Conductor, PVC Insulated, Metallic Screened and PVC Outer Sheathed Non Armoured Cable.
A2XCY Aluminum Conductor, XLPE Insulated, Metallic Screened and PVC Outer Sheathed Non Armoured Cable.
AYCEFY Aluminum Conductor, PVC Insulated, individual core metallic screened flat steel Wire (strip) Armoured and
PVC Outer Sheathed Cable.
A2XCEFY Aluminum Conductor, XLPE Insulated, individual cores metallic screened Flat Steel Wire (Strip) Armoured
and PVC Outer Sheathed Cable.
NOTE:
If the first letter A is dropped in the above designations (i.e. YY, YWY, YFY etc.) they will denote corresponding
types with Copper Conductors.
YWWG by… (Mining) Copper Conductor, PVC Insulated, double round wire armored and PVC Outer Sheathed
Heavy Duty Mining Cable.
YFFG by… (Mining) Copper Conductor, PVC Insulated, double flat wire (strip) armored and PVC Outer Sheathed
Heavy Duty Mining Cable.
GENERAL
Power cables supply power to the various plant loads such as motors, heaters, chargers, transformers, and motor
control centers. Low voltage power cable is used for systems rated 1000 V or less. Medium voltage cables are used
for systems rated between 1001 V and 69 kV. Medium voltage cables 8 kV or greater are typically shielded. 5 kV
cables may or may not be shielded. 1/C, 3/C or triplex are the preferred cable constructions that are used for such
types of cables. These cables may be armored if conditions call for it. Conductors may be either copper or
aluminum. Copper is recommended for most installations.
Control Cable
Control cables are used to interconnect protective relays, control switches, push buttons & contacts from various
devices. These cables carry low current levels and are used for intermittent operation to change the operating
status of a utilization device. Control cables are typically of multi-conductor construction (2/C, 3/C, 7/C, 12/C, etc)
and are rated for a minimum of 600 V. In case the cables are in proximity to high voltage systems (substations etc)
and where additional mechanical protection is specified, 1 kV or 2 kV ratings are used. Control cables are used
without shields except in case of high voltage substations where they are procured with electrostatic shields.
Instrumentation Cable
Instrumentation cables carry low-level digital or analog signals. Low-level signals are usually variable voltage or
currents from instrumentation systems. Instrument cables are made in pairs or triads and are typically specified
with a 300 V rating. The individual pairs/triads are typically shielded. A shield may also be provided over all the
pairs in a multi-pair cable.
Thermocouple Cable
Thermocouple extension cables are used to connect thermocouples to measuring instruments (typically, the
distributed control system). These are constructed in pairs and are rated for 300 V. The pairs are also normally
shielded similar to the instrumentation cables. Conductor materials are the same as the thermocouple. Solid
conductors are used.
Coaxial/Triaxial Cable
Coaxial/triaxial cables are used when the signal or instrument system requires low attenuation, lower capacitance,
greater bandwidth etc. These are typically specified for low level and /or high frequency signal applications. The
shield on a coaxial cable and the inner shield on a triaxial cable are referred to as being the second conductor as
they act as a return path for the signal. Common applications for such cables are data highways, video
transmission, and security systems.
Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cables are used in similar applications like the coaxial/triaxial cables but have better operating
characteristics. These cables consist of a glass fiber with a cladding member, enclosed in a tube, with a strength
member and an overall jacket. These cables are free from electromagnetic interference and immune to lightning
and surge voltages.
CABLE SIZING
CABLE RATING & SIZING

The following factors are to be considered for sizing and rating a cable:
• Voltage Rating (rated operating & peak withstand)
• Short circuit rating
• Emergency overload rating
• Voltage drop
• Current carrying capability (ampacity)
Voltage Rating
The voltage rating of the cable insulation is based on the phase-to-phase voltage of the system in which the cable is
to be used, system grounding/earthing (grounded or ungrounded) and the fault clearing time for ground/earth
faults on a system by the protective devices. In case of systems where a ground/earth fault is not isolated
promptly, the cable insulation is subject to extra stresses during the fault conditions, affecting the cable life.
Therefore, such cables must have greater insulation thickness. Medium Voltage Power Cable Insulation Levels -
ANSI based Projects An insulation level of 100, 133, or 173 percent must be specified when purchasing medium
voltage power cables. These insulation levels correspond to the fault clearing time for the system voltage level
being used.
• The 100-percent insulation level is generally applicable to electrical systems having relay protection such that
ground faults will be cleared as rapidly as possible but, in any case, within 1-minute of occurrence. Usually, these
are solidly grounded systems.
• The 133-percent insulation level applies to systems whose breaker clearing time is not within the 1-minute
criterion but offering adequate assurance that the fault will be cleared within 1 hour. Usually, these are
ungrounded or high resistance grounded systems.
• The 173-percent criterion applies to systems in which the fault clearing time is indefinite. The 133 percent
insulation level is the most common and is recommended for ungrounded systems. In accordance with the
NEMA/ICEA standards, the voltage rating, printed on the cable jacket, is the phase-to-phase voltage of the cable.
For example, cable rated 15 kV is appropriate for 15 kV phase-to-phase, but is appropriate only for 8,660 volts
phase-to-ground under normal operating conditions. For ungrounded or resistance grounded systems under fault
conditions, the phase-to-ground voltage rises to 15 kV until the fault is cleared. The clearing time determines
whether the insulation level should be 100, 133, or 173 percent. If a system were designed that has a line to
neutral voltage of 15 kV, the phase-to-phase voltage of the system would be 26 kV, and a 15 kV rated cable would
not be suitable, in which case, the next standard cable rating, 28 kV, should be selected.
Medium Voltage Power Cable Voltage Ratings - IEC based Projects The voltage designation/rating U0/U should be
per the relevant cable standard, for e.g., 600/1000V, 1900/3300V etc. and should be appropriate for the type of
system & earthing arrangements. To facilitate the selection of appropriate voltage rating of a cable, the systems
are divided into three categories per IEC 60183.
• Category A, comprises those systems in which any phase conductor that comes in contact with
earth/earth conductor, is disconnected within 1-minute.
• Category B, comprises those systems which, under fault conditions, are operated for short time
with one phase earthed. This period should not exceed 1-hour.
• Category C, comprises those systems which do not fall into category A or B.
Fault Current Rating
During short circuit conditions, the temperature of the conductor rises rapidly. The short circuit capacity is limited
by the maximum temperature capability of the insulation. For e.g., XLPE/EPR insulated cables are designed to
operate with a continuous conductor temperature of 90oC and a maximum of 250oC under short circuit. The
corresponding figures for PVC are 70oC and 160oC respectively. Failure to check the conductor size for short-circuit
heating could result in permanent damage to the cable insulation and could also result into fire. In addition to the
thermal stresses, the cable may also be subjected to significant mechanical stresses. The maximum temperature
reached under short circuit depends on both the magnitude and duration of the short circuit current. The quantity
I2t represents the energy input by a fault that acts to heat up the cable conductor. This can be related to conductor
size by the formula:
Minimum cable size is calculated from following formula:
I = short-circuit current in rms amperes

t = duration of short circuit in seconds,
(tc)A = cable conductor cross sectional area in circular mils or mm2 (use actual mm2 instead of nominal size)
C = Constant equal to 0.0297 for copper & 0.0125 for aluminum
T1: Initial operating temperature (Max. permissible continuous conductor temperature)
(T1 = 90 OC for XLPE insulated conductor)
T2: Maximum permissible temperature at short circuit
(T2 = 250 OC for XLPE insulated conductor)
T0 = 234.5° C for copper and 228.1° C for aluminum
On medium voltage systems, the fault current at the load will not be significantly different than at the source due
to the system impedance. Cable impedances have little effect on reducing the fault levels. However, in case of low
voltage systems or when the loads are far from the source the cable impedances have a major effect in reducing
the fault levels at the load end.
Sizing - Recommendations
The short circuit capacity need not be calculated for every cable. Generally, low voltage branch circuit feeders are
not sized for short circuit withstands current. It is conventional to calculate the minimum cable size required for
each switchboard or system and then ensure that all cables are of at least this size. Different sizes may be selected
in line with the different types of protection applied. Generally short circuit capacity will be of greatest concern on
high voltage systems.
ANSI based projects
The fault current (I) in the above equation varies with time. However, calculating the exact value of the fault
current and sizing the cable based on that can be complicated. To simplify the process the cable can be sized based
on the interrupting capability of the circuit breakers/fuses that protect them. This approach assumes that the
available fault current is the maximum capability of the breaker/fuse and also accounts for the cable impedances in
reducing the fault levels. The fault clearing time (tc) of the breakers/fuses per ANSI/IEEE C37.010, C37.013, and UL
489 are:
• For medium voltage system (4.16 kV) breakers, use 5-8 cycles
• For starters with current limiting fuses, use. ½ cycles
• For low voltage breakers with intermediate/short time delay, use 10 cycles
• For low voltage breakers with instantaneous trips, use 1 cycle
These are recommended values, and can be modified based on specific project data. In case the short circuit data
at different voltage levels are available based on an ETAP study, the same can be used for sizing the cables.
IEC based projects for fuse protected equipment the value of I2t can be calculated from the fuse
characteristic directly. For low voltage fuses maximum allowable operating time is 5 seconds for fixed equipment
and 0.4 seconds for socket outlets and portable equipment. These are voltage dependant. Operating time for the
fuse at the expected current should be considered. For circuit breaker fed circuits with instantaneous protection, it
is conventional to assume t = 0.2 seconds. The current is assumed to be the switchgear short circuit rating,
however, in some cases this can lead to cables with large cross sectional area, which practically, cannot be
accommodated. In these circumstances the actual or future projected fault current produces more prudent results.
For circuit breaker fed circuits without instantaneous protection, protection operating times of 1 second are
normally assumed. It should be noted that if inverse definite minimum time delay relays have time settings greater
than 0.5, then longer operating times are required. Again the current is assumed to be the switchgear short circuit
rating. Most cable manufacturers produce graphs of conductor short circuit capacity.
Short Circuit Rating of Shield/Screen

In case of shielded power cables during ground/earth fault conditions, the shield/screen can be damaged if
exposed to excessive fault currents. The shield must be large enough to carry the fault current for a sufficient
length of time to permit the system protective devices to operate. The suitability of the shield can be calculated
using,
I = Fault current flowing through the shield in amperes

A = Area of shield in circular mils or mm2/1974 (use actual mm2 instead of nominal size)
K = Constant based on temperature limits of jackets and metallic portion of shield
T = duration of fault in seconds
When the ground/earth fault current is greater than the short circuit current, it will also be necessary to re-check
that the phase conductor is still protected against damage by the ground/earth fault current.
Emergency Overload Rating

Conductor operating temperature affects the life of the insulation. The life of the cable insulation is approximately
halved and the thermally caused service failure doubled for every 8° to 10°C rise in temperature. Sustained
operation over the normal operating temperature or ampacity should not be allowed. Overloading for short
periods of time can be considered, provided the following conditions are met for ANSI/IEC based
projects.
ANSI Based Projects

The changes in cable temperature are not instantaneous based on variation in load. During overload conditions,
the cable may be overloaded for short periods of time. The ICEA has established maximum emergency overload
temperatures for various insulations. For e.g., 130°C for XLPE and 130°/140°C for EPR rated at 90°/105°C
continuous rating. Warning, cable expansion may be a problem at elevated temperatures, particularly for XLPE
which has a high coefficient of expansion. For exceptionally long cable lengths providing expansion loop may be
considered. Operations at the emergency overload temperature should not exceed 100 hours/year or more than
500 hours during the life of the cable. Refer to IEEE 141, Table 12-5 for uprating factors for short time overloads for
various types of insulated cables. This uprating factor multiplied by the nominal current rating of a cable for a
particular installation will give the emergency or overload current rating for the particular installation.
IEC based Projects

For IEC cable current capability, the following definitions apply:
In = the nominal current or current setting of the protective device Ib = the design current.
Iz = the current carrying capacity of the conductors, under particular installation conditions.
I2 = the current causing the effective operation of the protective device. Relationship between In, Ib, Iz, and I2
In must be greater than or equal to Ib
Iz must be greater than or equal to In
I2 must not exceed 1.45Iz
HRC (high rupturing capacity) fuses, cartridge fuses, mccbs (molded case circuit breakers) and mcbs (miniature
circuit breakers), must comply with the requirement that the fusing current does not exceed 1.45Iz and the current
carrying capacity of any conductor in the circuit is not less than the nominal rating of the protective device.
A HRC fuse is often referred to as having a fusing factor of 1.5, but this is in an open test rig, and when installed in
an enclosure, its fusing factor can be considered to be 1.45.
Voltage Drop
Cables shall be sized so that the maximum voltage drop between the supply source and the load when carrying the
design current does not exceed that which will ensure safe and efficient operation of the associated equipment. It
is a requirement that the voltage at the equipment is greater than the lowest operating voltage specified for the
equipment in the relevant equipment standard. Designing the system so that buses operate at nominal voltage
plus or minus 10 percent has its problems, it is also not practical (or necessary) to calculate the voltage at every
load. The approach should be to establish a set of maximum allowable cable voltage drops, and then allow for
these drops in the design. Naturally, when choosing the allowable cable voltage drops, it is necessary to review the
system to ensure that the allowable drops are sufficient for the worst-case loads. However, cable should not be
oversized (beyond acceptable voltage drop) to compensate for bad system design. The system should be corrected
if the total voltage drop at the load is excessive when cable voltage drop is acceptable.
The voltage-drop in a circuit, V'D, line to neutral, is given by the following Approximation (IEEE 141 - 1993, Chapter
3)
Where,
I = current flowing in the conductor, in amperes.
R = total line resistance for one conductor, in ohms. X = total line reactance for one conductor, in ohms. cosφ= load
power factor, in per unit.
sinφ = load reactive factor, in per unit.
Es= Sending end voltage
The voltage-drop obtained from the formula above is in one conductor, one way (i.e., line-to-neutral voltage drop).
However, the line-to-line voltage-drop, VD in a three phase ac system is computed by multiplying the formula
above by √3:
where,
R = conductor resistance per 1000 feet (meters), in ohms. X = conductor reactance per 1000 feet (meters), in ohms.
l = total length of circuit, in feet/meters. and VD can be expressed as; VD = (%VD)*(VL)
where,
(%VD) = Percentage of the Voltage-Drop
(VL) = Nominal Bus Voltage
Rearranging, gives the circuit length as;
This formula is used in determining the maximum feeder cable lengths. When using the formulae to calculate the
voltage drop in a cable supplying a motor load, it is necessary to perform the calculation for motor starting and
running conditions. The value at full load is based on practical and economic considerations and that at starting to
ensure that motor starting torque is sufficient to accelerate the driven equipment. Resistance data are usually
tabulated in the form of dc resistance per 1000 feet of conductor at some given temperature, such as 20°C or 25°C,
for different sizes and cable construction (stranded, solid, coated, uncoated, etc.). This resistance must then be
corrected for the proper cable operating temperature, skin effect, installation in magnetic conduit, and, for large
cables, proximity effect. (The skin effect causes an increase in apparent resistance for ac operation.) Because most
cables carry current that is less than their rated ampacity, their actual operating temperatures will be less than
their rated operating temperature. To be on the safe side and to simplify things, the resistance is usually corrected
for the cable’s rated maximum operating temperature. This yields the worst case resistance.
Voltage Drop Study - Recommendations

Normally the limits of cable voltage drop are established individually for each project and are given in the project
Electrical Design Criteria. The values are usually based on Client requirements and National Standards, where
applicable. Typical LV cable voltage drop values, as a percentage of the nominal circuit voltage, are as follows:
• Motor Feeders ¾ at motor full load current 5% ¾ at starting 15%

• Power distribution feeders 2%
• Lighting distribution feeders 1%
• Lighting sub-circuits 2%
Cable Ampacity
Ampacity is defined as the current in amperes a conductor can carry continuously under the conditions of
surrounding medium in which the cables are installed. An ampacity study is the calculation of the temperature rise
of the conductor in a cable system under steady-state conditions. Cable ampacity, whether calculated or taken
from an ampacity table is based on the following equation,
This equation is based on Neher-McGrath method where, Tc’ - allowable conductor temperature (oC)
Ta’ - ambient temperature (either soil or air) (oC)
∆Td - temperature rise of conductor due to dielectric heating (oC)
∆Tint - temperature rise of the conductor due to interference heating from adjacent cables (oC)
Rac - electrical ac resistance of conductor including skin effect, proximity and temperature effects (μΩ/ft)
R’ca - effective total thermal resistance of path between conductor and surrounding ambient to include the effects
of load factor, shield/sheath losses, metallic conduit losses, effects of multiple conductors in the same duct etc
(thermal-Ωft, oC-cm/W).
From the above equation it is clear that the rated current carrying capacity of a conductor is dependent on the
following factors,
• Ambient temperature (air or ground)
• Grouping and proximity to other loaded cables, heat sources etc.
• Method of installation (aboveground or below ground)
• Thermal conductivity of the medium in which the cable is installed
• Thermal conductivity of the cable constituents
Cable Ampacity Study - Standard Tables

The above equation is used to analyze the cable ampacity of unique installations. Standard ampacity tables are
available for a variety of cable types and cable installation methods and can be used for determining the current
carrying capacity of a cable for a particular application. These standards provide tabulated ampacity data for cables
installed in air, in ductbank, directly buried or in trays for a particular set of conditions clearly defined. If the actual
design conditions in a project are different from those defined in these tables, rating factors have to be applied to
obtain the correct rating of the cables. The standards below provide the rating factors for variations in ambient or
ground temperature, depth of laying, thermal resistivity of soil and mutual heating due to cables installed together.
Manufacturers are another source of ampacity.
CABLE SIZING PROCEDURE
1) PROCEDURE
The size of the cable is selected based on the following considerations.
a) Short circuit withstand capacity (SC Ampacity).
b) Effective current carrying capacity (Thermal Ampacity).
c) Voltage drop during steady state operating conditions and motor start-up.
Short circuit withstand capacity is to be checked for HT cables and for LT incomer feeders only. For LT breaker
controlled motor feeders ,the cable impedance reduces short circuit current considerably, hence, short circuit
withstand capacity is not required to be checked for the rated fault level of the LT motors. For HT feeders & LT
incomer feeders, the minimum cable size which satisfies the above three conditions is selected. For other LT
feeders, minimum cable size which meets b) & c) is selected.
STEPS FOR CABLE SIZING

Following steps are to be followed to conclude proper techno-economical cable size for a consumer.
Step-1 (Applicable for HT cables and LT incomer cables only)

The cross sectional area where calculated shall not be less than the value determined by the following formula.
S = I√t
K
Where,
S = Nominal cross sectional area of the conductor in mm²
I = Value of fault current in Amperes.
t = Fault clearing time in seconds (This is generally taken as 0.2seconds for motor & transformer feeders,0.6
seconds for plant feeders, 1.0 seconds for incoming feeder.)
K = Factor taking account of the resistivity, temperature co-efficient, heat capacity of the conductor material, initial
and final temperature. Value of `K’ (as per BS 7671) shall be taken as 94 for XLPE insulated Aluminum Cables ,
143 for XLPE insulated copper cables and 76 for PVC insulated
Aluminium Cables
Wherever the application of the formula results in a non-standard size, a conductor of the next higher standard
cross section area shall be used. Short circuit duration for cables must be commensurate with the tripping time of
the protective devices associated with the feeder.
Step-2 - Effective Current Carrying Capacity (Thermal Ampacity)

The current carrying capacity of a cable corresponds to the maximum current that it can carry under specified
conditions without the conductors exceeding the permissible limit of steady state temperature for the type of
insulation concerned. Derating factor or correction factor (C) shall be applied where the installation conditions
differ from those for which values of current carrying capacity are defined. Derating factors generally considered
are as follows:
a) In Ground Installation (direct burial)
C = Cs X Cg X Cd X Ct
Where,
Cs = Rating factor for variation in Ground temperature.
Cg = Rating factor for Grouping of cables.
Cd = Rating factor for Depth of laying.
Ct = Rating factor for Thermal resistivity of soil.
b) Above Ground Installation

C = Ca X Cg
Where
Ca = Rating factor for variation in Ambient air temperature.
Cg = Rating factor for Grouping of cables.
c) Values of different derating factors for calculating ‘C’ shall be taken as per manufacturer catalogues. The value
of ‘C’ thus calculated is multiplied by the cable continuous current obtained from the standard tables gives the
derated current carrying capacity of cable.
d) In case cables are laid partially in air and ground, take the lowest derating factor for calculation.
e) Prepare derated current rating chart for each size cable after multiplying the cable ampacity with the
applicable derating factor ‘C’.
Step-3 (Cable size according to load current)

a) Calculate load current for a consumer using following formulas
(i) I = KW for 3 ph AC loads

√3 * V* pf *effn
(ii) Iload = KW for 1 Ph AC load

V*pf*effn
(iii) Iload = KW for DC

V*effn
Where I = Load current of the electrical consumer (in Amp)
KW = Output kW (name plate) rating of the load. In case of battery charger maximum load considering normal
load + boost charging to be considered
V = Line to line voltage in case of 3ph AC/ Line to phase in case of 1 ph AC / DC voltage in case of DC ( in kV and
name plate voltage rating of the consumer, not the switchgear bus voltage) in kV
pf = power factor in case of AC voltage at rated load
effn = Efficiency (≤1) of the equipment at rated load.
b) Select the cable size from the calculated chart (cl 3.2 e)
c) Compare the cable size as per short circuit

(step-I) and according to load Current
(step-3) Select the higher cable size.
Step-4 -Verification of cable size according to permissible voltage drop during steady state operating conditions &
motor start up.
a) For three phase circuits.
% Voltage drop can be computed using the formula
% Vd = √3 * I * L * (Rac * Cos∅ + X * Sin∅) * 100 / (N * V)
Where,
Vd = Voltage drop in percentage
∅ = Power factor angle as considered to calculate I.
I = Line current in Amps
V=System voltage in volts
Rac =AC conductor resistance at maximum rated conductor temperature in ohms per km. (70 deg C for PVC , 90
deg C for XLPE)
X=Reactance in ohms per km at rated frequency.
L=Cable length in km.
N=Number of Runs for star-delta feeder, minimum no. of runs is 2).
b) For DC circuits:
% Voltage drop can be computed using the formula
% Vd = (2 * I * L * Rdc * 100) / (N * V)
Where,
I=Line current in Amps
Rdc = DC conductor resistance at maximum rated conductor temperature in ohm per km
N=Number of Runs
c) For single phase AC circuits.
% Vd = 2 * I * L * (Rac * Cos∅ + X * Sin∅) * 100 / (N * V)

Where
Vd=Voltage drop
∅=Power factor angle by which the current lags (or leads) the voltage.
I=Line current in Amps
Rac=AC conductor resistance at maximum rated conductor temperature in ohms per km.
X=Reactance in ohms per km at 50 Hz
N=Number of Runs
Check the calculated voltage drop, for the selected cable as per step-3, if voltage drop voltage drop is higher than
the permissible value , then calculate voltage drop with next higher cable size until the condition is satisfied.
A software program available for cable sizing of LT motor feeders shall be used by providing specific project
requirements.
Derating factor due to variation in ambient temperature for cable lay in air
Air Temp in Deg C 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
LV Cable PVC insulated 1.33 1.25 1.16 1.09 1.00 0.90 0.83
Source: CCI Capital
HV cable XLPE insulated 1.07 1.04 1.00 0.95 0.91 0.86 0.82
Source: Fort gloster
Derating factor due to variation in ground temperature for cable lay in ground
Ground Temp in Deg C 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
LV Cable PVC insulated 1.17 1.12 1.06 1.00 0.94 0.87 0.79
Source: CCI Capital
HV cable XLPE insulated 1.04 1.00 0.96 0.93 0.89 0.85 0.81 0.76
Derating factor due to variation in thermal resistivity of soil for cable lay in ground
Thermal resistivity of soil 70 100 120 150 200 250 300

in Deg C-cm/w
HV cable XLPE insulated 1.20 1.11 1.00 0.89 0.80 0.73

Derating factor due to grouping of cables in air
M core with 1d
spacing 0.98 0.96 0.93 0.92 0.94 0.92 0.89 0.88 0.93 0.90 0.87 0.86
S core trefoil with

2d spacing 0.98 0.96 - - 0.94 0.92 - - 0.93 0.90 -
APPENDIX-II
SAMPLE OF HT CABLE SIZING CALCULATION INCOMER FEEDER
From: Switch Board at Tps
To: HT Switchgear
RMS Symmetrical short circuit current = 40 KA (assumed)
Operating time of the Protection device for Fault current = 0.6 sec. (assumed)
Minimum Aluminum conductor section to allow for max S. C. current= 40000 * SQRT (0.6)/94= 329.61 mm2
Min. Cable size = 1 - 3C x 400 mm2
Full load current = 300 A
Cable Data Considered:

Cable size considered = 3C x 400 mm2 (XLPE + Al)
Cable resistance = 0.102 Ω/KM
Cable reactance = 0.091 Ω/KM
Cable Ampacity = 525 A
Derating factor = 0.58 (from manufacturer catalogue)
Derated cable ampacity = 525 * 0.58= 304.5A.
No. of cable runs selected = 300/304.5 = 0.985 Nos= 1 no selected.
Cable length = 80 m. % Voltage drop =1.732 * 300 * 0.08 * (0.102 * 0.8 + 0.091 * 0.6) *100/(1* 6600)
= 0.395 % (LESS THAN 3 % ACCEPTABLE)
Hence 1 Nos. of 3C x 400 mm2 cable is acceptable.
MOTOR FEEDER
From: HT Switchboard
To: HT Motor
RMS Symmetrical short circuit current = 40 KA (assumed)
Fault clearing time = 0.2 sec. (assumed)
Min. conductor Size = 40000 * SQRT(0.2)/94= 190.30 mm2
Min. Cable size = 1 - 3C x 240 mm2
Cable Length = 0.40 KM (assumed)
Load (as per load list) = 951 KW
Power factor / Efficiency = 0.90 / 0.92
Full load current = 951/(1.732*6.6*0.90*0.92)= 100.475 A
Cable Data Considered
Cable size considered = 3C x 240 mm2 (XLPE + Al)

Cable resistance = 0.161 Ω/KM
Cable derated current = 385 * 0.58 = 223.3 A
Min. no. of cable runs required = 100.475/223.3
= 0.449 NOS.
No. of cable runs selected =1
% Voltage drop = 1.732 * 100.475 * 0.40 * (0.161 * 0.9 +
0.097 * 0.436) * 100 / (1* 6600)
(During running condition) = 0.197 % (LESS THAN 3 % ACCEPTABLE)
Locked rotor current = 6 * 100.475 = 602.85 A
Starting power factor = 0.25 (Assumed) % Voltage drop = 1.732 * 602.85 * 0.40 * (0.161 * 0.25 + 0.097 *0.968) *
100/(1*6600) (during starting condition) = 0.849 % (LESS THAN 5 % ACCEPTABLE)
Hence 1 No. of 3C x 240 mm2 cable is sufficient.
SAMPLE OF LT CABLE SIZING CALCULATION
MOTOR FEEDER
From: PCC
To: Cooling Tower Fan
Cable Length = 0.425 KM (assumed)
Load (as per load list) = 160KW (assumed)
Power factor / Efficiency = 0.85/0.95
Full load current = 160/(1.732*0.415*0.85*0.95)= 275.665 A
Cable Data Considered:
Cable size considered = 3C x 300 SQ.MM.(PVC + AL)

Cable resistance = 0.123Ω/KM
Derated cable ampacity = 305 * 0.54 = 164.7 A
Min. no. of cable runs required = 275.665 / 164.7= 1.674 NOS.
No. of cable runs selected = 2
% Voltage drop = 1.732 * 275.665* 0.425 *(0.123* 0.85+ 0.079 * 0.526) *100 /(2* 415)
(During running condition) =3.572% (LESS THAN 5.5 % ACCEPTABLE)
Locked rotor current = 5.5 * 275.665 = 1516.1575A
Starting power factor = 0.25 (Assumed)
% Voltage drop= 1.732 * 1516.1575 * 0.425 (0.123 * 0.25 + 0.079 *0.97) * 100/ (2* 415) (during starting condition)
= 14.44% (LESS THAN 15 % ACCEPTABLE)
Hence 2 Nos. of 3C x 300 mm2 cable is sufficient.
With the ever-increasing kva capacity of power systems, the possible short circuit currents are becoming so high
that it is frequently necessary to consider the effect of these short circuits on the heating of the cables. The
conductor size must be large enough to carry the short circuit current for a sufficient length of time to permit the
circuit breakers to open before the conductor is heated to the point where it damages the insulation.
The chart at right shows the maximum currents to which various size copper conductors can be subjected for
various times without injuring the insulation. It is based on a 90°C conductor operating temperature. The
maximum current for short circuit ratings for 75°C conductor temperatures and for other than 250°C may
be obtained by multiplying the value obtained for T1 = 90°C and T2 = 250°C from chart by appropriate correction
factor for other values of T1 and T2.
COPPER & ALUMINUM CORRECTION FACTORS FOR VARIOUS SHORT CIRCUIT TEMPERATURES
Short Circuit Temp. (T2)
175°C 200°C 225°C 250°C
T1 = 75°C .84 . 92 99 1.06
T1 = 90°C .76 .85 .93 1.00
Allowable short circuit currents for insulated copper conductors*
CABLE TRAY SYSTEM
What is a Cable Tray System?
As per the National Electrical Code, a cable tray system is "a unit or assembly of units or sections and associated
fittings forming a rigid structural system used to securely fasten or support cables and raceways."
What does this mean?

• Cable trays support cable the way that roadway bridges support traffic.
• A bridge is a structure that provides safe passage for traffic across open spans.
• Cable tray is the bridge that allows for safe transport of wires across open spans.
• Therefore, think of cable tray as the structural component of a building's electrical system.
What standards / guidelines are available for cable tray systems?
1. The National Electrical Code publishes the standards for all types of electrical applications. Articles 318, 250, and
800 cover various aspects of cable tray systems.
2. NEMA, (National Electrical Manufacturers Association), is an association comprised of the major cable tray
manufacturers in the industry. This committee has published three documents to date: NEMA VE1, FG1 and VE2.
NEMA VE1 covers general cable tray definitions, manufacturing standards, performance standards, test standards,
and application information.
NEMA FG1 addresses the standards for fiberglass cable tray systems
NEMA VE2 is a cable tray installation guideline which covers receiving and unloading material, storage of material,
and general installation practices.
CTI, (Cable Tray Institute), is a trade association comprised of the major cable tray manufacturers in the industry
and was formed to provide specifies, designers, and installers information on the advantages of using cable tray
systems over other types of products. (i.e conduit, ladder rack, etc.)
What types of Cable Tray are available?

1. Ladder
2. Solid Bottom
3. Perforated Cable Tray
4. Trough
5. Channel
6. Wire Mesh
7. Single Rail
How do I know what type of cable tray is right for my application?
1. Ladder Cable Tray provides:

a. Solid side rail protection and system strength with smooth radius fittings and a wide selection of materials.
b. Maximum strength for long span applications standard widths of 6,12,18, 24, 30, and 36 inches
c. Standard depths of 3, 4, 5, and 6 inches
d. Standard lengths of 10, 12, 20 and 24 feet
e. Rung spacing of 6, 9, 12, and 18 inches
Ladder cable tray is generally used in applications with intermediate to long support spans, 12 feet to 30 feet.
2. Solid Bottom Cable Tray provides:

a. Non-ventilated continuous support for delicate cables with added cable protection available in metallic and
fiberglass.
b. Solid bottom metallic with solid metal covers for non-plenum rated cable in environmental air areas
c. Standard widths of 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, and 36 inches
d. Standard depths of 3, 4, 5, and 6 inches
e. Standard lengths of 10, 12, 20 and 24 feet
Solid Bottom cable tray is generally used for minimal heat generating electrical or telecommunication applications
with short to intermediate support spans of 5 feet to 12 feet.
3. Perforated Cable Tray
4. Trough Cable Tray provides:

a. Moderate ventilation with added cable support frequency and with the bottom configuration providing cable
support every 4 inches available in metal and nonmetallic materials.
b. Standard widths of 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36 inches
c. Standard depths of 3, 4, 5, and 6 inches
d. Standard lengths of 10, 12, 20 and 24 feet
e. Fixed rung spacing of 4 inch on center
Trough cable tray is generally used for moderate heat generating applications with short to intermediate support
spans of 5 feet to 12 feet.
5. Channel Cable Tray provides:

a. An economical support for cable drops and branch cable runs from the backbone cable tray system.
b. Standard widths of 3, 4, and 6 inches in metal systems and up to 8 inches in nonmetallic systems.
c. Standard depths of 1¼-1¾ inches in metal systems and 1, 1 1/8, 1 5/" and 2 3/16 inches in nonmetallic systems
d. Standard length of 10, 12, 20 and 24 feet
Channel cable tray is used for installations with limited numbers of tray cable when conduit is undesirable. Support
frequency with short to medium support spans of 5 to 10 feet.
6. Wire Mesh Cable Tray provides:

a. A job site, field adaptable support system primarily for low voltage, telecommunication and fiber optic cables.
These systems are typically steel wire mesh, zinc plated.
b. Standard widths of 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 18, 20, and 24 inches
c. Standard depths of 1, 2, and 4 inches
d. Standard length of about 10 feet (118")
Wire Mesh tray is generally used for telecommunication and fiber optic applications and are installed on short
support spans, 4 to 8 feet.
7. Single Rail Cable Tray provides:

a. These aluminum systems are the fastest systems to install and provide the maximum freedom fort cable to enter
and exit the system.
b. Single hung or wall mounted systems in single or multiple tiers.
c. Standard widths are 6, 9, 12, 18, and 24 inches.
d. Standard depths are 3, 4, and 6 inches.
e. Standard lengths are 10 and 12 feet.
Single Rail Cable Tray is generally used for low voltage and power cables installations where maximum cable
freedom, side fill, and speed to install are factors.
Cable tray construction
• Cable trays of ladder and perforated types and the associated accessories such as coupler plates, tees,
elbows etc., are fabricated from either 12 gauge (2.5 mm thick), 14 gauge (2.0 mm thick) or 16 gauge (1.60 mm
thick) mild steel sheets.
• Cable tray covers are fabricated from 16 gauge perforated (1.60 mm thick) m.s. sheets
• Cable trays, accessories and covers shall be painted with one shop coat of red oxide zinc chromate primer and
two site coats of aluminum alkyd paint for indoor use
• For outdoor use, cable trays, accessories and covers shall be either galvanized or made of aluminum
• The cable trays are supplied in standard lengths of 2500 mm and clear inside widths of trays are as follows:
A) Perforated type trays: 150, 300, 450 and 600 mm.

B) ladder type trays :300, 450, 600 and 750 mm
What materials / finishes are available for the various cable tray systems?
1. Steel (Min. Yield = 33KSI) (35 KSI for Stainless)

a. Plain: hot rolled pickled and oiled steel per ASTM A569 (Commercial Quality) or A570 (Structural Quality)
b. Pre-Galvanized: mill galvanized steel per ASTM A653 CS (Commercial) or
SS (Structural) G90
c. Hot Dip Galvanized after Fabrication: plain steel which is hot dipped after fabrication per ASTM A123.
d. Stainless Steel: type 304 or 316L fully annealed stainless steel
2. Aluminum (Min. Yield = 23 KSI)

a. 6063-T6 or 5052-H32 alloy per ASTM B209
3. Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP)

a. Polyester and Vinyl Ester resin systems available
b. Meet ASTM E-84 smoke density rating; Polyester 680, Vinyl Ester 1025
c. Class 1 Flame Rating and self-extinguishing requirements of ASTM D-635.
Now that I know what types of cable trays are available, what configurations are available?
1. Straight sections are available to route cables in a horizontal or vertical plane.
2. Fittings are available to route cables in various directions in either the horizontal or vertical planes. Typical
examples of fittings include elbows, tees, crosses, and risers. Each of these fittings is available in various radii and
bends angles.
3. Covers are accessories and shouldn't be in here unless splices etc. are included. Cable tray accessories
• Bends
• Reducers
• Tees
• Coupler plates
• Cover
After selecting the type of cable tray and configuration required, what support methods are available?
1. Trapeze Support (Single or Multi-tier)
2. Hanger rod clamps, "J" hangers
3. Center Hung Support
4. Wall Support
5. Under-floor Support
6. Pipe stanchions or other structures
Each of these support methods are preferable in different applications. For instance, trapeze supports may be
desired in an application where cables will be pulled through the cable tray. Center hung supports, on the other
hand, are generally used when cables will be installed from the side of the cable tray. Center hung supports are
especially useful when future cable additions are desired. Wall supports and under-floor supports are useful when
ceiling structure is not available or undesired. Outdoor installations are controlled by the structures available to
support the cable tray. Before selecting the type of cable tray, cable tray configuration(s), and support method
desired, what additional information do I need to supply to the cable tray manufacturer for them to best
understand and satisfy my needs?
1. Where? Job site and installation considerations

a. Outdoor
1. Supports available affect the length and strength requirements
2. Environmental loads, ice, wind, snow, and possibly seismic
3. Corrosion requirements affect the materials and finishes
4. Classified hazardous locations affect the cable types acceptable
b. Indoor
1. Support locations available affect the length and strength of the system
2. Industrial installation may require a 200 lb. Concentrated Load
3. Commercial or institutional installation may make system appearance, system weight, and space available
important factors
4. Environmental air handling area may affect cable types, cable tray material, or cable tray type and need for
covers
5. Classified hazardous locations affect the cable types acceptable
2. What?
a. Type and number of cables to support
1. NEC cable fill requirements dictate size, width and depth, of system
2. Cable support requirement may control bottom type
3. Largest bending radius of cable controls fitting radius
4. Total of cable weight determines load to support
b. Future requirements
1. Cable entry / exit freedom
2. Design partially full or an expandable system
3. Support type to allow for needs
Cable tray installation
• Plate inserts for cable tray mounting structure are provided by civil contractor in floor slabs at 1000 mm spacing
• Cable tray mounting structure are welded to the plate inserts or to steel structural beams / members
• Spacing between cable tray mounting structures is 1000 mm for horizontal straight run of cable trays
• Loading on a horizontal support arm shall not exceed 120kg / meter run of cable
• Width of the horizontal arms of the mounting structures is same as the tray widths required in the cable layout
drawings plus length required for welding to the vertical supports (maximum tray width is 750 mm)
• Spacing between horizontal supports arms of vertical cable tray runs is 600 mm
• Cable trays are welded to tray mounting supports
• Minimum clearance between top most tray tier and structural member/ceiling shall be 300 mm
• Minimum vertical clearance below the bottom of the lowest cable tray tier & any structural member shall be 200
mm and 300 mm in case of steam or process pipe lines
• The type and size of tray to be used shall be as mentioned in the individual layout drawings
• The maximum size of cable tray when used in trenches and tunnels shall be of 600 mm width
• Each continuous laid out length of cable tray shall be earthed at minimum two places by m.s. flats of
minimum size 25x3 mm (unless otherwise noted) to the purchaser’s earthing system. The distance between
earthing points shall not exceed 10 metres.
Cabling system
• Types of cable installation

• Cable installation details
• Cabling layout drawings
Cable installation
• Trenches
• Trays
• Racks
• Tunnels
• Conduits
• Duct banks
• Directly buried
Cable tunnel installation
• Plate inserts for cable carrier structure will be provided by the civil contractor. Spacing for plate inserts shall be
750 mm and shall be staggered when provided on opposite walls
•Spacing between cable carrier arms shall be 1500 mm when cable trays are used and 750 mm otherwise
•Earthing conductor shall be located as shown in cable tunnel drawings and shall be welded to cable carrier
structure before installation of cables. This conductor shall be connected to station earth grid at minimum two
places to form a closed loop
•Minimum size of earthing conductor shall be 25x3 mm G.S.
•Vents with 250 mm dia. Pipes (min) shall be provided at every 15meters by the civil contractor
• Three phase, 63A, weather proof power receptacle unit with MCB together with fluorescent tube type instalite
fixture shall be provided at every 100 meters. Insatiate fixture shall be supported suitably from embedded plate at
each location
•Longitudinal slope of 1:250 shall be provided in tunnel floor unless otherwise noted on the layout drawing.
•All structural steel and exposed surfaces of embedded plates shall be painted with a two pack epoxy coating
• Whenever cables are to be taken out along the route of the tunnel, they shall be laid through pipe sleeves
embedded in the tunnel wall by the civil contractor. The location of such sleeves will be indicated on the electrical
cable layout drawing.
•Loading on cable carrier arm shall not exceed 120 kg / meter run of cable.
•Tunnels shall be provided with opening with ladder at every 100 meters.
•Minimum depth of the tunnel shall be 2100 mm Cable installation
• Cable markers shall be provided for directly buried cables and at least, one cable marker shall be provided if the
length of the buried cable is less than 15 meters
• In each outdoor cable run greater than 60 metres, some extra cable length shall be kept at a suitable point to
enable a straight through joint to be made, should the cable develop fault at a later date
•Where cables cross roads and water/oil/gas/ sewage pipes, the cablesshall be laid in hume or steel pipes.
•For road crossings, the pipe for the cable shall be buried at not lessthan 600 mm depth unless otherwise noted in
the drawings.
•Hume pipes shall be preferred to steel pipes from the point of view ofcorrosion
• Control cables and small power cables in trenches, tunnels and racks shall be run in ladder type cable trays
(maximum tray width 600 mm) supported on trench/ tunnel/rack carrier arms.
• The cables shall be tied to tray rungs by means of 3 mm dia. Nylon cord at an interval not exceeding 5000 mm
and also at bends
• For good sealing arrangement at entry points, suitable pipe sleeves, adequate in number and of adequate sizes
shall be provided in building walls/slabs for passage of cables into a building from cable trays/racks/cable
trenches located outside the buildings.
• Details of sleeves and exact locations of such entry points will be available on relevant project drawings
•Different voltage grade cables shall be laid in separate trays when traysare arranged in tiers.
•H.V. cables shall be laid in top trays and cables of subsequent voltagegrade in lower tier of trays
•The HV power cables of 3.3 KV and above shall be laid in trays/on racks as follows:
In single layer only without exception
3 core cables shall be laid in touching formation
Single core cables shall be laid in Tre-foil groups with spacing equal to diameter of the cable between edges of the
trefoils
Cables in trefoil groups of the same circuit shall be laid as indicated below so as to ensure balanced current
distribution:
Y Y Y
R B B R R B
(1) (2) (3)
•1100 V grade power cables of 120 mm2 size and above shall normally be laid in single layer in trays/on racks. In
exceptional cases, these may be laid in double layer
•1100 V grade power cables below 120 mm2 may be run in double layers in case of space restrictions
• Control and instrumentation cables can be laid up to a maximum of three layers in each tray/rack
• Single core power cables for 3 phase ac circuits laid in trays / racks / trenches in tre-foil groups shall be held in
trefoil clamps placed at an interval not exceeding 3 meters.
• The tre-foil groups of cables shall be additionally tied by means of 3 mm dia nylon cord
• Cables in vertical raceways shall be clamped by saddle type cleats to the horizontal slotted angles.
• Cable entry to motors, push button stations and other electrical devices are from the bottom as far as possible or
from the sides.
• Top entry shall be avoided particularly for outdoor equipment
• Identification tags made from aluminium sheet are attached to each end of each cable by means of GI binding
wire.
Cable earthing
• Metallic sheaths, screens and armor of all multicourse cables shall be earthed at both equipment and
switchgear end
• Sheath and armor of single core power cables shall be earthed at switchgear end only
Type and voltage grade of cable Minimum Radius Bending
Single core Multi core
PVC & XLPE insulated up-to 1.1KV 15D 12D

PVC & XLPE insulated above 1.1 KV to11KV 15D 5D
PVC & XLPE insulated above 11 KV 20D 15D
Cabling layouts
• Interface with Civil Civil GA layout drawings, for electrical to furnish consolidated mark up for
Floor cutouts
Insert plate requirements
Architectural drawings, for electrical to furnish consolidated mark up for wall cutouts
Structural drawings
Underground facilities including buried pipes, trenches & ducts
• Interface with Mechanical

Plot plan
Equipment layouts
piping layouts
Pipe rack or pipe sleeper GA
Equipment list & load list
Interface with C & I
Control room layout
Cabling layout of instrumentation
• Electrical inputs
Single line diagrams
Cable sizing calculations
Tray sizing
Cable schedules
• Overall cable routing layout

This shall be prepared on the basis of the latest overall plot plan of the plant.
The routing of cables from the switch rooms to the various parts of the plant shall be indicated in this drawing
• Overall cable routing layout

Details of number and size (i.e. Width) of cable trays running along each route
Routing of underground cables
• Area wise cable routing layout

These drawings shall be prepared on the basis of the latest equipment layouts of the respective areas
The drawings shall indicate the locations of all electrical equipment such as-
Panels, motors, heaters, welding sockets, power sockets, power junction boxes, local control stations or switches,
instrumentation junction boxes
Cable numbers of the cables terminating at these equipment may also be indicated
All main and branch cable trays, cable trenches and underground cable routes for electrical and instrumentation
cables shall be indicated, with reference of continuation drawings wherever these cable ways pass into an area
outside the scope of the drawing
Cross sections indicating arrangement of trays and supporting details shall be indicated for all the different
branches
Cable trays shall be numbered throughout the plant and the numbers shall be indicated in the drawings
Embedded conduits shall be used for leading cables up to equipment located away from structures used for cable
tray support.
Conduit bends shall be specified considering the minimum bending radius required for the respective cable size.
The two ends of the conduit shall protrude at least 200 mm above the floor level.
While deciding the routing of cable trays, it shall be ensured that there is no interference with piping or other
equipment/ structures.
ELECTRICAL CONDUIT SYSTEM
An electrical conduit is a purpose-designed electrical piping system used for protection and routing of electrical
wiring. Electrical conduit may be made of metal, plastic, fibre, or fired clay. Flexible conduit is available for special
purposes. Conduit is generally installed by electricians at the site of installation of electrical equipment. Its use,
form, and installation details are often specified by wiring regulations, such as the U.S. NEC or other national or
local code. The term "conduit" is commonly used by electricians to describe any system that contains electrical
conductors, but the term has a more restrictive definition when used in wiring regulations. Early electric lighting
installations made use of existing gas pipe to gas light fixtures (converted to electric lamps). Since this technique
provided very good protection for interior wiring, it was extended to all types of interior wiring and by the early
20th century purpose-built couplings and fittings were manufactured for electrical use.
Comparison with other wiring methods

Electrical conduit provides very good protection to enclosed conductors from impact, moisture, and chemical
vapors. Varying numbers, sizes, and types of conductors can be pulled into a conduit, which simplifies design and
construction compared to multiple runs of cables or the expense of customized composite cable. Wiring systems in
buildings are subject to frequent alterations. Frequent wiring changes are made simpler and safer through the use
of electrical conduit, as existing conductors can be withdrawn and new conductors installed, with little disruption
along the path of the conduit. A conduit system can be made waterproof or submersible. Metal conduit can be
used to shield sensitive circuits from electromagnetic interference, and also can prevent emission of such
interference from enclosed power cables.
When installed with proper sealing fittings, a conduit will not permit the flow of flammable gases and vapors,
which provides protection from fire and explosion hazard in areas handling volatile substances. Some types of
conduit are approved for direct encasement in concrete. This is commonly used in commercial buildings to allow
electrical and communication outlets to be installed in the middle of large open areas. For example, retail display
cases and open-office areas use floor-mounted conduit boxes to connect power and communications cables.
Both metal and plastic conduit can be bent at the job site to allow a neat installation without excessive numbers of
manufactured fittings. This is particularly advantageous when following irregular or curved building profiles.
The cost of conduit installation is higher than other wiring methods due to the cost of materials and labor. In
applications such as residential construction, the high degree of physical damage protection is not required so the
expense of conduit is not warranted. Conductors installed within conduit cannot dissipate heat as readily as those
installed in open wiring, so the current capacity of each conductor must be reduced if many are installed in one
conduit. It is impractical, and prohibited by wiring regulations, to have more than 360 degrees of total bends in a
run of conduit, so special outlet fittings must be provided to allow conductors to be installed without damage in
such runs. While metal conduit can be used as a grounding conductor, the circuit length is limited. A long run of
conduit as grounding conductor will not allow proper operation of over current devices on a fault, for example.
Types of conduit
Conduit systems are classified by the wall thickness, mechanical stiffness, and material used to make the tubing.
Tubing with thicker walls in the same material offers better protection from impact, but increases the weight and
cost of the conduit and also increases labor cost to install the system.
Rigid Metal Conduit (RMC)

Rigid Metal Conduit (RMC) is thick threaded tubing, usually made of coated steel, stainless steel or aluminum.
Rigid Nonmetallic Conduit (RNC)

Rigid Nonmetallic Conduit (RNC) is non-metallic unthreaded tubing.
Galvanized rigid conduit (GRC)

Galvanized rigid conduit (GRC) is galvanized steel tubing, with a tubing wall that is thick enough to allow it to be
threaded. Its common applications are in commercial and industrial construction.
Electrical metallic tubing (EMT)

Electrical metallic tubing (EMT), sometimes called thin-wall, is commonly used instead of galvanized rigid conduit
(GRC), as it is less costly and lighter than GRC. EMT cannot be threaded. Lengths of conduit are connected to each
other and to equipment with clamp type fittings. Like GRC, EMT is more common in commercial and industrial
buildings than in residential applications. EMT is generally made of coated steel, though it may be
aluminum. The Canadian Electrical Code does not include EMT in its definition of
conduit, a distinction that can affect some installations.
Electrical Nonmetallic Tubing (ENT)

Electrical Nonmetallic Tubing (ENT) is thin-walled corrugated tubing that is moisture resistant and flame retardant.
It is pliable such that it can be bent by hand and is often flexible although the fittings are not. It is not threaded due
to its corrugated shape although the fittings might be.
Flexible Metallic Conduit (FMC)
Flexible metallic conduit used in an underground parking facility. Flexible Metallic
Conduit (FMC) is made through the coiling of a self-interlocked ribbed strip of aluminum or steel, forming a hollow
tube through which wires can be pulled. FMC is used primarily in dry areas where it would be impractical to install
EMT or other non-flexible conduit, yet where metallic strength to protect conductors is still required. The flexible
tubing does not maintain any permanent bend.
Cutting FMC requires a specialized hand tool with a rotary abrasive disc to create a small incision into the ribbing so
that a twisting motion separates the segments. The disc cuts deep enough to sever the armor coil but not so deep
that it could damage the inside conductors. Short segments of FMC called whips are often used as circuit "pigtails"
between fixtures and a junction box, especially in suspended ceilings. Whip assemblies save a great deal of
repetitive labor when installations require several pigtails for several fixtures. Flexible metal conduit coated with a
UV-resistant polymer is liquid-tight when installed with appropriate glandular fittings containing liquid-tight
features such as O-rings. Wiring regulations vary; in locales following the U.S. National Electric Code (NEC),
flexible metallic conduit may serve as an equipment-grounding conductor. Other areas may require a bonding wire
for equipment grounding. The bonding wire in direct contact with the interior of the conduit creates a lower
resistance grounding conductor than the conduit alone.
Liquid tight Flexible Metal Conduit (LFMC)

Liquid tight Flexible Metal Conduit (LFMC) is a non-metallic and liquid tight jacket covering a flexible metal interior.
The interior is similar to FMC. Originally designed and manufactured by Kopex International Flexible Metallic
Tubing (FMT)
Flexible Metallic Tubing (FMT) is flexible metallic tubing that lacks the waterproof jacket of LFMT.
Liquid tight Flexible Nonmetallic Conduit (LFNC)

Liquid tight Flexible Nonmetallic Conduit (LNFC) refers to several types of flame-resistant non-metallic tubing.
Interior surfaces may be smooth or corrugated. There may or may not be integral reinforcement within the conduit
wall. It is also known as FNMC.
Aluminum conduit
Aluminum conduit, similar to galvanized steel conduit, is a rigid conduit, generally used in commercial and
industrial applications, where a higher resistance to corrosion is needed. Such locations would include food
processing plants, where large amounts of water and cleaning chemicals would make galvanized conduit
unsuitable. Aluminum cannot be directly embedded in concrete, since the metal reacts with the alkalis in cement.
The conduit may be coated to prevent corrosion by incidental contact with concrete. The extra cost of aluminum is
somewhat offset by the lower labor cost to install, since a length of aluminum conduit will have about one-third
the weight of an equally-sized rigid steel conduit.
Intermediate metal conduit (IMC)

Intermediate Metal Conduit (IMC) is steel tubing heavier than EMT but lighter than RMC. It may be threaded.
PVC conduit
PVC conduit is the lightest in weight compared to other conduit materials, and usually lower in cost than other
forms of conduit. In North American electrical practice, it is available in three different wall thicknesses, with the
thin-wall variety only suitable for embedded use in concrete and heavier grades suitable for direct burial and
exposed work. The various fittings made for metal conduit are also made for PVC. The plastic material resists
moisture and many corrosive substances, but since the tubing is non-conductive an extra bonding (grounding)
conductor must be pulled into each conduit. PVC conduit may be heated and bent in the field. Joints to fittings are
made with slip-on solvent-welded connections, which set up rapidly after assembly and attain full strength in
about one day. Since slip-fit sections do not need to be rotated during assembly, the special union fittings used
with threaded conduit (Ericson) are not required. Since PVC conduit has a higher thermal coefficient of expansion
than other types, it must be mounted so as to allow for expansion and contraction of each run. Care should be
taken when installing PVC underground in multiple or parallel run configurations due to mutual heating effect of
cable
Other metal conduits

In extreme corrosion environments where plastic coating of the tubing is insufficient, conduits may be made from
stainless steel, bronze or brass.
Underground conduit
Large diameter (more than 2 inch/50 mm) conduit may be installed underground between buildings to allow
installation of power and communication cables. An assembly of these conduits, often called a duct bank, may
either be directly buried in earth or encased in concrete. A duct bank will allow replacement of damaged cables
between buildings or additional power and communications circuits to be added, without the expense of
excavation of a trench. While metal conduit is occasionally used for burial, usually PVC, polyethylene or
polystyrene plastics are now used due to lower cost. Formerly, compressed asbestos fiber mixed with cement was
used for some underground installations. Telephone and communications circuits were installed in fired-clay
conduit.
Fittings
Despite the similarity to pipes used in plumbing, purpose-designed fittings are used to connect conduit.
Box connectors join conduit to a junction box or other electrical box. A typical box connector is inserted into a
knockout in a junction box, with the threaded end then being secured with a ring (called a lock nut) from within the
box, as a bolt would be secured by a nut. The other end of the fitting usually has a screw or compression ring which
is tightened down onto the inserted conduit. Fittings for non-threaded conduits are either secured with set screws
or with a compression nut that encircles the conduit. Fittings for general purpose use with metal conduits may be
made of die-cast zinc, but where stronger fittings are needed, they are made of copper-free aluminum or cast iron.
Couplings connect two pieces of conduit together.

Sometimes the fittings are considered sufficiently conductive to bond (electrically unite) the metal conduit to a
metal junction box (thus sharing the box's ground connection); other times, grounding bushings are used which
have bonding jumpers from the bushing to a grounding screw on the box.Unlike water piping, if it the conduit is to
be watertight, the idea is to keep water out, not in. In this case, the fittings have gaskets, such as the weatherhead
leading from the overhead electrical mains to the electric meter. Flexible metal conduit usually uses fittings with a
clamp on the outside of the box, just like bare cables would.
Conduit bodies
A conduit body is used to provide access to wires placed within conduit. This differs from a junction box, which
both allows access for pulling wires and space for splices. Conduit bodies are commonly referred to as "condulets",
a term trademarked by Cooper
Crouse-Hinds company, a division of Cooper Industries.

Conduit bodies come in various types, moisture ratings, and materials, including galvanized steel, aluminum, and
PVC. Depending on the material, they use different mechanical methods for securing conduit.
Among the types are:

• L-shaped bodies ("Ells") include the LB, LL, and LR, where the inlet is in line with the access cover and the outlet
is on the back, left and right, respectively. In addition to providing access to wires for pulling, "L" fittings allow a 90
degree turn in conduit where there is insufficient space for a full-radius 90 degree sweep (curved conduit section).
• T-shaped bodies ("Tees") feature an inlet in line with the access cover and outlets to both the cover's left and
right.
• C-shaped bodies ("Cees") have identical openings above and below the access cover, and are used to pull
conductors in a straight runs as they make no turn between inlet and outlet.
• Service "Ells" (SLBs), shorter with inlets flush with the access cover, are frequently used where a circuit passes
through an exterior wall from outside to in.
Comparison of some types of conduit

Relative to rigid galvanized steel conduit, 3/4 inch (21 metric) size
Relative RGS Aluminum IMC EMT PVC
Labor 1.0 0.89 0.89 0.62 0.55
Weight 1.0 0.34 0.76 0.42 0.20
Material cost 1.0 0.99 0.84 0.35 0.43
Junction box
An electrical junction box is a container for electrical junctions, usually intended to conceal them from sight and to
some extent to eliminate tampering. It can be a small metal or plastic container, such as those intended to form
part of wiring, especially in buildings; in this type of application, it may form part of an electrical conduit wiring
system, or may be buried in the plaster of a wall, concealed behind an access panel or cast into concrete with only
the lid showing. It may or may not include terminals etc. for joining wires. A similar container used for joining wires
to electrical switches or sockets is called patters.
The term may also be used for a larger item, e.g. of street furniture; in the UK, this is sometimes called a cabinet.
Junction boxes form an integral part of a circuit protection system. In the circuit integrity has to be provided, as
may be necessary for emergency lighting or emergency power lines, or the wiring between a nuclear reactor and a
control room. In such an event, the fireproofing afforded to the incoming or outgoing cables must also be
extended to cover the junction box to prevent short circuits inside the box during an accidental fire.
LIGHTING DESIGN
General
There are many approaches in lighting design. Each emphasizes one or more of the interrelated elements
depending on whether the designer is an architect, engineer, lighting designer, or a combination of these.
However, no matter which approach the designer is accustomed to taking, fundamental steps of design must be
exercised. These fundamental steps are: project analyses, conceptual formulation, lamp type selection, luminaries
selection, documentation, and execution. The purpose of lighting is to serve the needs of persons. Quality of
illumination implies that all luminances are designed to contribute favorably to visual performance, visual comfort,
ease of seeing, safety, and aesthetics for the specific visual task involved. Glare, diffusion, direction, shadows,
uniformity, color, luminance, and luminance ratios have significant effects of visibility. Each of these concepts is
explained in the IESNA Handbook. Note that this guide is written using dimensions in feet and foot candles; but the
procedures contained herein are identical for dimensions in meters and Lux units. One foot candle equals
10.7639 Lux. Another specific lighting task is direction signage, such as exit lighting, since from every location along
any main corridor a person should be able to see two exit paths with lighted EXIT signs that must be connected to
the emergency power system.
Lighting Design Procedure

Project Analyses
(1) BUILDING & SITE - such as the type of occupancy, hazardous area classification, the occupants, users, and their
characteristic uses of illumination and construction constraints.
(2) NON-ILLUMINATION CRITERIA - such as client's requirements/standard, budget, codes and standards, safety
considerations, ambient temperature, luminaries surface temperature, voltage, and vibration.
(3) ILLUMINATION CRITERIA - such as task (degree of difficulty), luminance (required foot-candle or lux value) visual
comfort, color rendering requirements, atmosphere, maintenance and operations, light sources, daylight
availability and control, and emergency lighting requirements.
Conceptual formulation, such as orientation and space, pattern, distribution of luminance, cut-off angles, and
special effects.
Lamp type Selection, such as incandescent, fluorescent, high-pressure sodium, or metal halide.
Luminaries Selection, such as direct, indirect, diffusing (size, lumen distribution, lamp, mounting, style); standard
products vs. special design; domestic vs. foreign; controls (with daylight effects); floor plans; reflected ceiling;
power, energy, hazardous area classification, environmental considerations, mounting height, maintenance
considerations, and disability glare considerations.
Documentation required such as drawings (site plans, floor plans, ceiling plans, details, schedules, riser diagrams);
and specifications (performance, technical data, delivery).
Light Sources (Lamps)
The primary purpose of an electrical light source is the conversion of electrical energy into visible light. The
effectiveness with which a lamp accomplishes this is expressed in terms of lumens emitted per watt of power
consumed, or luminous efficacy.
For an idea of the relative luminous effectiveness of common light sources, consider that a 60-watt incandescent
lamp emits about 900 lumens in comparison to a 60-watt fluorescent lamp that emits about 5600 lumens. This is
roughly six times the lumen per watt of the incandescent lamp. In addition, the fluorescent lamp has a ten-time
longer life than the incandescent lamp. To obtain the predicted long life of any lamp, it must be mounted
according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Some lamps can only be mounted in a vertical position; others, only
in a horizontal position. Some have a requirement for the base to be up, others for the base to be down. The
most common types of light sources and their associated groups are shown below.
Type Grout
Incandescent Filament
Fluorescent High Intensity Discharge
Mercury Vapor High Intensity Discharge
Metal Halide High Intensity Discharge
High Pressure Sodium (HPS) High Intensity Discharge
Incandescent Lamps
The filament lamp produces light by heating a wire filament to incandescence, which generates energy in the
form of light and heat. The most common filament material is tungsten. All filament lamps emit a large
quantity of heat with generally less than 5% light energy emitted. Both the life and light output of an incandescent
lamp are determined by the filament temperature. The higher the temperature for a given lamp, the shorter the
life. However, the larger the diameter of the filament wire, the hotter the lamp can operate. This results in more
light output, which in turn means higher efficacy. To illustrate this, consider that a 150-watt, 220 volt lamp
produces approximately 34% more light than three 50-watt, 220 volt lamps. Incandescent lamps have a rated
average life of about 1000 hours and radiate about 14 to 20 lumens per watt. Vibration and shock should be
eliminated as they can greatly reduce lamp life. Incandescent lamps are available with virtually unbreakable shells
and filaments where high vibration or rugged duty is required.
As a general rule, incandescent lamps should be operated at rated voltage. Over voltage operation produces higher
wattage, higher efficacy, and higher light output, but results in a shorter life. Under voltage, while increasing
lamp life, causes a reduction in wattage, efficacy, and light output. A voltage as little as 5% below normal results in
a loss of light of more than 16%, with a savings in wattage of only 8%. Since the lamp cost is almost always small
compared with the cost of the power to operate the lamp, the increased lamp life which accompanies reduced
voltage does not compensate for the loss in light output. Maintaining the proper voltage is an important factor in
obtaining good performance from lamps and lighting installations.
Fluorescent Lamps
The fluorescent lamp contains mercury vapor at low pressure with a small amount of inert gas for starting. When
voltage is applied, an “arc” discharge is produced by current flowing through the mercury vapor. The discharge
generates ultraviolet radiation which excites the fluorescent powders on the inner wall of the lamp, which in turn
emit light.
Like most gas discharge lamps, fluorescent lamps must be operated in series with ballast. The ballast produces the
required voltage to start and operate the lamp and the required current to produce the desired light.
Fluorescent lamps have a rated average life of about 20,000 hours when operated for a minimum of 3 hours per
start. The lamps radiate about 74 to 84 lumens per watt.
The average lamp life for fluorescent lamps is affected by the number of on-off operations. A rule-of-thumb is
that each lamp start reduces the average lamp life by 3 hours. This might imply that fluorescent lamps should be
operated continuously during the day to save lamp life rather than being turned off when not in use to save
energy. However, the light should be turned off to save energy because approximately 80% of the life-cycle cost
of a fluorescent lamp is for electrical energy. The life of F40 and F30 lamps, operating on rapid start ballasts when
burned 3 or more hours per start, is not appreciably affected by the number of starts. All burned-out lamps
should be removed promptly to prevent the auxiliary equipment from overheating. Depreciation in light
output of the fluorescent lamp is due chiefly to a gradual deterioration of the phosphor powders and a blackening
of the inside of the tube. In the last hours of lamp life, a dense deposit develops at the end of the lamp where the
electrode is deactivated. This effect is especially marked if the lamp is allowed to flash on and off before it
is replaced.
Low voltage, as well as high voltage, reduce efficiency and shorten fluorescent lamp life. This is in contrast with
filament lamps, where low voltage reduces efficiency but prolongs life. Low voltage and low ambient
temperatures may also cause starting difficulties with fluorescent luminaries.
A large voltage dip or reduction in line voltage affects the stability of the arc. The reaction to a voltage dip depends
on the lamp type and ballast characteristics. For 40-watt, T-12 lamps, and the line voltage can drop to the values
illustrated in the table below before the lamps will extinguish:
Type Percent of Normal Voltage

Preheat 75
Rapid-start series-sequence 80
Instant-start lead-lag 60
Instant-start series-sequence 50
High Intensity Discharge Lamps
High intensity discharge (HID) lamps that are commonly used include mercury vapor, metal halide, and high
pressure sodium. The light producing element of these lamps is a stabilized arc discharge contained within an arc
tube. Light is produced by the passage of an electric current through a vapor or gas rather than through a
tungsten wire. The applied voltage ionizes the gas and permits current to flow between two electrodes located at
opposite ends of the lamp. The electrons which comprise the current stream, or “arc discharge,” are
accelerated to tremendous speed. When they collide with the atoms of the gas or vapor, they temporarily alter the
atomic structure, and light is produced from the energy generated as the atoms return to their normal state.
Low-pressure sodium lamps are not recommended because of very poor color rendition and high operating costs.
Mercury Vapor Lamps

(1) Most mercury vapor (MV) lamps are constructed with two envelopes, an inner envelope (arc tube) which
contains the arc, and an outer envelope which: (a) shields the arc tube from outside drafts and resulting changes
in temperature; (b) usually contains an inert gas which prevents oxidation of internal parts; (c) provides an inner
surface for a coating of phosphors; and (d) acts as a filter to remove certain wavelengths of arc radiation.
(2) A significant part of the energy radiated by the mercury arc is in the ultraviolet region. Through the use of
phosphor coatings on the inside surface of the outer envelope, some of this ultraviolet energy is converted
to visible light by the same mechanism employed in fluorescent lamps.
(3) Mercury lamps used in open-type fixtures can cause serious skin burn and eye inflammation from short-wave
ultraviolet radiation if the outer envelope of the lamp is broken or punctured and the arc tube continues to
operate. For this reason, non-enclosed fixtures should be specified with self-extinguishing lamps that will
automatically extinguish if the outer envelope is broken or punctured. Self-extinguishing lamps cost about twice
as much as standard lamps.
(1) Metal halide (MH) lamps are very similar in construction to mercury lamps. The major difference is that the
metal halide arc tube contains various metal halides in addition to mercury and argon.
(2) Almost all varieties of available “white-light” metal halide lamps produce color rendering which is equal or
superior to the presently available phosphor coated mercury lamps. Metal halide lamps are also available with
phosphors applied to the outer envelopes to further modify the color.
(3) Most metal halide lamps require a higher open-circuit voltage to start than corresponding wattage mercury
lamps. Therefore, they require specifically designed ballasts.
(4) Metal halide lamps are constructed of a glass envelope with an internal arc tube made of quartz. These arc
tubes operate under high pressure (6 to 7 atmospheres) at a very high temperature (up to 900℃). The arc tube
may unexpectedly rupture due to internal causes or external factors, but most commonly ruptures when the lamp
is operated beyond its rated life. If the arc tube ruptures, the glass envelope surrounding the arc tube can break,
allowing particles of extremely hot quartz from the arc tube and glass fragments from the glass envelope to be
discharged into the fixture enclosure and surrounding area. This circumstance creates a risk of personal injury or
fire. Metal halide lamps should always be used in enclosed fixtures with lens/diffuser material, which is able to
contain fragments of hot quartz or glass.
(5) To reduce the potential hazard of ruptured arc tubes, use metal halide lamp manufacturers with proven lamps.
Additional precautions to use to reduce the likelihood of arc tube rupture are:
a) Turn continuously operating lamps off once a month for at least 15 minutes. Lights which are close to the end of
their design life likely will not restart. This procedure will reduce the chance of arc tube rupture caused by
continuously operating lamps burning beyond the end of rated life.
b) Relamp fixtures at or before the end of their rated life. Allowing lamps to operate beyond their design life
increases the possibility of arc tube rupture.
(6) Like mercury vapor lamps, metal halide lamps can cause serious skin burn and eye inflammation from short-
wave ultraviolet radiation if the outer envelope of the lamp is broken or punctured and the arc tube continues to
operate. When using open-type fixtures, self-extinguishing lamps that automatically extinguish when the outer
envelope is broken or punctured should be specified.
High Pressure Sodium Lamps

(1) In a high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamp, light is produced by electric current passing through sodium vapor. The
arc tube contains xenon as a starting gas. Special ballasts are required which incorporate starting voltages in the
range of 2250 to 4000 volts to strike the arc. These high strike voltages can result in high temperatures, which
could possibly create problems in classified areas. HPS lamps do not incorporate a starting electrode or heater coil
as do mercury vapor and metal halide lamps.
(2) Arc tube rupture is not a problem with high-pressure sodium lamps since the arc tube is made of ceramic
material. Short-wave radiation is also not a concern with high-pressure sodium lamps.
Lamp Designations
Lamp designations follow a system authorized by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). All
designations begin with a letter that identifies the type of HID lamp: “H” for mercury, “M” for metal halide, and “S”
for high-pressure sodium. This letter designation is followed by an ANSI assigned number, which identifies the
electrical characteristics of the lamp and, consequently, the ballast. After the number, two arbitrary letters identify
the bulb size, shape, and finish, but do not identify the color. Additional letters are used by individual
manufacturers for special designations.
3. Fixture Selection
A thorough understanding of the purpose for a lighting system must be established before the various selection
factors can be evaluated. Figure 3-01 lists fixture types and typical applications in order of preference for locations
that require maximum light output at the lowest possible operating cost. On offshore platforms where power is
generated and the physical layout prevents full use of light output, mercury vapor fixtures are often preferred.
They give better color rendition and have lower installed costs in situations where some of the light is lost due to
shadows. When several possible fixture types have been chosen, a review of the features of each one can be
made to complete the selection process.
Area Classification
Area classification must be determined before selecting lighting fixtures. Refer to GTP-6DMP-010, “Classification of
Hazardous Area” or GTP-6MSP-072, “Electrical Apparatus for Use in Classified Area” for guidance in determining
area classification considerations. Refer to the area classification drawing of the facility in which the lighting fixture
is to be installed to identify the proper area classification. The fixture temperature must not exceed the ignition
temperature of flammable gases or vapors present.
Luminous Efficacy and Lumen Depreciation

One of the two primary factors used in fixture selection is the luminous efficacy (lumens per watt) of the light
source. The other primary factor is the initial cost of the fixture. For fixtures that have a long life, the luminous
efficacy, which relates directly to the operating cost of the lamp, usually will govern the selection process. These
factors usually do not govern fixture selection when shadows prevent full use of light output or when power is
generated at very low cost (e.g., on offshore platforms).
Lumen depreciation is a reduction in normal light output that is unique to each type of lamp. It is an important
factor during the design and fixture layout process. For example, the light output of a mercury vapor lamp at the
end of rated life will only be about 50% of its original light output. By comparison, the light output of high
pressure sodium and fluorescent lamps at the end of rated life will be about 80% of their original light output.
Figure 3-03, Efficiency for Various Light Sources, and Figure 3-04, Lumen Depreciation Factor, summarize the
luminous efficacy and lumen depreciation for different light sources.
Color
In some applications, color rendition is the dominant factor in fixture selection. For example, metal halide
fixtures are typically used in the canopy area of service stations because of the pleasing visual effect of the light.
Metal halide lamps use more energy per lumen output and have a shorter life than high-pressure sodium lamps,
but the visual attractiveness obtained by using metal halide lamps outweighs their added operating cost.
Mixing high-pressure sodium with metal halide or mercury vapor is not recommended because of the contrasting
colors. Mixing luminaries becomes a problem when color rendition is important-for example, for distinguishing
colors, for reading, and when performing precision, task-oriented activities. Mixing luminaries also presents a
maintenance problem during revamping, when time is lost locating the correct lamps.
Incandescent Filament Lamps
Incandescent light closely resembles natural sunlight, with good color rendition.
Fluorescent Lamps
The color produced by a fluorescent lamp depends upon the blend of phosphors used to coat the wall of the tube.
These are different “white” and color spectrum fluorescent lamps available with their own particular coloration.
“White” lamps have good color rendering properties.
High Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamps

A discussion of the color aspects of HID lamps follows.
(1) Mercury Vapor (MV) Lamps. The color spectrum of “clear” mercury lamps is deficient in red and has a
preponderance of blue and green. This results in marked distortion of object colors, and makes mercury vapor
lamps undesirable when the appearance of colors is important. This deficiency can be overcome by using “deluxe
white” (color-corrected) lamps in which fluorescent phosphor coatings are added to the lamps to improve color
rendering. MV lamps have poorer color rendition than MH lamps, but better color rendition than HPS lamps.
MV lamps are best used for general lighting (street, industrial, and flood-lighting) where color rendering is not
extremely important or where the full output of an HPS lamp will not be utilized because of shadowing.
(2) Metal Halide (MH) Lamps. The color spectrum of “clear” metal halide lamps is equal to or superior to
phosphor-coated mercury vapor lamps. Phosphor coatings can be added for better color. MH lamps are best used
where color rendering is important and in general lighting where only a few fixtures are required.
(3) High Pressure Sodium (HPS). The color spectrum of high-pressure sodium lamps consists of white light with a
yellow-orange tone. HPS lamps are best used for general lighting of large areas where good color renditions is a
secondary consideration.
High-pressure sodium lamps are usually the best economic choice for lighting large areas, primarily because of
their low operating cost and long life. Such areas include: floodlighting, general area lighting, road way
lighting, and warehouse lighting. Metal halide is the second most cost effective choice for outdoor lighting,
followed by fluorescent. Mercury vapor fixtures should not be used in new installations due to poor luminous
efficacy and high lumen depreciation (which results in high operating costs) except for specific locations as
discussed below. In fact, it may be cost effective to retrofit existing mercury vapor installations with high-pressure
sodium lamps.
At locations where power is purchased or generated at low cost and physical layout prevents full use of light
output, metal halide or mercury vapor fixtures may be more cost effective. An economic evaluation should be
performed.
Fluorescent lamps are often the preferred choice for enclosed areas, especially for control rooms, office buildings,
and laboratories with low ceiling clearance. High-pressure sodium lamps are often preferred for warehouses and
indoor process areas. Incandescent lamps should be used sparingly, and only for specialty applications (e.g.,
emergency lighting) or where lighting is used infrequently and the initial fixture cost is low compared to
alternative lighting fixtures.
Fluorescent Lamps
Figure 3-05 shows a cost analysis for energy saving versus standard efficiency fluorescent lamps. This analysis
indicates that energy-saving lamps should be specified even when the time value of money is as high as 20%.
Energy-saving lamps are more cost effective because the average lamp life is long (almost 7 years) and energy
represents more than 80% of the life cycle cost (LCC) of operating lamps.

(1) Figure 3-06 shows a cost analysis to light a 50,000 square foot area to an illumination level of 5 foot-candles.
The analysis is based on using Class I, division 2 fixtures, with an energy cost of $ 0.08/kWH, and 4000 burning
hours per year. For different costs of power and labor, ratio actual costs to the costs used in this example (e.g., $
0.04/kWH/$ 0.08/kWH = $ 4,864.00 annual operating cost.) The undiscounted life cycle cost (LCC) of using HPS
lamps in this example is approximately $300,000. By comparison, the undiscounted LCC of MV lamps are more
than $ 720,000. This cost does not consider the added cost of source equipment (transformers and panel boards)
for the MV lamp option (with a connected load of 82 kW versus 30 kW for the HPS option). In addition, more
conduit, wire, and lamp stanchions are required for the MV lamp option. The metal halide option is also a better
choice economically than mercury vapor.
(2) Figure 3-07 illustrates another example in which one HPS, MV, or MH fixture provides a maintained minimum
illumination of 5 foot-candles. In this example, the MV option has the lowest initial cost and the lowest LCC even
when the time value of money is over 20%.
(3) Figure 3-08 demonstrates a retrofit example in which MV lamps are presently in use. An initial investment of
approximately $96,000 will be required to retrofit to HPS or $104,000 to retrofit to MH. Based on a 10-year LCC,
the option to retrofit with PHS yields a savings even when the time value of money is as high as 12%. Retrofitting
with MH is not a cost effective option. This also is true when using a 20-year LCC. However, when the cost of
energy is below $0.05/kWH, it is not cost effective to change out the MV lights. An economic analysis should be
performed for each possible situation.
Temperature
Temperature can affect the installation and operation of light sources in many ways. Ambient temperatures can
affect the lumen output of some fixtures. Self-generated heat in excess of that which is designed to be dissipated
by the fixture can damage the ballast, lamp, base, and fixture. Ballast life is very sensitive to high ambient
temperatures. For high ambient temperature areas, it may be more cost effective to use fixtures with remote-
mounted ballasts, even though the initial costs for fixtures with integral ballasts may be lower. Fixtures must be
mounted according to manufacturer’s recommendations to correctly dissipate heat.
Incandescent Filament Lamps

Operation of lamps under conditions which cause excessive bulb and base temperatures may result in softening of
the base cement and loosening of the base. In extreme cases, the fixture and adjacent wiring can be damaged.
Care should be taken to ensure that the correct wattage lamps are installed in fixtures. Most fixtures are designed
to dissipate a specific quantity of heat generated by the lamps. Over voltage conditions or the use of lamps of
higher wattage than the manufacturer’s rating can cause slight or severe damage. The use of incorrect wattage
lamps may also affect light distribution by fixtures since the focal point will not be correct for reflectors.
Fluorescent Lamps
(1) Temperature is an important factor in the performance of fluorescent lamps. The temperature of the bulb wall
has a substantial effect on the amount of ultraviolet light generated by the arc; therefore, light output is
significantly affected by the temperature and movement of the surrounding air. For maximum efficiency, bulb wall
temperatures should be within a range of 100°to 120℉. Light output decreases about 1 percent for each 1-
degree drop in bulb temperature below 100℉, and decreases a like amount for each 2-degree rise between 120°
to 200℉.
(2) When fluorescent lamps with “P” ballasts are installed, fixtures must be able to dissipate the heat which is
generated. Insulation around the fixture, or a fixture installed in a high ambient temperature area, can cause the
ballast protection to cut in and out, turning the lamp off and on unpredictably.
(3) Low temperatures may also cause starting difficulty. This normally is not a problem with indoor applications,
but can become a significant problem outdoors.
(4) For outdoor applications, fluorescent lamps designed for outdoor use are recommended because of their high
lumen output. In order to maintain high output in cold climates, the lamps must be enclosed. Enclosing the
lamps shifts the peak output to a lower ambient temperature. When using lamps in cold weather without a
surrounding enclosure, best results will be obtained from T10J lamps specifically designed for use in low air
temperatures.
(1) The lumen output of the enclosed arc-tube type lamp is not significantly affected by ambient temperature.
However, to insure immediate starting at low temperatures, many HID lamps require a ballast which has a
higher open-circuit voltage than that of a standard ballast designed for a temperature-controlled environment.
(2) Because HID lamps have a long life, operating temperatures are particularly important. The effect of heat is
partly a function of time, and the longer the life of the lam`, the greater the possibility of damage from high
temperature. Excessive bulb and base temperatures may cause the following conditions: lamp failure,
unsatisfactory performance due to softening of the glass, damage to the arc tube from moisture being driven out
of the outer envelope, softening of the basing cement or solider, or corrosion of the base, socket, or lead-in wires.
The use of any reflecting equipment that might concentrate heat and light rays on
either the inner arc tube or the outer envelope should be avoided.
Lamp Starting and Restarting

Lamp starting and restarting can be an important consideration if there is a significant time delay before light
output can be achieved. This factor can be important in remote locations, or in an industrial setting where an
unsafe condition may exist after a power dip if light is not restored immediately. Of all luminaries, metal halide
lamps take the longest time to restart and reach full power output after a power failure.
Incandescent Lamps
Incandescent lamps achieve immediate light output upon starting and restarting.
Fluorescent Lamps
Fluorescent lamps should be equipped with rapid start ballasts which provide immediate starting and
restarting characteristics.
High Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamps
(1) All HID lamps need time to reach full output and stable color. If the arc is extinguished after this warm-up, the
lamp will not relight until it is cooled sufficiently to lower the vapor pressure of the gases to a point where the arc
will re-strike with the available voltage.
(2) Some ballast can be equipped with a restart circuit that will provide sufficient starting voltage to overcome the
higher vapor pressure of the gases. Ballasts equipped with restart circuits provide full light output immediately
upon restoration of power. Battery-powered emergency lighting systems may be required for outages, which are
longer than momentary outages.
(3) Epoxy encapsulated ballasts should be considered for high humidity areas and corrosive environments. The
epoxy protects the ballast from possible contaminants.
1) Mercury Vapor (MV) Lamps
(a)The time from initial starting to full light output at ordinary room temperature varies from 5 to 7 minutes. Re-
strike time (including cooling time until the lamp will restart) varies between 3 and 6 minutes.
(b) Mercury vapor lights with an auxiliary quartz lamp are available. The incandescent quartz lamp lights
immediately when the circuit is restored. When the MV lamp attains 75% of its rated output, a current sensing
relay turns the quartz lamp off. Quartz lamps operate at temperatures, which are above those allowed for Class I,
Division 1 or 2 areas.
2) Metal Halide (MH) Lamps

The warm-up time for MH lamps is slightly less than that of MV lamps, varying between 2 and 5 minutes. Since
MH arc tubes operate at higher temperatures than MV lamps, the time to cool and lower the vapor pressure of the
metal halide lamp is longer, varying between 10 and 20 minutes.
3) High Pressure Sodium (HPS) Lamps

The lamp warm-up time for HPS lamps are between 3 and 4 minutes, and full light output is reached in
approximately 10 minutes. Because the operating pressure of a high-pressure sodium lamp is lower than that of a
mercury lamp, the re-strike time is shorter, between 0.5 and 1 minute. Ninety percent of full light output is
reached in 3 to 4 minutes. HPS lamps can be equipped with a special feature called “Instant Re-strike” for
convenience (or for use as emergency lighting) when uninterrupted illumination is required. With this feature,
some light is available immediately. Light output reaches 30% of full output after 1/2 minute. Full light output is
achieved in about 3 minutes.
Lamp Starting and Restarting Summary
LAMP STARTING AND RESTARTING TIME
Type of Lamp MV MH HPS Incandescent Fluorescent

Starting Time 5-7 2-5 3-4 immediate immediate
Restarting Time 3-6 10-20 0.5-1 * immediate immediate
* Also available with instant restarting.
Lamp Starting and Restarting Time (in Minutes)

Ballasts
Fluorescent Lamps
The components of a typical rapid start ballast consist of a transformer-type core and coil, power capacitor,
thermal protective device, and a potting compound (such as asphalt) containing a filler (such as silica). The average
ballast life at a 50% duty cycle and proper operating temperature is about 12 years.
High Intensity Discharge
The Constant Wattage Autotransformer “CWA” lead circuit ballast is the preferred choice for most HID
installations. It consists of a high reactance autotransformer with a capacitor in series with the lamp. The
capacitor allows the lamp to operate with better wattage stability if branch circuit voltage fluctuates. Other
advantages of the CWA ballast are a high power factor, low-line extinguishing voltage, and lower line starting
currents. Fixtures with ballasts other than CWA will require approximately 60% more starting current than
operating current. The CWA features allow maximum loading on branch circuits and provide more cost-effective
HID lighting systems.
Fixture Materials
Fixture material may be an important consideration in the selection of lighting fixtures, especially in marine
environments.
Voltage Levels
The voltage level and power distribution system of lighting are decided with safety consideration, easier phase
balancing and reduced inventories of fixtures and ballasts.
Lighting System Design

Before the system design process can begin, the following design parameters must be determined: area
classification, fixture selection, and voltage level. In addition, the following project design tasks must be
completed: facility layout, mechanical equipment plans, structural plans, and emergency escape routes.
The design of any lighting installation involves the consideration of many variables include:
(1) Lighting for detailed work,

(2) Flood lighting,
(3) Task-oriented lighting, and
(4) Emergency lighting.
The lighting system should be designed to provide slightly more than the initial desired light to allow for lamp
deterioration and dirt accumulation on the fixture lens (i.e., maintenance factor and luminaries depreciation
factor). The lighting system should also be designed to provide the desired quantity of light at the particular
location and in the proper visual plane. The amount of glare produced, the ease of installation and maintenance,
and environmental suitability (e.g., indoors, outdoors, and hazardous locations) should all be considered during the
design phase.
Distribution of Light
The distribution of light is divided into five classes: direct, semi-direct, general-diffuse (or direct-indirect), semi-
indirect, and indirect.
(1) Direct lighting provides 90 to 100% of its light downward, and while it often is most efficient, it usually results
in glare.
(2) Semi-direct lighting provides 60 to 90% of its light downward, with a general decrease in glare and increase in
seeing comfort.
(3) General-diffuse (direct-indirect) lighting systems provide approximately equal components of up light and
down light. This system emits very little brightness in the direct-glare zone. The efficiency of the system depends
largely on the reflectance’s of all the room surfaces. This system is widely used in laboratories and offices.
(4) Semi-indirect lighting provides 60 to 90% up light and depends on light being reflected from the ceiling and
walls. This type of lighting system is used when reflected glare from room surfaces must be minimized.
(5) Indirect lighting systems provide 90 to 100% up-light and produce the most comfortable light. However, they
have the lowest utilization of the five classes and often are difficult to maintain. In-direct lighting in preferred for
control rooms with CRT monitors.
Lighting Methods
To provide the necessary quantity and quality of light for lighting system applications, three types of lighting are
used.
(1) General lighting should provide overall, uniform lighting with special attention focused on the areas along
walls. The lighting level at the wall should be comparable to that at the center of the room. An example of this is in
the bunk areas of living quarters.
(2) Localized general lighting is used in areas where higher illumination levels are required. This often can be
obtained by increasing the output of the general lighting system in the particular area.
(3) Supplementary luminaries are used to provide higher levels of illumination in small or restricted areas.
The illumination of vertical surfaces often requires special considerations to provide uniformity any, in those cases
where the vertical surface is behind a transparent cover, to prevent reflected glare. Where vertical surfaces are
adjacent to sources of high luminance, acceptable brightness ratios should be maintained to help avoid eye-strain
caused by a large difference in brightness between the task area and the background.
Illumination Level
Company experience has shown that the lighting levels listed in “Intensity of Illumination”.
Table. Illuminances Currently Recommended by the Petroleum,
Chemical and Petrochemical Plants Representations (*1)
Emergency Lighting Systems
Emergency lighting is used during power failures and provides illumination by silhouetting objects. It should be
provided in control rooms, at critical instrument locations, in large electrical substations, in mechanics shops, and
in laboratories. Emergency systems are used to evacuate personnel, to provide light to shut down controls and
equipment, and to maintain a level of illumination adequate for safety and security. It may also be required to
illuminate equipment for plant startup following a power outage. Local, city, state, and federal codes may require
emergency lighting for special areas where personnel work. Applicable codes should be reviewed carefully.
The power source for emergency lighting systems should be separate from the normal electrical source. If the
same power source is used for both normal and emergency lighting, a power outage would render the
emergency lighting useless. Emergency lighting power sources include engine generator sets, UPS, and batteries.
If normal power is lost, light should automatically be provided in areas where the loss of light might cause
personnel hazard.
Company Experience with Lighting Systems

Industrial Lighting
High-pressure sodium lamps are preferred for most outdoor onshore lighting applications because of their lower
initial capital investment and operating costs. MV or MH fixtures should be considered for offshore locations
where power is locally generated (often at lower cost/KWH) and where obstructions may shadow areas (requiring
more fixtures regardless of the individual fixture output). There are some applications where only a few
fixtures are required or where color rendering is of primary importance. In these situations, metal halide or color-
corrected mercury vapor fixtures may be preferred.
Services Station Lighting

Metal halide lighting is almost exclusively used for outdoor lighting at service stations. The better color rendering
properties of metal halide help to maintain the Company image and improve seals. Normally, high-pressure
lighting is used for tank truck loading racks and warehouse lighting.
Roadway and Parking Lot
High-pressure sodium lighting normally is preferred for roadways and parking lots. 4.5.4 Offshore Platforms
Mercury vapor and metal halide (and occasionally high pressure sodium) lamps are used for area lighting and
lighting the interiors of large buildings. Fluorescent lighting is used indoors (and at times outdoors) for area
lighting, particularly where low profile fixtures are needed because of low ceiling heights.
Control Room Lighting

Control rooms or other rooms equipped with CRTs should be designed with indirect lighting to reduce glare. Wall-
mounted or suspended indirect fluorescent fixtures with adjustable light level controls are preferred. Fluorescent
lighting with parabolic louvers (to reduce glare) can also be used for general lighting. Incandescent spot lighting
can be used for task lighting. An effort should be made to prevent light penetration from other
work spaces. All surfaces in control rooms should be non-reflective.
Aviation Lighting
Metal halide or color-corrected mercury vapor systems are preferred for most heliport lighting applications on
offshore platforms because of their superior quality of light. Fluorescent fixtures may be required for low profile
applications. Incandescent fixtures equipped with long-life lamps are used for landing lights.
Lighting Calculations and Fixture Layout
The three most common methods used to determine the number of fixtures required to provide the necessary
maintained illumination for an area are: the lumen method, the point-to-point method, and the iso-foot candle
method. The watts-per-square foot method is used for estimating purposes very early in a project or during
the conceptual phase of a project. Generally, the lumen method is used in calculations where fixtures are installed
in an enclosed space (like a room). The point-to-point method is commonly used in calculations for outside
applications where reflected light is not a factor. However, either method may be used for indoor or outdoor
locations. The IES Handbook and the Westinghouse Lighting Handbook contain detailed, step-by-step processes
for using these two methods. Most lighting design done by the Company is for exterior (outdoor) lighting, primarily
for area lighting and floodlighting. This section explains two lighting-calculation methods: the watts-per-square
foot method for conceptual design, and the iso-foot-candle method for general outdoor applications.
Area Lighting
Area lighting for a particular operating company location should be standardized as much as possible. Designs
should produce uniform and efficient lighting levels and facilitate cost-effective maintenance.
Floodlighting
(1) The difference between floodlighting and area lighting is the aiming angle. The greater the aiming angle, the
greater the area illuminated: however, light output directly beneath the fixture will be lower. Since the objective
of floodlighting is to maintain only 1 to 2 foot-candles at grade, the best method is usually to angle fixtures at
60 degrees from horizontal and install them at heights of about 25 feet.
(2) The area illuminated by floodlights can be varied by using different beam widths. This is particularly useful
when the light must be directed to a specific area where an individual lighting fixture cannot be installed. Standard
floodlight beam widths are specified by NEMA as follows:
NEMA TYPE SPREAD (degrees) BEAM
1 10- 18
2 18- 29
3 29- 46
4 46- 70
5 70-100
6 100-130
7 103 and up
Lumen Maintenance Factor (LMF)

As lamps age, lumen output deteriorates (lumen depreciation). Dirt depreciation is the lamp depreciation
associated with dirt on the lamp, lens, and reflector. Together, lamp depreciation and dirt depreciation constitute
the lumen maintenance factor (LMF).
Figure 5-01 provides the recommended lumen maintenance factors to apply to various types of fixtures.
For example, a 70-watt HPS fixture with a standard reflector and no guard, mounted 8-feet high, will provide 10
foot-candles of initial illumination in a 5-foot radius. By applying the LMF of 0.6 for HPS fixtures, the illumination
level design basis is 6 foot-candles (10 x 0.6) near the end of rated life. If the minimum recommended illumination
level is 12 foot-candles, two 70-watt HPS fixtures spaced 5-feet apart would provide the required illumination.
LUMEN MAINTENANCE FACTORS

Type of Fixture Lumen Maintenance Factor
Incandescent
- Indoor 0.60
- Outdoor 0.70
Fluorescent
- Indoor 0.55
- Outdoor 0.60
Mercury Vapor
- Indoor 0.40
- Outdoor 0.50
High Pressure Sodium

- Indoor 0.55
- Outdoor 0.60
Metal Halide
- Indoor 0.45
- Outdoor 0.55
Watts-Per-Square Foot Method
The watts-per-square foot method works well to determine the appropriate number of lighting fixtures required
and to estimate the total lighting loads for determining initial calculations during the conceptual phase of a project.
To use this method, a six-step process is outlined below:

(1) Step 1: Determine the illumination level for the area(s) in question.
(2) Step 2: Determine the total square footage of the area to be illuminated from the preliminary plot plan.
(3) Step 3: Determine the type of lighting fixture to use from Figure 3-01, Light Fixture Selection.
(4) Step 4: Determine the watts per square foot from Figure 5-02.
(5) Step 5: Obtain the total wattage required by multiplying the watts per square foot (from Step 4) by the area to
be illuminated (from Step 2).
(6) Step 6: Determine the total number of fixtures required by dividing the total wattage required (from Step 5) by
the wattage of each lamp (from Step 3).
Iso-Foot candle Method

The iso-foot candle lighting-calculation method works well for outdoor locations, but is not well suited for indoor
applications. Figure 5-03 shows an iso-foot candle chart for a 70-watt HPS fixture with a standard dome
reflector mounted at an elevation of 8 feet. Iso-foot candle charts show lines of equal foot-candles that will be
produced by a specific fixture at a given height. These curves are created from photometric test data, and are
representative of the lamp’s actual output. Iso-foot candle charts are useful as they can be superimposed on the
design plot plan and relocated until satisfactory light levels are achieved. Iso-foot candle charts (IFCs) may be hard
to obtain for a specific fixture and often have to be scaled to match the plot plan. An alternative to the iso-foot
candle chart is the iso-foot candle table, which is readily available from most fixture manufacturers. Using this
data, iso-foot candle levels can be placed on the plot plan. Sections 5.5 and 5.6 present two examples that
illustrate the layout of lighting fixtures using the iso-foot candle method.
Iso-Foot candle Chart for Stanchion Mount Fixture
Maintenance Consideration
A good maintenance program involves: (1) replacing lamps, (2) cleaning fixtures, and (3) cleaning lighted surfaces.
Replacing Lamps (Revamping)

Two different approaches may be taken in revamping programs: (1) replace lamps as they extinguish, or (2) replace
all lamps at one time (group replacement). The first approach, individual lamp replacement, is usually the least
cost-effective method. The labor portion of the revamping program typically dominates the total cost. When the
labor cost is not the largest portion of revamping cost, the first approach is the more economical (e.g., on offshore
platforms.)
A group replacement scheme can be developed for a given installation by considering the cost of labor and lamps,
lamp life, and the effect of work interruptions. A commonly used criterion for group replacement is: When 20% of
the original lamps have failed, the entire installation is revamped. This approach cannot be used if fixtures provide
light for specific locations.
The time between replacements may vary somewhat because of variations in system voltage and operating
schedules. Over voltage or under voltage should be suspected if the replacement interval is several months
shorter than normal.
Cleaning Fixtures
In some instances, dust and other foreign material on lighting equipment can reduce the lighting level by 30% in
only a few months. The type of ventilation and cleanliness of the surrounding area determine the required cleaning
intervals. It is important to clean fixtures regularly. If fixture cleaning is coordinated with group lamp replacement,
maintenance costs usually can be kept to a minimum.
Cleaning Lighted Surfaces

Cleaning interior lighted surfaces usually is an important maintenance factor. If an illumination survey indicates
less than the design level illumination after lamp replacement and fixture cleaning, the lighted surfaces may need
painting or cleaning. However, a check should be made first to insure that low voltage is not the problem.
References
The following references are readily available. Those with an asterisk(*) are included in this manual or are available
in other manuals.
References
(1)American National Standard Practice for Industrial Lighting (ANSI/IES RP-7)
(2)American National Standard Practice of Office Lighting (ANSI/IES RP-1)
(3)American Petroleum Institute RP 14F, “Design and Installation of Electrical Systems for Offshore Production
Platforms”
(4)American Petroleum Institute RP 540, “Recommended Practice for Electrical Installation in Petroleum Processing
Plants
(5) Code for Safety to Life from Fire in Buildings and Structures, ANSI/NFPA No. 101
(6)ANSI/IEEE STD 45, “IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric Installation son Shipboard”
(7) IES Lighting Handbook, 1984 Reference Volume and 1987 Application Volume
(8) IES RP 12, “Recommended Practice for Marine Lighting”
(9) National Electric Code, ANSI/NFPA 70

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Introduction to System Design

The overall system design is divided into two stages:

Conceptual design begins at the inception of a project and includes.

 Gathering process and load data.

Detailed design includes:

 Developing the one-line diagram.

Power Distribution System Design

 Functions of structure, present and future.

Modern Electric Power Technologies

These technologies may be grouped as:

 Power monitoring and control.

Typically, service continuity and reliability can be increased by:

The terminology used divides voltage classes into:

 Low voltage <1.1 kV.

Some factors affecting the selection of motor operating voltage include:

 Motor, motor starter and cable first cost.

Above 200 6,900 6,600

Up to 200 460 440

2. Rotary Equipment Packages

Special earthing Requirements for instruments and DCS/PLC

Interface of electrical and communication system with DCS/PLC

Communication and Safety Engineers

Radar, Radio, Telecommunications and Public Address

Emergency Routing and exit lighting systems

Supplies for emergency shut-down systems.

 Rolling Shutter and miscellaneous power used for construction.

The Piping engineers will be able to advice on following requirements for

Facilities and Operations Engineers

• Is the plant a new “Green Field” plant?

PRELIMINARY SINGLE-LINE DIAGRAMS

Detailed Load Summary

3) To provide a basis for a cost estimate.

1. The loss of power jeopardizes safety of personnel or cause serious damage

Diversity Factor: Sum of Individual Max. Demands

DETERMINATION OF POWER SUPPLY CAPACITY

Pl = power consumption required at the site ambient conditions

Primary Loop System

1. Rated power of transformers

2. System voltages for low voltage

D. Format Use to prepare single Line Diagram

2. Phase Rotation (or Phase Sequence)

3. Definition of Scope and Responsibility

Switchboards and motor control centers:

Generator breaker (if applicable)

Surge arresters, and surge capacitors

High voltage and large low voltage motors:

Current limiting reactors

Power factor improvement capacitors

Distribution 120 V ac (including UPS) system (on separate diagrams)

General notes column or box:

Step 1: Collection of Basic Data

Step 2: Configuration of Electrical Distribution System

Step 3: Drafting of the Diagram

• Switchboards and motor control centre name and tag number.

PREPARATION OF ONE-LINE METER AND RELAY DIAGRAMS

FORMAT FOR SLM & RD

The following specific drawing format is recommended:

DEVELOPMENT OF SLM & RD

• Single-Ended Bus Arrangement

Generators and Generator Systems

Emergency Standby Generator System Multiple Isolated Standby generators

Multiple Generators Operating in Parallel with Utility System

Multiple Generators Opera

The problems faced when generators are paralleled are:

Electrical Design & Detailed Engineering 1

Electrical Design & Detailed Engineering 1