International Society for Rock Mechanics

CONTENT
Rock Properties and Their Role in Rock - ROCK MATERIAL, ROCK MASS AND SIZE OF THE PROBLEM
Characterization, Modelling and Design IN ROCK ENGINEERING

Prof. Dr. Reşat Ulusay - MAIN DESIGN AND MODELLING METHODOLOGIES IN ROCK
Hacettepe University, Turkey ENGINEERING
President of the ISRM Commission on Testing Methods
- ACCESS TO THE ROCK

- THE USE OF ROCK PROPERTIES IN CHARACTERIZATION,

DESIGN AND MODELLING IN ROCK ENGINEERING

Despite the global nature of today’s problems, Geotechnology also

including ROCK ENGINEERING has remained divided into disciplines MAIN ARAES OF INTEREST IN ROCK ENGINEERING
such as mining, civil and petroleum engineering, geology and
geophysics.
Rock
) ySlopes Shafts & Tunnels Foundations
REMIFICATINOS OF GEOTECHNOLOGY ş Dams

Radioactive Waste
Caverns Mining Geothermal Energy Disposal

(Rearranged from Hudson, 1989)

(Amadei et al., 2000)

1
Rocks and rock-hewn openings have been used as a construction material
and settlement since down of civilization. Different structures have been built on, in or of rock, including
Historical and recent man-made underground and semi-underground rock
houses, bridges, dams, tunnels and caverns.
structures and settlements in the soft tuffs of the Cappadocia Region of Turkey

Rock-hewn Hoosac Tunnel (USA)

Underground city Saint Gotthardt Tunnel (Alps)
hotel

Police
Vaiont dam (Italy)
Cliff settlement Congress center under construction office
in a fairy Millau Viaduct (France)
Church chimney

(Photos: R. Ulusay)

When dealing with the mechanical behaviour of solids, a commom ROCK MATERIAL A continium or polycrystalline solid between
assumption is that they are: discontinuities consisting of an aggregate of minerals or grains.
. Homogeneous Its properties are governed by the physical properties of the materials
. Continuous of which it is composed.
. Isotropic
Terzaghi’s intact rock
But rocks are much more complex and their physical and
mechanical properteis vary according to scale.

Tunnel

Rock mass
ROCK MASS An assemblage
of rock blocks separated by
Intact rock
(Eberhartd, 2009) different types of geological
discontinuities.
Rocks differ from most engineering materials because they contain
discontinuities. Therefore, a clear distinction must be made Discontinuity
between rock material and rock mass.

2
Because rock masses are discontinuous and varibale in space, it is JOINTED OR BLOCKY ROCK
important to choose the right domain that is representative of the • Rock masses with moderate number of
rock mass affected by the structure analyzed. discontinuities
• Excavation dimension > discontinuity
MASSIVE ROCK spacing
. Rock masses with few discontinuities,
OR

. Excavation dimension < discontinuity

spacing

HEAVILY JOINTED ROCK

• Rock masses with a large number of
discontinuities
• Excavation dimension >> discontinuity
spacing

Relation of Discontinuity Spacing and Size of the Problem

When the problem domain is
Discontinuity properties much smaller than rock blocks
govern (excavation of rock by drilling)
MAIN DESIGN AND MODELLING METHODOLOGIES IN
Intact rock material ROCK ENGINEERING

NUMERICAL
OBSERVATIONAL EMPIRICAL ANALYTICAL METHODS/
APPROACH METHODS METHODS MODELLING

If necessary, as a Logistic Tool

(Arranged from Hoek & Brown, 1980)

KINEMATIC
ANALYSIS

When the structure is much larger

than the blocks

Rock mass properties

3
 1. OBSERVATIONAL APPROACH Example: Numerical modelling and performance monitoring for a
The term “observational method” appears to have been coined by tunnel.
Terzaghi in the 1940’s.
Modelling
OBSERVATIONAL APPROACH provides a “Learn
as you go” alternative.
Monitoring

-The procedure is to base the design on whatever

information can be secured

- Make note of all possible diferrences between

reality and the assumptions, then

- Based on the original assumptions, compute (www.finesoftware.eu)

various quantities that can be measured in the field (www.gpiko.ru)

- Based on the results of the measurements,

IF NECESSARY
gradually close the gaps in knowledge and, if
necessary, modify the design during construction
CHANGE IN
DESIGN

Rock Mass Characterization, Classification and Design

Classify the rock

DESIGN
mass using:
using: Empirical database
Rock mass
RMR or Q
2. EMPIRICAL METHODS classification
Describe the
discontnuities
Line survey/Boring
Mainly based on previous experience as derived from
construction of rock structures having similar characteristics
as the one to be designed ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION
(such as RMR, Q, GSI)
Support requirements
(Bieniawski, 1989,
Stand-up time (RMR)
RMCS today form an integral part of the most predominant
design approach INDIRECT METHODS DESIGN
GSI
Numerical Modelling,
Modelling, LEM
H&B Failure Criterion Analysis
Rock mass -m
behaviour - S
- σci

4
 3. ANALYTICAL METHODS EXAMPLES: Estimation of Radius of Plastic Zone
(a) CHILE
Complexity of the nature of stress has to be fully considered in the
design of underground excavations.
However

The problem can be initilally simplified through the assumptions of

Continuous, Homogenous, Isotropic, Linear Elastic behaviour

(CHILE)

Successfully used solutions, especially in those excavations at depth,

where high stresses have closed the fractures and the rock mass is
relatively homogeneous and isotropic.
Deep UG openings However, for near surface
excavations, where the rock stresses
are lower, their fractures are more Rock-support Interaction
frequent,and the rock mass is Analysis
disturbed and weathered, there is
more concern about the validity of
the CHILE.
(Hoek & Brown, 1980)

(b) LIMIT EQUILIBRIUM METHODS (LEM)

4. NUMERICAL METHODS / MODELLING
The most widely applied analytical technique used for slope stability
assessments. These methods consist in applying the state of STRESS σ
stress-strain in the engineering structure, with є
Force and/or moment equilibrium conditions for different modes of consideration given to the strength and STRAIN
failure are examined on the basis of statics. DISPL. u
deformability properties of the rock mass and
of the discontinuities.
The typical output from LEM analyses is the Factor of Safety
Planar F.
Wedge F. Useful for analysis and design in cases where analytical solutions are
Resisting forces not available Examples
FS =
Driving forces
Design of high slopes, rock burst prone tunnels, soft rock slopes
Shear strength MAIN PURPOSES
FS =
Shear stress
(a) Tansiyon çatlağı şev tepesinin gerisinde
- A way to gain understanding of governing deformation and
failure mechanisms
(Hoek & Bray, 1977)

Tension crack
Tansiyon çatlağı
Toppling F.
Slope face
şev
aynasında - Exploring alternatives rather than making absolute predictions
v Zw Z - Making changes in the input data to see how the changes affect
H
R
u
the overall response of rock structure (e.g. parametric studies).
Kayma düzlemi
Failure surface w
ψf ψp Circular F.

5
Numerical methods of stress and deformation analysis fall into two categories DIFFERENTIAL METHODS
Continuum Methods Discontinuum Methods

Rock mass is represented as assemblage

- Rock mass bahaviour is represented
DIFFERENTIAL METHODS as a continuum
of distinct interacting blocks or bodies
INTEGRAL METHODS that are subjected to external loads and
-Problem domain is defined and - Approximations to the connectivity of are expected to undergo significant
- Only problem boundary is defined elements, and continuity of
discretized motion with time.
and discretized displacements and stresses between
-Non-linear and heterogeneous elements
- Restricted to elastic analyses

(Eberhardt, 2009)
material properties accomodated

Time step 1 Time step 2 Time step 3

Boundary FEM, FDM,
Element DEM
Method
(BEM)
Time step 4 Time step 5

Blocks are subdivided into finite-

As a continuum, the failure path passes through Finite Element Method-FEM (PHASE)
difference mesh which follows linaer
the rock mass. Finite Difference Method-FDM (FLAC) or non-linear stress-strain laws

Distinct Element Method-DEM (UDEC)

(Eberhardt, 2009)
As a discontinuum, the failure surface is dictated
more directly by the presence of pre-existing
discontinuities.

METHOD OF KINEMATIC ANALYSIS

Continuum Discontinuum Continuum (A Logistic Tool)
Structurally-controlled
Rock Mass Failure Mechanisms
Stress-controlled
(Barton, 1998)

Structurally-controlled instability: Blocks formed by discontinuities

may be free to either fall or slide from the excavation under a set of
FEM-FDM DEM FEM-BEM body forces.
Analysis of kinematic addmissibility of poteantial wedges or planes
Numerical methods include consideration of the followings, depending intersecting the excavation face(s) KINEMATICAL ANALYSIS
on the type of the model used (continuum or discontinuum):
J1
Geology J2
Discontinuities (spacing/persistence) ROCK
J1
Material and mass properties (intact/discontinuity) PROPERTIES
J2
Constitutive equations & failure criteria
Groundwater pressure/Seismic loading
Wedge failure in slopes
In-situ stresses and external loads
Block falls in
underground openings

6
 Stereographic Projection Technique:
ACCESS TO THE ROCK
Rock Exposures Borehole Cores Borehole Wall Images

φ φ Kinematic analysis of blocks in U/G İKZ

openings İKZ

20
(Hoek & Brown, 1980)
Intact rock Intact rock
Block samples for testing Cores for testing

20 0
Discontinuity
Süreksizlik

Discontinuity masurements Measurement of disconttinuity

for Rock Mass properties is limited and no possibility Indirect methods
Slope
Şev
Characterization of measuring rock mass properties are nedded for
Kinematic analysis for rock slopes assessing the

(Norrish & Wyllie, 1996)

Flat-jack stress determination, In situ stress on cores rock mass
larger-scale modulus and can not be measured properties
φ permeability tests
ψp
αf ψf
There are always limitations on resources Therefore, when optimizing the rock
αp characterization procedures it is necessary to consider the requirements and to choose
the rock access method and testing techniques in accordance with the engineering
objective.

INTACT ROCK AND ROCK MASS PROPERTIES

2. Determined from in-situ measurements and tests (Rock Mass)
COMMONLY USED IN ROCK ENGINEERING
(a) Characterization of rock mass
1. Determined from laboratory tests (Intact Rock and Discontinuites):
(i) Properties of discontinuities
(ii) In-situ sound velocity
(a) Classification and characterization of intact rock
(iii) Properties obtained from geophysical borehole tests
(i) Porosity, unit weight, water content, absorbtion
(ii) Hardness, abrasivity
(iii) Durability (b) Design
(iv) Point load strength index (i) In-situ deformability
(v) BPI (ii) Rock mass strength
(vi) UCS and deformability (iii) Field permeability
(viii) Sound velocity (vp, vs) (iv) In-situ stresses
.
(ix) Permeability

(b) Rock engineering design

(i) Shear strength of intact rock
(ii) UCS and deformability (E, ν, G, K)
(iii) Shear strength and stiffness of
discontinuities
(iv) Tensile strength (direct or indirect)
(www.sfu.ca/~tafgrc/Courses/Easc313)

(www.sfu.ca/~tafgrc/Courses/Easc313)

7
TAILORING TESTING TO ENGINEERING REQUIREMENT ANOTHER IMPORTANT ISSUE !
Objective: To tailor the testing to the engineering objective by considering Rock engineer should consider whether emphasis is to be placed on
a number of testing methods. INDEX TESTS, FUNDAMENTAL TESTS or COMBINATION OF THE TWO

Importance of rock mechanics parameters for HYDROELECTRIC SCHEME INDEX TESTS Cheap, performed quickly Do not determine an intrinsic
PRESSURE TUNNEL design property
Rock engineers Point Load
(Hudson & Harrison, 2000) must decide Test FUNDAMENTAL TESTS
In situ stress is most important and should be determined
UCS= k Is50 More expensive, time
Slope or surface blasting case: Not an important consuming
parameter
Measure the property directly
Whether they
are going to
make particular UCS
measurements
on the basis of
the overall
objective

Carry out a few UCS tests and more PLT, and use the calibrated values

A) ROCK MASS PROPERTIES DETERMINED FROM IN-SITU

HOW WE CAN CHARACTERIZE ROCK MASSES MEASUREMENTS
AND ESTIMATE THEIR STRENGTH?
Because rock masses are usually anisotropic, essential device must both
apply load and measure displacement in different radial directions.
For the determination of rock mass properties we have two alternative ways:
Install some form of loading within the borehole to obtain force-displacement
curve and estimate the associated elastic parameters of the rock
(a) via the properties of the intact rock and the properties of the discontinui-
ties which together make up the rock mass properties OR Testing of strength of rock mass is difficult
because of the high loads involved. Also
time consuming and expansive tests

GOODMAN BOREHOLE JACK

(www.slopeindicator.com)
(b) Via the properties of the rock mass as measured or estimated directly
(STRENGTH, DEFORMABILITY & PERMEABILITY)

(Hudson & Harrison, 2000)

8
 PLATE LOADING TEST
On a surface of rock exposure
B) CHARACTERIZATION OF ROCK MASSES AND CLASSIFICATION
Underground
Depending on the rock mass classification used, determine
discontinuity properties

Scan-line survey

Outcrop
Borehole
Hysteresis is directly associated
with discontinuities

(ISRM, 1981)

(Hudson, 1989)

RMR SYSTEM
A Basic RMR = R ( σci) + R (RQD) + R (spacing) + R (JC) + R (GW)
Adjustments
S
(Orientation, blasting etc.)

Spacing
Final RMR
Orientation
Set number Aperture
Persistence Q SYSTEM Q=(RQD/Jn) (Jr/Ja) (Jw/SRF)
Stand-up time RMR (Serafim & Pereira, 1983)

Block size
Weathering

(Bienaiwski, 1989) (Support)

Roughness (JRC)

(Grimstad and Barton,

İKZ
Estimation of Erm from
Joint wall strength classification
İKZ
(JCS)
Q
>10 cm
JRC, JCS
ROCK MASS (Support & Span)
CLASSIFICATION
1993)
RQD
(RMR, Q and others) Disc. Stiffness

9
C) ROCK MASS STRENGTH (Hoek & Brown Failure Criterion) GEOLOGICAL STRENGTH INDEX (GSI)
Original GSI Chart (Hoek, 1999) Quantitative GSI Chart (Sönmez & Ulusay, 2002)

Generalized H&B equation

a
⎛ σ' ⎞
σ = σ + σ c ⎜⎜ m b 3 + s ⎟⎟
'
1
'
3
⎝ σc ⎠
⎛ GSI − 100 ⎞
m b = m i exp⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ bm ⎠
⎛ GSI − 100 ⎞
(Barla & Barla, 2005) s = exp⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ bs ⎠
b m = 28 − 14D

b s = 9 − 3D

a= + e
2 6
(
1 1 − GSI / 15
− e − 20 / 3 )

How to incorporate mode IN SITU SOUND VELOCITY

of failure and rock mass
strength Closely reated to rock mass characteristics and one of the most important
index properties Seismic Characterization Method
ROCK MASS

UG
Slope

Ground response

ROCK MASS
Slope

UG
(www.winona.edu)

Ground response
(Whitley, 1990)

10
 Vp-Q-RQD-λ relationships for hard, Dynamic E-Q-RMR
near-surface, low porosity rock masses INDEX PROPERTIES OF ROCK MATERIAL
Intact samples of rock may be selected for index testing

- To further aid in geological classification and as indicators of rock mass

behavior
- To provide a measure of the “quality” of the rock,

(Barton, 2007)
- To indirectly estimate fundamental properties by empirical relationships
- They are not directly used in design.

Water Content: Indirect indication of porosity of intact rock or clay content

(Barton, 2007)
of sedimentary rock.

Unit Weight: Indirect indication of weathering and soundness, and is used

to estimate vertical stress
Porosity: Indirect indication of weathering
and soundness, and governs permeability
Relationships between Vp and
rock mass characteristics h
σv = γh
(Barton, 1995)

(Barton, 2007)

Rebound Number: Point Load Strength Index: Indirect method to determine unconfined
- Index of relative hardness and quality of rock mass on the exposed compressive strength (UCS)
surface when the rock is fragmented σc = kIs50 k=5-52 (?)
- Relative hardness and indirect strength of intact rock

Weak and highly weathered

rocks

Care is necessary

As a classification parameter in RMR system

Abrasivity: Measures the abrasiveness

of a rock material against other materials
e.g., steel. It is an important measure to
estimate wear of rock drilling and boring
equipment.

(Deere & Miller, 1966)

(Bieniawski, 1989)

11
Block Punch Strength Index (BPI): To indirectly estimate the UCS Durability: Index of weatherability (degradability) of rock exposed in
excavations.
UCS= 5.1BPIc
Particularly important in soft and
clay-bearing rocks (may cause collapse)

Outcrop

UG opening
BPIc Strength
The loss of sample weight is a measure of
(MPa) Class the susceptibility of the rock to the combined
action of slaking and mechanical erosion. Pillar
<1 Very weak
1- 5 Weak SLAKE DURABILITY TEST
5 - 10 Moderate (Ulusay et al., 2001)
10 - 20 Medium
20 - 50 High
> 50 Very high

Sound velocity: Closely reated to rock properties and one of the most UNIAXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (Intact Rock)
important index properties. They provide estimates of rock properties and/or
are used as an index in their own right indicating anisotropy and/or inhomogenity - UCS is a rock property most oftenly used to characterize the mechanical
behavior of rock.
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TEST
- It is most useful as a means for comparing rocks and classifying their
likely behavior as an index property.

1. CLASSIFICATION OF INTACT ROCK F

σci = F/A
Estimation of dynamic elastic properties:

(Vp)
(www.winona.edu)

(Sassa et al., 1988)

Primary index test
for strength and

(Deere & Miller, 1966)

deformability of intact
(Vs) rock

(νfield / νlab)2 = velocity index (an indicator of intensity of discontinuities)

12
2. CHARACTERIZATION (b) As an intact rock parameter to be used by the empirical rock
(a) Input Parameter for Rock Mass Classification mass failure criteria (σci)

Generalized Hoek-Brown failure criterion:

RMR System
(Bieniawaski, σ’1= σ’3+ σci (mb (σ’3/ σci)+s))a
1989)

(Barla & Barla, 2005)

(Bieniawski, 1989)
(Hudson, 1989)

(c) First estimate of the tensile strength

σt = - σci /10

3. IN DESIGN AND MODELLING

(d) Estimation of UCS and deformation modulus of rock masses:
(a) As a design parameter of rock
UCS of rock mass: σcrm = (sσci)0.5 structures subjected to uniaxial
compressive stresses, such as
Deformation modulus of rock masses: pillars (intact or rock mass UCS)
Strength of pillar is a function of
material strength and
Erm= (σci / 10)0.5 10(GSI-10)/40 (Hoek & Brown, 1997)
distribution of stresses in pillar.

Erm = (1-(D/2)) (σci / 100)0.5 10(GSI-10)/40 (Hoek et al., 2002)

Erm= 0.001 [ ((Ei/ σci) ((1+RQD/)100) /WD]1.5828

(Gökçeoglu et al., 2003)

Pillar
Erm = 10 (Qσci /100) 1/3 (Barton, 2002)

Pillar
(e) Estimation of the tensile strength of intact rock with the H-B
strength criterion: (Hoek & Brown, 1980)

Compare the computed stresses with estimated rock mass

σt = 0.5σci [mi- (mi2 + 4)0.5] strength in discontiuum media or intact rock strength in weak
and not jointed media
σc Pillar stresses

13
(b) In numerical codes such as UDEC, simulating the response of
(c) Rock fragmentation and rock cutting
discontinuous media (jointed rock mass) subjected to either static
or dynamic loading UCS is as one of the parameters used by Barton-
Bandis model. Fractures by disc cutters:
(Zhang, 2005)
For estimation of initial normal stiffness -Effect of rock strength on tool forces Fnormal/σc =0.15p-0.21
(Snowdoown et al., 1982) (p:Penetration, mm)

Kni= -7.15+1.75 JRC+0.02 (JCS/e) -The thrust force affecting penetration (Roxborough & Philips, 1975):

Ft= 4 σc tan (θ/2)(Dp3-p4))0.5

e≈ (JRC (0.04 σci)-0.02) (D: Disc diameter, mm)

Discontinuity aperture (mm)

In rock indentation assessments

Compression

(d) Rock-support interaction analysis (as an input parameter)

TENSILE STRENGTH
For underground stability, the tensile strength is not as σti = P/A
significant parameter as the UCS for rocks. Generally,
tensile rock strength is low enough when rock is in tension,
it splits and tensile stresses are relieved.

In jointed rock masses, the jointing may very well eliminate the tensile
strength of the rock mass, in which case the in situ rock should be
considered as having zero tensile strength.

1) DESIGN
(Hoek & Brown, 1980) (a) Analysis of rock structures subjected to tensile stresses, such as
wide roof spans

(Hudson & Harrison, 2000)

14
(b) Input parameter in numerical analyses: DEFORMABILITY PROPERTIES
A) MODULUS OF ELASTICITY OF INTACT ROCK AND MODULUS OF
- In analysis of flexural toppling:
DEFORMATION OF THE ROCK MASS
As an input parameter Bending of the slabs induces tensile
cracking in their upper face. 1. CLASSIFICATION (Intact rock)

(Hutchinson et al., 2009)

Modulus Ratio
(Hoek & Bray, 1977)

- Continuum models such as FLAC (Mohr-Coulomb model )

- Discontinuous model such as UDEC (Mohr-Coulomb model)
(Deere & Miller, 1966)

(b) Estimation of rock mass deformation modulus from that of

intact rock 2. DESIGN

(a) Estimation of deformations in various rock engineering designs

Em = f(Ei)
- Estimation of deformations around underground openings/Rock-support
(analytical) interaction analysis (Analytical solutions)

Nicholson & Bieniawski (1983)

Mitri et al. (1994)

Sonmez et al. (2004)

(Hoek & Brown, 1980)

Hoek and Diederichs (2006)

Sonmez et al. (2006)

If the medium is jointed rock mass Use Erm

15
 -Settlement for founadtions in homogeneous, isotropic rock
conditions (b) An important input parameter in numerical methods:
δv = (CdqB(1-ν2))/E
Depending on the continuum and discontinuum media under investigation,
Young’s modulus of the intact rock or deformation modulus of rock
mass is used by all models for stress and deformation analyses such as
PHASE, FLAC and UDEC for different types of rock engineering problems

- Other Elastic Properties:

G (Shear modulus)= E/2(1+ν) K (Bulk modulus)= E/(3(1-2ν)

Describes the material's response Measures the substance's
to shearing strains. Shear stress
resistance to uniform compression
G

Shear strain

dx

(Wyllie, 1992)
y

(B) POISSON’S RATIO

It is a mechanical property playing a role in the deformation of elastic
materials and utilized in rock engineering problems associated with
the deformation of rocks such as an input parameter for the numerical
stress analyses.
- There is no correlation between the values of Poisson’s ratio of rock
mass and intact rock.
- ν (rockmass) ≈ 1.2 ν (intact rock) (Kulatilake et al. (2004)

The intact rock value constitutes a limit for the values that may be
assumed by the jointed rock mass (Gercek, 2008)

1. CHARACTERIZATION
Category Poisson’
Poisson’s ratio
Intact rock classification
Very low 0≤ν<0.1
(Gercek, 2008)

(Gercek, 2008) can be useful

for a qualitative assessment of Low 0.1≤
0.1≤ν<0.2
Lateral strain
labortaory test results. This Medium 0.2≤
0.2≤ν<0.3
classifications are applicable High 0.3≤
Axial strain 0.3≤ν<0.4
to isotropic rocks only.
Poisson’s ratio for rock masses is not required in majority of rock engineering Very high 0.4≤
0.4≤ν<0.5
applications. Indeed, in Overcoring Methods employing “CSIR doorstopper”,
“USBR borehole deformation gauge”, “CSIR triaxial strain cell” and “CSIRO
(Gercek, 2008)
hollow incluison cell”, the value of Poisson’s ratio of intact rock is required
for evaluation and interpretation of mesaurements.

16
2. DESIGN (Analytical-Numerical) (d) An important input parameter used by numerical methods:

Poisson’s ratio of the medium influences the distribution of stresses in some
solutions that are widely applied to geomechanics problem.
(a) In analytical solutions: Estimation of deformations around
underground openings – Rock-support (analytical) interaction
analysis (ν of rock mass)
Depending on the continuum and discontinuum media under investigation,
Poisson’s ratio of the intact rock and/or deformation modulus of rock
mass is used by all models for stress and deformation analyses such as
PHASE, FLAC and UDEC.
Poisson’s ratio influences the normalized elastic radial displacements around
the excavation face of a circular tunnel located in a hydrostatic in-situ stress
field

(Unlu & Gercek, 2003)

(Hoek & Brown, 1980)

SHEAR STRENGTH B) SHEAR STRENGTH OF DISCONTINUITIES

A) SHEAR STRENGTH OF INTACT ROCK Cohesion and Friction Angle: Commonly used properties in
dicontinuum media (both as peak cp & φp, and residual cr & φp)

Planar
discontinuities

Peak

Residual

- DESIGN: Particularly those of weak rocks in numerical methods

17
 Input parameter for analytical, numerical and kinematic
Barton’s criteria methods of analysis
EXAMPLES
(a) Kinematic Analysis of Structurally-Controlled Slopes

Undulated 0

discontinuities 20
(ISRM, 1981)

20 0
Discontinuity
Süreksizlik

Slope
Şev

(Norrish & Wyllie, 1996)

φ
ψp
In-situ shear strength determination αf ψf
αp

(b) Analysis of Structurally-Controlled Instabilities in Underground (c) In Analytical Methods:

Openings
Example 1: Structurally-controlled rock slopes
Geometry of slope with tension crack in upper slope surface
(a) Tansiyon çatlağı şev tepesinin gerisinde
Tension crack in upper surface
Slope şev
face
Tansiyon
of slope çatlağı

aynasında
v Zw Z
u
φ H
Kayma düzlemi
Failure surface w
ψf ψp

(Ulusay, 1991)
(Hoek & Bray, 1977)
Discontinuity Discontinuity

cA + ( WCosψ p − u − vSinψ p ) tan φ

F=
W sin ψ p + vCosψ p
(Hoek & Brown, 1981)

(Hoek’s Corner)

18
Example 2: Bearing capacity of shallow dipping bedded rocks (d) In Numerical Analyses:

Particularly in the analysis of rock engineering structures such as

underground openings and slopes in discontinuum media (UDEC) shear
strength of discontinuities are important parameters.

(Wyllie, 1992)
C) SHEAR STRENGTH OF ROCK MASS
σ3A = (γB/2tanψ1) Nφ2 + (c2/tan φ1) (Nφ2 - 1) (a) Analytical and numerical methods
SLOPE
c1, φ1, c2, φ2 Discontinuity shear strength parameters
TUNNEL φ
σ3Nφ1 + (c1/tan φ1 ) (Nφ1 -1) (Allowable bearing capacity)
qa=
F
ci

Bearing capacity of foundations on rock masses: (D) JOINT STIFFNESS

The usual method to determine allowable bearing pressures
Use published tables or building codes
HOWEVER
Where the rock conditions do not match descriptions in the codes
The mechanical behaviour of
discontinuities in generally plotted in the
form of stress-displacement curves with
the result that discvontinuity stiffness
(MPa/m) and strength (kPa) can be
measured.

Normal stiffness:
Use analytical or numerical methods and rock mass strength
kn= Δσ’n/ Δun
Fractured rock:
Cf1s0.5σu(r) [1+(ms0.5+1)0.5]
qa=
F
Shear stiffness:
Weak rock with little fracturing:
ks = Δτ/ Δus
Cf1cNc + Cf2 (Bγ/2) Nγ + γDNq
(Wyllie, 1992)

(Zhang, 2005)
qa=
F

φ dependent

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 Normal and shear joint stiffnes values are used in discontinuum models PERMEABILITY
such as UDEC (in Barton and Bandis Model)

DEM Terminology

Hydraulic
gradient

(Eberhardt, 2009)

Permeability is concerned with fluid flow

through a material or rocks and rock
masses, and is one of the most difficiult
topics facing the practicing rock
engineers.

(Eberhardt, 2009)

Because of the presence of discontinuities in rock mass, two types of (b) Permeability of Discontinuities:
permeability are considered: (i) PRIMARY, (ii) SECONDARY
Infilled discontinuity Permeability of the infill material.
(a) Permeability of Intact Rock (PRIMARY PERMEABILITY):
Unfilled discontinuities for a set of parallel discontinuities K:
Refers to matrix permeability and except in petroleum engineering, prime
consideration is not paid to this type of permeability in rock engineering. g (e)3 v: Kinematic viscosity (10-6 m2/s)
K= b: Spacing
e: Aperture
Porosity 12 vb
K is very sensitive to small changes
Governed by Geological history
in “e”
In-situ stress
Variation of dfiscontinuity set
K also varies with grain size permeability as a function of the
(www.searchanddiscovery.com)

aperture and discontiuity

frequencey

PERMEAMETER

Permeability vs. porosity for intact rocks

(Hoek & Bray, 1977)

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 (c) Permeability of Rock Mass (Secondary Permeability): WHY WE DETERMINE IN SITU STRESS?
In rock masses consisting of discontinuities terminating against another,
The basic reasons for in situ stress determination
computatins are not only made for the permeability of a set of parallel
discontinuties but also for the discontinuities meeting. σ1 Failure
Engineering analyses require boundary conditions.
Single set In situ stress is one of the most important boundary Strength
FOS=
Stress
conditions for the analyses of U/G excavations
In situ stress
state

σ3
To have basic knowledge of the stress state σ2
K in x-direction (e.g. direction and magnitude of the major
3 ortogonal sets
(Zhang, 2005) principal stresses, the direction in which the σ1 σ2
Commonly discontinuity permeability dominates over the intact rock rock is most likely to fail)
σ3 σ3
permeability, and therefore, the second term may often be neglected.
Civil & Mining Engg. σ1
Stability of U/G excavations
Drilling & blasting Energy Development
Pillar design Borehole stability

(Hoek & Bray, 1977)

In-situ messurement of K
Design of support systems Fracturing & fracture propogation
Prediction of rock burst Fluid flow and geothermal problems
Dams Reservoir production management
Slope stability Energy extraction and storage
Packer
Test

STANDARDIZED TESTS
Determination of properties of intact rock and rock mass is the integral part
of rock engineering studies. Although the strategy of rock characterization is
a function of the engineering objectives, the tactical approach to individual
tests can be standardized. The advantages of standardization are as follows
(Hudson & Harrison, 2000):

The standardization guidance is helpful to anyone conducting the test,

The results obtained by different organizations on rocks at different sites
can be compared in the knowledge that “like is being compared with like”,
There is a source of recommended procedures for use in contracts, if THE END
required.

“The use of some form of standard procedures provides rock engineers

to determine the quality objectively”

Such as

ISRM SUGGESTED METHODS produced by the ISRM Commission on

Testing Methods for rock testing and characterization since 1978

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