Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Cahier Technique No 199 Power Quality
Cahier Technique No 199 Power Quality
Cahier
technique
no. 199
Power Quality
Ph. Ferracci
"Cahiers Techniques" is a collection of documents intended for engineers
and technicians, people in the industry who are looking for more in-depth
information in order to complement that given in product catalogues.
Furthermore, these "Cahiers Techniques" are often considered as helpful
"tools" for training courses.
They provide knowledge on new technical and technological developments
in the electrotechnical field and electronics. They also provide better
understanding of various phenomena observed in electrical installations,
systems and equipment.
Each "Cahier Technique" provides an in-depth study of a precise subject in
the fields of electrical networks, protection devices, monitoring and control
and industrial automation systems.
The latest publications can be downloaded from the Schneider Electric
internet web site.
Code: http://www.schneider-electric.com
Section: The expert's place
Please contact your Schneider Electric representative if you want either a
"Cahier Technique" or the list of available titles.
Foreword
The author disclaims all responsibility subsequent to incorrect use of
information or diagrams reproduced in this document, and cannot be held
responsible for any errors or oversights, or for the consequences of using
information and diagrams contained in this document.
Philippe FERRACCI
Contents
1 Introduction 1.1 Context p.4
1.2 Objectives of Power Quality measurement p.5
2 Degradation of PQ: origins - 2.1 General p.6
characteristics - definitions 2.2 Voltage dips and interruptions p.6
2.3 Harmonics and interharmonics p.8
2.4 Overvoltages p.10
2.5 Voltage variations and fluctuations p.10
2.6 Unbalance p.11
2.7 Summary p.11
3 Effects of disturbance on loads 3.1 Voltage dips and interruptions p.12
and processes 3.2 Harmonics p.13
3.3 Overvoltages p.15
3.4 Voltage variations and fluctuations p.15
3.5 Unbalance p.15
3.6 Summary p.15
4 Level of power quality 4.1 Evaluation methodology p.16
4.2 EMC and planning levels p.18
5 Solutions for improving PQ 5.1 Voltage dips and interruptions p.19
5.2 Harmonics p.23
5.3 Overvoltages p.25
5.4 Voltage fluctuations p.26
5.5 Unbalance p.26
5.6 Summary p.26
6 Case studies 6.1 Hybrid filtering p.27
6.2 Real time reactive compensation p.28
6.3 Protection against lightning p.30
7 Conclusion p.31
Bibliography p.32
1.1 Context
The quality of electricity has become a strategic issue The widespread use of equipment which is
for electricity companies, the operating, maintenance sensitive to voltage disturbance and/or
and management personnel of service sector generates disturbance itself
and industrial sites, as well as for equipment As a consequence of their numerous
manufacturers, for the following main reasons: advantages (flexible operation, excellent
c the economic necessity for businesses to efficiency, high performance levels, etc.), we
increase their competitiveness, have seen the development and widespread use
c the widespread use of equipment which is of automated systems and adjustable speed
sensitive to voltage disturbance and/or drives in industry, information systems, and fluo-
generates disturbance itself, compact lighting in the service and domestic
c the opening up of the electricity market. sectors. These types of equipment are both
sensitive to voltage disturbance and generate
The economic necessity for businesses disturbance themselves.
to increase their competitiveness Their multiple use within individual processes
c Reduction of costs linked to loss of supply requires an electrical power supply which can
continuity and problems of non-quality provide ever increasing performance in terms of
The cost of disturbance (interruptions, voltage dips, continuity and quality. The temporary shutdown of
harmonics, lightning overvoltages, etc.) is substantial. just one element in the chain may interrupt the
These costs must take into account losses in whole production facilities (manufacture of semi-
production and raw materials, restarting of conductors, cement works, water treatment,
production facilities, non-quality of production materials handling, printing, steelworks,
and delivery delays. The malfunction or petrochemicals, etc.) or services (data processing
shutdown of vital equipment such as computers, centres, banks, telecommunications, etc.).
lighting and safety systems may put lives at risk Consequently, the work of the IEC on
(e.g. in hospitals, airport lighting systems, public electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) has led to
and high-rise buildings, etc.). stricter and stricter standards and
Costs also include high quality, targeted recommendations (limitations on disturbances
preventive maintenance measures for emission levels, etc.).
anticipating possible problems. There is an
increasing transfer of responsibility from the The opening up of the electricity market
industrial user to the equipment manufacturer for The rules governing the electricity sector are
the provision of site maintenance; manufacturers undergoing radical change: electricity production
are now becoming electricity suppliers. has opened up to competition, production is
c Reduction of costs linked to oversized decentralised, and (large) electricity consumers
installations and energy bills now have the opportunity to choose their supplier.
Other less obvious consequences of PQ In 1985, the Commission of the European
degradation are: Communities states (directive 85/374) that
v A reduction of installation energy efficiency, electricity is to be considered a product and as a
leading to higher energy bills consequence made it necessary to define its
v Overloading of the installation, causing essential characteristics clearly.
premature ageing and increasing the risk of In addition, in the context of liberalising energy
breakdown, leading in turn to oversizing of markets, the search for competitiveness by
distribution equipment electricity companies now means that quality has
This is why professional users of electricity are become a differentiating factor. A guarantee of
keen to optimise the operation of their electrical quality is a potential criterion of choice for industrial
installations. users when looking for an energy supplier.
2.1 General
Electromagnetic disturbances which are likely to c transient overvoltages,
disturb the correct operation of industrial c voltage fluctuations,
equipment and processes is generally ranked in
c voltage unbalance,
various classes relating to conducted and
radiated disturbance: c power-frequency variations,
c low frequency (< 9 kHz), c DC in AC networks,
c high frequency (u 9 kHz), c signalling voltages.
c electrostatic discharge. It is not generally necessary to measure each
type of disturbance.
Measurement of PQ usually involves
characterising low frequency conducted The types can be placed in four categories,
electromagnetic disturbances (the range is affecting the magnitude, waveform, frequency
widened to include transient overvoltages and and symmetry of the voltage. Several of these
transmission of signals on a power system): characteristics may be modified simultaneously
by any one type of disturbance. Disturbances
c voltage dips and interruptions,
can also be classified according to their
c harmonics and interharmonics, permanent, semi-permanent or random nature
c temporary overvoltages, (lightning, short-circuit, switching operations,
c swell, etc.).
Other loads
Voltage source
E
Z
U = E - ZI I
Harmonics
generator
t 50 44 %
0 h
1 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 25
Rectifier/charger A %
100
t 50 28 %
0 h
1 5 7 11 13 17 19
A %
Data processing load
100
t 50 115 %
0 h
1 3 5 7 9 11 13
A %
Fluorescent lighting
100
t 50 53 %
0 h
1 3 5 7 9 11 13
2.6 Unbalance
A 3-phase system is unbalanced if the rms value
of the phase voltages or the phase angles between U1i U1o
consecutive phases are not equal. The degree of ∆Ui = and ∆Uo =
unbalance is defined using the Fortescue U1d U1d
components, comparing the negative sequence
The following approximate formula can also be
component (U1i) (or zero sequence component
(U1o)) of the fundamental to the positive Vi − Vavg
used: ∆Ui = maxi
sequence component (U1d) of the fundamental. Vavg
2.7 Summary
Characteristic
waveforms
Origin of disturbance
c Power system
v Insulation fault, break of
the neutral conductor...
v Switching, ferroresonance
v Lightning
c Equipment
v Asynchronous motor
v Synchronous motor
v Welding machine
v Arc furnace
v Converter
v Data processing loads
v Lighting
v Inverter
v Capacitor bank
Generally speaking, the effects of all disturbances c Deferred effects: energy losses, accelerated
can be classified in two ways: ageing of equipment due to overheating and
c Instantaneous effects: unwanted operation of additional electro-dynamic stress caused by the
contactors or protective devices, incorrect operation disturbance.
or shutdown of a machine. The financial impact The financial impact (e.g. on productivity) is
of the disturbance can be estimated directly. more difficult to quantify.
3.2 Harmonics
The consequences of harmonics are linked to the error and unwanted operation even during
increase in peak values (dielectric breakdown), normal operation with no overload.
rms values (excessive overheating) and to the v Disturbances induced by low current systems
frequency spectrum (vibration and mechanical (remote control, telecommunications, hi-fi
stress) of voltages and currents. systems, computer screens, television sets).
The effects always have an economic impact v Abnormal vibrations and acoustic noise
resulting from the additional costs linked to: (LV switchboards, motors, transformers).
c degradation in the energy efficiency of the v Destruction of capacitors by thermal overload
installation (energy loss), If the actual frequency of the upstream
c oversizing of equipment, capacitor-network system is similar to a
c loss of productivity (accelerated ageing of harmonic order, this causes resonance and
equipment, unwanted tripping). amplification of the corresponding harmonic.
Malfunctions are probable with a harmonic v Loss of accuracy of measurement instruments
distortion factor of greater than 8 % of the A class 2 induction energy meter will produce in
voltage. Between 5 and 8 %, malfunctions are current and voltage, a 0.3 % additional error in
possible. the presence of 5 % of harmonic 5.
c Instantaneous or short term effects c Long term effects
v Unwanted operation of protective devices: Current overload produces excessive overheating
harmonics have a harmful influence mainly on and leads to premature ageing of equipment:
thermal control devices. Indeed, when protective v Overheating of sources: transformers,
devices of this type calculate the rms value of alternators (through increased joule and iron
the current from the peak value, there is a risk of losses).
13
HVF = ∑ Uh2 h (Harmonic Variation Factor according to IEC892)
h= 2
3.3 Overvoltages
The consequences are extremely varied company, loss of production for industrial
according to the period of application, repetitivity, companies).
magnitude, mode (common or differential), c Disturbance in control system and low current
gradient and frequency: communication circuits (see "Cahier Technique"
c Dielectric breakdown, causing significant no. 187).
permanent damage to equipment (electronic c Electrodynamic and thermal stress (fire)
components, etc.). caused by:
c Degradation of equipment through ageing v Lightning (usually)
(repetitive rather than destructive overvoltages). Overhead networks are most vulnerable to
c Long interruptions caused by the destruction of lightning, but installations supplied by
equipment (loss of sales for distribution underground networks may also be affected by
3.5 Unbalance
The main effect is the overheating of 3-phase differ considerably. This increases the
asynchronous machines. overheating of the phase(s) which the highest
In fact, the zero sequence reactance of an current flows through and reduces the operating
asynchronous machine is equivalent to its life of the machine.
reactance during the start-up phase. The current In practice, a voltage unbalance factor of 1 %
unbalance factor will thus be several times that over a long period, and 1.5 % over a few minutes
of the supply voltage. Phase currents can thus is acceptable.
3.6 Summary
Sepam
Masterpact
circuit breaker
A degradation of quality may lead to a change in disturbance to be prevented (e.g. remedies may
behaviour, performance or even the destruction differ depending on the duration of an
of equipment and dependent processes with interruption). This determines the effectiveness
possible consequences for the safety of of the chosen solution. The definition, choice,
personnel and additional economic costs. implementation and maintenance (to ensure
This assumes three elements: long-term effectiveness) of solutions must also
c one or more generators of disturbance, be carried out by specialists.
The value of the choice and implementation of a
c one or more loads sensitive to the disturbance,
solution depends on:
c a channel for the disturbance to be propagated
between them. c The required level of performance
The solutions consist in taking action with regard Malfunction is not permitted if it would put lives at
to all or part of the three elements, either globally risk (e.g. in hospitals, airport lighting systems,
(the installation) or locally (one or more loads). lighting and safety systems in public buildings,
The solutions can be implemented to: auxiliary plant for power stations, etc.).
c correct a malfunction in an installation, c The financial consequences of malfunction
c take preventive action when polluting loads are Any unprogrammed stop, even when very short,
to be connected, of certain processes (manufacture of semi-
conductors, steelworks, petrochemicals, etc.)
c ensure the installation conforms to a standard
results in loss or non-quality of production or
or to the power distributor’s recommendations,
even restarting of production facilities.
c reduce energy bills (reduction of subscribed
power in kVA, reduction in consumption). c The time required for a return on the investment
Loads are not sensitive to the same disturbance This is the ratio of financial losses (raw
and have different levels of sensitivity, the materials, production losses, etc.) caused by the
solution adopted, as well as being the best from non-quality of electrical power and the cost
a technical and economic point of view, must (research, implementation, operation,
ensure an appropriate level of PQ which meets maintenance) of the solution.
actual requirements. Other criteria such as practices, regulation and
It is vital that specialists carry out a prior the limits on disturbance imposed by the
diagnosis to determine the nature of the distributor must also be taken into account.
Static contactor
Network 2
Switch
Supply network
(NC) Sensitive
feeders Rectifier / charger Inverter
equipment
Network 1
Switch Switch
Battery
or (NC) NO : normally
circuit breaker (NC)
Circuit breaker open
(NC) Battery NC : normally
closed
Z (Ω)
Network only
with capacitor
with anti-harmonic choke
f (Hz)
fr far
Zone where harmonics are present
Active Generation of current cancelling out all c Solution particularly suited to "machine" filtering
harmonics created by the load. (local).
c Filtering on a wide frequency band (elimination
of harmonic orders 2 to 25).
Load(s)
c Self-adapting:
Network
v network modification has no effect,
v adapts to all variations in load and harmonic
spectrum,
v open-ended, flexible solution for each type of
load.
c Simple engineering study.
Active filter
Fig. 11: Principles and characteristics of passive, active, and hybrid filtering.
5.3 Overvoltages
Correct insulation co-ordination involves with a high capacitance to earth (capacitive
ensuring the protection of personnel and filters connected to earth, extended cable
equipment against overvoltages, with the best networks, etc.) which flow through the network
balance between technical and economic downstream of the RCD (residual current
considerations. device) via the network capacitance to earth.
This requires (see "Cahier Technique" no. 151):
Lightning overvoltages
c knowledge of the level and energy of the
overvoltages which may occur on the network, c Primary protection
c selection of the level of overvoltage This protects the building and its structure
withstand of the power system components to from direct lightning strikes (lightning
meet constraints, conductors, Faraday cages, overhead earth
wire/earthing wire).
c use of protective devices where necessary,
in fact, the appropriate solutions depend on c Secondary protection
the type of overvoltage encountered. This protects equipment against the
overvoltages which follow lightning.
Temporary overvoltages Surge arresters (spark gaps are now used less
c Switch off all or some of the capacitors and less) are installed on the particularly
during periods of low load. exposed points of HV and MV networks and at
c Avoid configurations susceptible to the input to MV/LV installations (see "Cahier
ferroresonance or introduce losses (reducing Technique" no. 151).
resistors) to damp the phenomenon (see On LV installations, they are installed as far
"Cahier Technique" no. 190). upstream as possible (to offer maximum
protection) and as close as possible to the
Switching overvoltages load. It is sometimes necessary to cascade
c Limit the capacitors energisation transients surge arresters: one at the head of the
by installing a fixed reactor and pre-insertion installation, and one close to the load (see
resistors. Static automatic reactive "Cahier Technique" no. 179). An LV surge
compensators which control closing instant are arrester is always connected to a
especially suitable for LV applications which disconnection device. In addition, the use of
cannot withstand transient overvoltages main residual current circuit breakers of
(PLCs, computer systems). discriminatory type on LV installations avoids
any current flow to earth via the surge arrester
c Connect line chokes upstream of the tripping the circuit breaker at the head of the
frequency inverters to limit the effects of installation, which would be incompatible with
transient overvoltages. some equipment (freezers, controllers, etc.).
c Use main residual current circuit breakers of Note that overvoltages can be propagated to
discriminatory type (type "S") for LV and circuit the equipment by other routes than the
breakers of type "si" (I∆n = 30 mA and 300 mA). electrical power supply: telephone lines
Their use avoids unwanted tripping due to (telephone, fax), coaxial cables (computer
transient leakage currents : lightning and links, TV aerials). Suitable protective devices
switching overvoltages, energisation of circuits are commercially available.
5.5 Unbalance
The solutions are: c fitting the appropriate protective device for the
c balancing single phase loads on all three phases, machines,
c reducing the power system impedance c using carefully connected LC loads (Steinmetz
upstream of the devices causing the unbalance by connection).
increasing the transformer rated power and the
cable cross-section,
5.6 Summary
Before After
Voltage (V) 584 599
Voltage dip
c Depth (%): 5.8 3.2
c Duration (cycle) 20 to 25 10 to 15
Current
c Average 1000 550
c Peak 2000 1250
Reactive power (kvar) 600 0
to 1200 to 300
Power factor 0.75 > 0.92
Fig. 15: Improvements due to the real time reactive Fig. 16: Real time reactive compensator [a] principle,
compensator. [b] practical implementation.
a
340
Voltage 335
(V) 330
1500
Current
(A) 1000
1000
kvar 500
d=3s
b
350
Voltage
(V) 340
1250
Current 750
(A)
500
kvar 0
d = 1.5 s
∆V ∆V
∆V
VS VS
VS Reactive VL
VL VL Welder
compensator
With Without
Fig. 18: Reduction in voltage drop obtained using a real time reactive compensator.
Solutions
After analysing equipotentiality and earthing of L L
the power system, followed by verification of N N
the installation of lightning conductors and
checking of the values of the earth electrodes,
the decision was taken to install surge
arresters. PF8 PF8
Secondary Secondary
Surge arresters were installed at the head of the distribution board distribution board
installation (main LV distribution board) and in Building 1 Building 1
cascade in each manufacturing building (see
fig. 19). As the neutral point connection was Fig. 19: Installation diagram for several surge arresters
TNC, protection would only be provided in in cascade.
common mode (between phases and PEN).
In conformity with guide UTE C-15443 regarding
operation in the presence of lightning
conductors, the characteristics of the
Merlin Gerin PF65 and PF8 surge arresters (see
fig. 20) are as follows:
c At the head of the installation
In = 20 kA – Imax = 65 kA – Up = 2 kV
PF65
c In cascade (at least 10 m apart)
In = 2 kA – Imax = 8 kA – Up = 1.5 kV
In cascade, good protection is provided for the
secondary distribution boards (offices and
security post).
As the neutral point connection was converted to
TNS, protection had to be provided in common
mode (between phase and PE) and differential PF8
mode (between phases and neutral). The Fig. 20: Low voltage surge arresters (Merlin Gerin
disconnection devices in this case are circuit PF65 and PF8).
breakers with a breaking capacity of 22 kA.
Electrical disturbance may originate in the mean that the quality of electricity has become a
distribution power system, in the installation of strategic issue for electricity companies, the
the user who is subject to disturbance or in the operating, maintenance and management
installation of a nearby user. personnel of service sector and industrial sites,
The consequences of the disturbance vary as well as for equipment manufacturers.
according to the economic context and the area However, problems of disturbance should not be
of application: from inconvenience to shutdown regarded as insurmountable, as solutions do
of production facilities - it can even put lives at exist. Employing specialists to define, implement
risk. and maintain these solutions while observing
The search to improve company competitiveness best practice will provide users with the right
and the deregulation of the electricity market quality of power supply for their requirements.
v European Union "Council Directive 85/374 on the c Active harmonic conditioners and unity power factor
approximation of the laws of the Member States rectifiers.
relating to the liability for defective products", Official E. BETTEGA, J.-N. FIORINA, Cahier Technique no. 183.
Journal (07.08.1985). c Cohabitation of high and low currents.
v EN 50160 Characteristics of electricity supplied by R. CALVAS, J. DELABALLE,
public distribution systems (07-1994). Cahier Technique no. 187.
v Application Guide to the European Standard c Ferroresonance.
EN 50160 - July 1995 - UNIPEDE. Ph. FERRACCI, Cahier Technique no. 190.
v IEEE Std 1159-1995: Recommended Practice for
Monitoring Electric Power Quality. Other publications
v IEEE Std 1000-1992: IEEE Recommended Practice c Guide de l’ingénierie électrique des réseaux internes
for Powering and Grounding Sensitive Electronic d’usines - Collection ELECTRA.
Equipment. c Method of symmetrical co-ordinates applied to the
v IEC 60071-1: Insulation coordination. solution of polyphase networks - Trans. Amer. Inst.
v IEC 60050-161: International Electrotechnical Electr. Engrs, June, 1918 - C.L. FORTESCUE.
Vocabulary. c Guide to quality of electrical supply for industrial
installations Part 2: voltage dips and short interruptions
Cahiers Techniques Schneider Electric
Working Group UIE Power Quality 1996.
c Residual current devices.
c Supply Quality Issues at the Interphase between
R. CALVAS, Cahier Technique no. 114.
Power System and Industrial Consumers - PQA 1998,
c Electrical disturbances in LV. A. ROBERT.
R. CALVAS, Cahier Technique no. 141.
c Real time reactive compensation systems for welding
c Switching MV capacitor banks. applications - PQ 1998, R. WODRICH.
D. KOCH, Cahier Technique no. 142.
c Low voltage hybrid harmonic filters, technical &
c EMC: Electromagnetic compatibility. economic analysis - PQ 1999, J. SCHONEK.
F. VAILLANT, Cahier Technique no. 149.
c Overvoltages and insulation coordination in MV and HV.
D. FULCHIRON, Cahier Technique no. 151.
Schneider Electric Direction Scientifique et Technique, Real: LAI Ltd - Tarporley - Cheshire -GB.
Service Communication Technique Edition: Schneider Electric
F-38050 Grenoble cedex 9 Printing: Imprimerie du Pont de Claix - Claix - 1000.
Fax : 33 (0)4 76 57 98 60 - 100 FF-
94836 00-00