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System of Linear Equations

The subject of algebra arose from studying equations. For example, one might want to find all the real
numbers 𝑥 such that 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 1. To solve, we could rewrite our equation as 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6 = 0 and then factor
its left hand side. This would tell us that (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 2) = 0, so we would conclude that either 𝑥 = 3 or 𝑥 =
−2 since either 𝑥 − 3 or 𝑥 + 2 has to be zero. Finding the roots of a polynomial is a nonlinear problem,
whereas the topic to be studied here is the theory of linear equations.

The simplest linear equation is the equation 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏. The letter 𝑥 is the variable, and 𝑎 and 𝑏 are fixed
numbers. For example, consider 4𝑥 = 3. The solution is 𝑥 = 3/4. In general, if 𝑎 ≠ 0, then 𝑥 = 𝑏/𝑎, and
this solution is unique. If 𝑎 = 0 and 𝑏 ≠ 0, there is no solution, since the equation says 0 = 𝑏. And in the
case where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are both 0, every real number 𝑥 is a solution. This points out a general property of linear
equations. Either there is a unique solution (i.e. exactly one), no solution or infinitely many solutions.

More generally, if 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . 𝑥𝑛 are variables and 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , . . . 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑐 are fixed real numbers, then the
equation

𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 + ··· + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑐

is said to be a 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛. The 𝑎𝑖 are the 𝑐𝑜𝑒ffi𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠, the 𝑥𝑖 the 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 and 𝑐 is the 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. While in
familiar situations, the coefficients are real numbers, it will turn out that in other important settings, such as
coding theory, the coefficients might be elements of some general field.

Let’s take another example. Suppose you are planning to make a cake using 10 ingredients, and you
want the cake to have 2000 calories. Let 𝑎𝑖 be the number of calories per gram of the 𝑖𝑡ℎ ingredient.
Presumably, each 𝑎𝑖 is nonnegative, although in the future, foods with negative calories may actually be
available. Similarly, let 𝑥𝑖 be the number of grams of the 𝑖𝑡ℎ ingredient. Then 𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 + ··· + 𝑎10 𝑥10 is the
total number of calories in the recipe. Since you want the total number of calories in your cake to be exactly
2000, you consider the equation 𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 + ··· + 𝑎10 𝑥10 = 2000. The totality of possible solutions
𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥10 for this equation is the set of all possible recipes you can concoct.

The following more complicated example illustrates how linear equations can be used in nonlinear
problems. Let ℝ denote the real numbers, and suppose we want to know something about the set of common
solutions of the equations 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑦 5 and 𝑧 2 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 4 . These equations represent two surfaces in real
three space ℝ3, so we’d expect the set of common solutions to lie on a curve. Here it’s impossible to express
the solutions in a closed form, but we can study them locally using linear methods. For example, both surfaces
meet at (1,1,1), and they both have a tangent plane at (1,1,1). The tangent line to the curve of intersection at
(1,1,1) is the intersection of these two tangent planes. This will give us a linear approximation to the curve near
(1,1,1).

Nonlinear systems such as in the above example are usually difficult to solve; their theory involves
highly sophisticated mathematics. On the other hand, it turns out that systems of linear equations are handled
quite simply by elementary methods, and modern computers make it possible to solve gigantic linear systems
with fantastic speed.

A general linear system consisting of 𝑚 equations in 𝑛 unknowns will look like:

𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1

𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎23 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2

𝑎𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑚

Notice how the coefficients 𝑎𝑖𝑗 are labelled. The first index gives its row and the second index its
column. The case where all the constants 𝑏𝑖 are zero is called the ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒. Otherwise, the system
is said to be 𝑛𝑜𝑛ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠.
 GUIMARAS STATE COLLEGE
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One way to solve a system of linear equations is by working with its augmented matrix M rather than
the equations themselves. Specifically, we reduce M to echelon form (which tells whether the system has a
solution) and then further reduce M to its row canonical form (which essentially gives the solution of the original
system of linear equations). The justification of this process comes from the following facts.

1) Any elementary row operation on the augmented matrix M of the system is equivalent to applying the
corresponding operation on the system itself.
2) The system has a solution if and only if the echelon form of the augmented matrix M does not have a
row of the form (0,0,…,0,b) with b ≠ 0.
3) In the row canonical form of augmented matrix M (excluding zero rows) the coefficient of each basic
variable is a pivot entry equal to 1, and it is the only nonzero entry in its respective column. Hence the
free-variable form of the solution of the system of linear equations is obtained by simply transferring the
free variables to the other side.

This process is illustrated below.

Example: Solve the system

𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 + 4𝑡 = 5
[ 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 3𝑧 + 𝑡 = 3 ]
3𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 4𝑧 − 2𝑡 = 1

Reduce its augmented matrix M to echelon form and then to row canonical form as follows:

1 1 −2 4 5 1 1 −2 4 5 1 1 0 −10 −9
𝑀 = [2 2 −3 1 3] ~ [0 0 1 −7 −7 ] ~ [0 0 1 −7 7]
3 3 −4 −2 1 0 0 2 −14 −14 0 0 0 0 0

Thus the free-variable form of the general solution is

𝑥 + 𝑦 −10𝑡 = −9 𝑥 = −9 − 𝑦 + 10𝑟
𝑜𝑟
𝑧 − 7𝑡 = −7 𝑦 = −7 + 7𝑡

(The zero row is omitted in the solution). Observe that x and z are the basic variables, and y and t are the free
variables.

Example: Solve the system

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 + 3𝑥4 = 4
[2𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 − 𝑥4 = 3]
5𝑥1 + 7𝑥2 + 4𝑥3 + 𝑥4 = 5

First reduce its augmented matrix M to echelon form as follows:

1 1 −2 3 4 1 1 −2 3 4 1 1 −2 3 4
𝑀 = [2 3 3 −1 3] ~ [0 1 7 −7 −5] ~ [0 1 7 −7 −5]
5 7 4 1 5 0 2 14 −14 15 0 0 0 0 −5

There is no need to continue to find the row canonical form of M since the echelon matrix already us
that the system has no solution. Specifically, the third row of the echelon matrix corresponds to degenerate
equation

0𝑥1 + 0𝑥2 + 0𝑥3 + 0𝑥4 = −5

which has no solution.

Example: Solve the system

𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 3
[2𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 𝑧 = −4]
3𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 5
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Reduce its augmented matrix M to echelon form and then to row canonical form as follows:

1 2 1 3 1 2 1 3 1 2 1 3 1 2 1 3 1 2 0 0
𝑀 = [2 5 −1 −4] ~ [0 1 −3 −10] ~ [0 1 −3 −10 ] ~ [ 0 1 −3 −10 ] ~ [ 0 1 0 −1]
3 −2 −1 5 0 8 −4 −4 0 0 −28 −84 0 0 1 3 0 0 1 3
1 0 0 2
~ [0 1 0 −1]
0 0 1 3

Thus the system has the unique solution x=2, y=-1, z=3, or, equivalent, the vector u=(2,-1,3). We note
that the echelon form of M already indicated that the solution was unique since it corresponds to a triangular
system.

Matrices

To simplify the cumbersome notation for a system used above, we will now introduce the notion of a
matrix.

A 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒙 is simply a rectangular array of real numbers. An 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix is an array having m rows
and n columns, such as
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎23 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
𝐴=( )
⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛

If 𝑚 = 𝑛, we say 𝐴 is 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑛. The set of all 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices with real entries will be
denoted by ℝ𝑚×𝑛 .

Matrix Addition

The 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒙 𝒔𝒖𝒎 (or simply the sum) 𝐴 + 𝐵 of two 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 is defined to be the 𝑚 ×
𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝐶 such that 𝑐𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 for all pairs of indices (𝑖, 𝑗). The 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 ∝ 𝐴 of 𝐴 by a real number
∝ is the matrix obtained by multiplying each entry of 𝐴 by ∝.

Example: Let

1 0 0 2 1 2 3 0
𝐴 = (0 1 0 3) , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = (0 0 3 1).
0 0 1 5 1 2 3 0

Then

2 2 3 2
𝐴 + 𝐵 = (0 1 3 4)
1 2 4 5

Doubling 𝐴 gives

2 0 0 4
2𝐴 = (0 2 0 6)
0 0 4 10

The 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix all of whose entries are zero is called the 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥. If 𝑂 is the 𝑚 × 𝑛 zero matrix
and 𝐴 is any 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix, then 𝐴 + 𝑂 = 𝐴. Thus 𝑂 is the 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛. Now that
the additive identity for matrix addition is defined, we can observe that the matrix −𝐴 is the 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 of
𝐴, in the sense that 𝐴 + (−𝐴) = (−𝐴) + 𝐴 = 𝑂.
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A column matrix is usually simply called a 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟. The set of all 𝑛 × 1 column matrices (or vectors) is
denoted by ℝ𝑛 . Vectors with the same number of components are combined via the component-wise addition
and scalar multiplication defined above. We will use the notation (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑛 )𝑇 to express the column matrix
𝑢1
𝑢2
(⋮)
𝑢𝑛

in a more compact form. What the superscript 𝑇 stands for will be clarified later. Vectors will usually be written
as bold faced letters. For example, 𝒙 will stand for
𝑥1
𝑥2
𝒙=( ⋮ )
𝑥𝑛

If 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑚 are vectors in ℝ𝑛 and if 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑚 are scalars, that is elements of ℝ, then the vector

𝑎1 𝑢1 + 𝑎2 𝑢2 + ··· + 𝑎𝑚 𝑢𝑚

is called a 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 of 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑚 .

Examples:

The field with the smallest number of elements is the integers mod 2, which is denoted by 𝔽2 . This field
consists of two elements 0 and 1 with addition being defined by 0 + 0 = 0, 0 + 1 = 1 + 0 = 1 and 1 +
1 = 0. Multiplication is defined so that 1 is its usual self: 0 × 1 = 0 and 1 × 1 = 1. except that 1 + 1 is
defined to be 0: 1 + 1 = 0. 𝔽2 is very useful in computer science since adding 1 represents a change of state
(off to on, on to off), while adding 0 represents status quo.

Matrices over 𝔽2 are themselves quite interesting. For example, since 𝔽2 has only two elements, there
are precisely 2𝑚𝑛 such matrices. Addition of such matrices has an interesting property, as the following
example shows.

For example,

1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
( )+( )=( )
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0

and

1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
( )+( )=( )
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0

In the first sum, the parity of every element in the first matrix is reversed.

In the second, we see every matrix over 𝔽2 is its own additive inverse.

Matrix Multiplication

In general, the product 𝐴𝐵 of two matrices A and B is defined only when the number of columns of A
equals the number of rows of B. Suppose 𝐴 = (𝑎1 𝑎2 … 𝑎𝑛 ) is 𝑚 × 𝑛 and 𝐵 = (𝑏1 𝑏2 … 𝑏𝑝 ) is 𝑛 × 𝑝. Since we
already know the definition of each 𝐴𝑏𝑗 , let us simply put

𝐴𝐵 = (𝐴𝑏1 𝐴𝑏2 … 𝐴𝑏𝑝 ).

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To write this out more precisely, let 𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵, and suppose the entry of C in the 𝑖-th row and 𝑘-th column
is denoted 𝑐𝑖𝑘 . Then, using summation notation, we have
𝑛

𝑐𝑖𝑘 = ∑ 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑏𝑗𝑘 ,

𝑗=1

so

𝐴𝐵 = (∑ 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑏𝑗𝑘 )
𝑗=1

Thus, for real matrices, we have

ℝ𝑚×𝑛 ∙ ℝ𝑛×𝑝 ⊂ ℝ𝑚×𝑝 ,

where · denotes matrix multiplication.

Another way of putting the definition is to say that if the columns of 𝐴 are 𝑎1 , . . . , 𝑎𝑛 , then the 𝑟-th
column of 𝐴𝐵 is

𝑏1 𝑎1 + 𝑏2 𝑎2 + ··· + 𝑏𝑛𝑟 𝑎𝑛

Hence the 𝑟-th column of 𝐴𝐵 is the linear combination of all 𝑛 columns of 𝐴 using the 𝑛 entries in the 𝑟-th
column of 𝐵 as the scalars. One can also express 𝐴𝐵 as a linear combination of the rows of 𝐵.

Here are two examples:

1 3 6 0 1 ∙ 6 + 3 ∙ (−2) 1 ∙ 0 + 3 ∙ 7 0 21
( )( )=( )=( )
2 4 −2 7 2 ∙ 6 + 4 ∙ (−2) 2 ∙ 0 + 4 ∙ 7 4 28

Note how the columns of the product are linear combinations. Computing the product in the opposite order
gives a different result:

6 0 1 3 6∙1+0∙2 6∙3+0∙4 6 18
( )( )=( )=( )
−2 7 2 4 −2 ∙ 1 + 7 ∙ 2 −2 ∙ 3 + 7 ∙ 4 12 22

This example points out that for there exist 2 × 2 matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵 such that 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴, even though
both products 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝐴 are defined. 𝐼𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙, 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒. In fact, almost
any pair of 2 × 2 matrices you choose will not commute. In general, the multiplication of 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrices is not
commutative. The only exception is that all 1 × 1 commute.

The Transpose of a Matrix

Another operation on matrices is 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, or taking the transpose. If 𝐴 is 𝑚 × 𝑛, the

𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝐴𝑇 of 𝐴 is the 𝑛 × 𝑚 matrix 𝐴𝑇 ≔ (𝑐𝑟𝑠 ), where 𝑐𝑟𝑠 = 𝑎𝑠𝑟 . This is easy to remember: the 𝑖th row of
𝐴𝑇 is just the 𝑖th column of 𝐴.

Example: If

1 2
𝐴=( ),
3 4

then

1 3
𝐴𝑇 = ( ).
2 4

An example of a 2 × 2 symmetric matrix is

1 3
( )
3 5
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Note that 𝐴 and 𝐴𝑇 have the same entries on the diagonal. Another simple fact is that

(𝐴𝑇 )𝑇 = 𝐴

A matrix 𝐴 which is equal to its transpose (that is, 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑇 ) is called 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐.

Clearly, every symmetric matrix is square. The symmetric matrices over ℝ turn out to be especially
fundamental.

The 𝑑𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝐯 · 𝐰 of two vectors 𝐯, 𝐰 ∈ ℝ𝑛 is defined to be the matrix product

𝑛
𝑇
𝐯 ∙ 𝐰 = 𝐯 𝐰 ∑ 𝑣1 𝑤1
𝑖=1

Proposition: Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices. Then

(𝐴𝑇 + 𝐵𝑇 ) = 𝐴𝑇 + 𝐵𝑇

Furthermore,

(𝐴𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐵𝑇 𝐴𝑇 .

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓. The first identity is left as an exercise. The product transpose identity can be seen as follows. The
(𝑖, 𝑗) −entry of 𝐵𝑇 𝐴𝑇 is the dot product of the 𝑖-th row of 𝐵𝑇 and the 𝑗-th column of 𝐴𝑇 . Since this is the same
thing as the dot product of the 𝑗-th row of 𝐴 and the 𝑖-th column of 𝐵, which is the (𝑗, 𝑖) −entry of 𝐴𝐵, and hence
the (𝑖, 𝑗) −entry of (𝐴𝐵)𝑇 , we see that (𝐴𝐵)𝑇 = 𝐵𝑇 𝐴𝑇 .

Echelon Matrices, Row Reduction

(i). Interchange the rows in each of the following matrices to obtain an echelon reduction

0 1 −3 4 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 2
(𝑎)[4 0 2 5 −3] (𝑏) [1 2 3 4 5] (𝑐) [0 3 1 0 0]
0 0 7 −2 8 0 0 5 −4 7 0 0 5 0 0

a) Interchange the first and the second rows, i.e., apply the elementary row operation 𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅2
b) Bring the zero row to the bottom of the matrix, i.e., apply 𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅2 and then 𝑅2 ↔ 𝑅3 ,
c) No amount of row interchange can produce an echelon matrix.

(ii). Row reduce the following matrix to echelon form

1 2 −3 0
𝐴 = [2 4 −2 2]
3 6 −4 3

Use 𝑎11 as a pivot to obtain 0s below 𝑎11 , that is, apply the row operations “Add −2𝑅1 to 𝑅2 ” and “Add
−3𝑅1 to 𝑅3 ”. This yields the matrix

1 2 −3 0
[0 0 4 2]
0 0 5 3

Now use 𝑎23 = 4 as a pivot to obtain a 0 below 𝑎23 , that is, apply the row operation “Add −5𝑅2 to 4𝑅3 ”
to obtain the matrix

1 2 −3 0
[0 0 4 2]
0 0 0 2

Which is in echelon form.

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(iii). Row reduce the following matrix to echelon form:

−4 1 −6
𝐵 = [ 1 2 −5]
6 3 −4

Hand calculation are usually simpler if the pivot element equals 1. Therefore, first interchange 𝑅1 and
𝑅2 ; then apply the operations “Add 4𝑅1 to 𝑅2 ” and “Add −6𝑅1 to 𝑅3 ”; and then apply the operation “Add 𝑅2
to 𝑅3 ”. These operations yield

−4 1 −6 1 2 −5 1 2 −5
𝐵~ [ 1 2 −5] ~ [0 9 −26] ~ [0 9 −26]
6 3 −4 0 −9 26 0 0 0

The matrix is now in echelon form.

(iv). Describe the pivoting row-reduction algorithm. Also describe the advantages, if any, of using this
pivoting algorithm.

The row-reduction algorithm becomes a pivoting algorithm if the entry in column j of the greatest
absolute value is chosen as the pivot 𝑎1𝑗1 and if one uses the row operation

𝑎1𝑗1
(− ) 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑖 → 𝑅𝑖
𝑎1𝑗1

The main advantage of the pivoting algorithm is that the above row operation involves division by the
(current) pivot 𝑎1𝑗1 , and on the computer, round off errors may be substantially reduced when one divides
by a number as large in absolute value as possible.

(v). Use the pivoting algorithm to reduce the following matrix to echelon form:

2 −2 2 1
𝐴 = [−3 6 0 −1]
1 −7 10 2

First interchange 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 so that −3 can be used as the pivot, and then apply the operations “Add
2 1
𝑅
3 1
to 𝑅2 ” and “Add 3 𝑅1 to 𝑅3 ”. These operations yield

−3 6 0 −1 −3 6 0 −1
𝐴~ [ 2 −2 2 1 ]~[ 0 2 2 1/3]
1 −7 10 2 0 −5 10 5/3

Now interchange 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 so that −5 may be used as the pivot, and then apply the operation “Add
2
𝑅
5 2
to 𝑅3 ”. We obtain

−3 6 0 −1 −3 6 0 −1
𝐴~ [ 0 −5 10 5/3] ~ [ 0 −5 10 5/3]
0 2 2 1/3 0 2 6 1

The matrix has been brought to echelon form using partial pivoting.

Prepared by:
SHEREN L. SONGANO
Reporter