Overview of the Structure of Matter

1. How big are atoms?

2. How big are nuclei?

3. What are they made of?

4. Finally

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 How big are Atoms?
How can we find out?

E.g. 1. X-ray diffraction from crystals

Spacing of spots gives spacing of atoms

Or 2. Densities of solids and liquids

What is Avogadro’s number?

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 Variation of densities of solids and liquids

Navo=6x1023 Atoms in a gramme-atom

A grammes of an element
of mass number A

Number of atoms/cm3 = Navox(ρ/A); ρ is density in gr/cm3

so volume occupied by an atom Va = 1/Navox(ρ/A)

≈ spacing3

Va = 1
( A)
3
so spacing between atoms ≈ 3 N avo ρ
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 Variation of densities of solids and (liquids).
We assume atoms are tightly packed in both.

Atomic Element A Density ρ ρ/A 3 ρ/A

number (gr/cm3)

1 Hydrogen ~1 (0.071) 0.071 0.41

2 He ~4 (0.125) 0.031 0.31
4 Be ~9 1.848 0.2 0.58
6 C ~12 2.265 0.19 0.57 0.27 to
10 Ne ~20 (2.7) 0.06 0.39
13 Al ~27 2.7 0.1 0.46 0.58
26 Fe ~56 7.9 0.14 0.52
56 Xe ~131 (2.95) 0.02 0.27
78 Pt ~195 21.45 0.11 0.48
82 Pb ~207 11.35 0.055 0.38

1 to 207 Small range.

Some variations from binding
1 to 82
All atoms are roughly the same size
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 Atomic binding in Solids and Liquids

Most solids and liquids are bound by strong

chemical forces due to interaction of outer
electrons of atoms (valence electrons) etc.

But notice that Xe, Ne, He were among the

least dense in our table.
These “noble gases” have
weak chemical activity;
bind reluctantly to Energy
form liquids by the
van der Waals force. Inter-atom spacing
Stable when at lowest
~4x10-10 metres
energy, repulsive and
attractive forces balanced.

Van der Waals force is “left

attraction
over” from stronger binding of repulsion
electrons in atoms. Stable region

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 All atoms are roughly the same size

How big?

Size ≈ 1 =3 1  3 42 × 10−24 ≈ 3.5 × 10−8 cm

3 N avo ρ( A) 6 × 10 23
( ~ 0.4 )

Actually, nearly all are (2 to 4) x 10-10 metres apart.

The scale is the Bohr radius of hydrogen.
Everything packs at spacing of ~4 to 8 Bohr radii.
Quantum effects; allowed energy levels

4πε 0 = 2 −10
aBohr = 2 × = 0.53 × 10 meters
e me
Dynamics of motion
Constants of nature

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 All atoms are roughly the same size

Why?
For the first few thousand years after the big bang there was
no atomic scale. Electrons and protons co-existed in a hot plasma.

When it was cooler due to expansion they began to bind to make

neutral atoms, mostly hydrogen with some helium.

The electrons discovered they had to obey quantum mechanics.

They could only sit in allowed energy levels. They cascaded down
from one to the next, emitting photons of light
(still do it in the sun - or in a fluorescent tube).

The lowest allowed level in hydrogen has the

Bohr radius. Helium is close. Their spacings ensure that
the electrons don’t get too close to one another.
But why are all the other spacings similar?
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 All atoms are roughly the same size

Millions of years later, after the first supernova explosions, electrons

met nuclei with Z>>2; and discovered a very arbitrary rule.

What was it?

The Pauli exclusion principle;

“once lower energy levels are full, electrons
have to go into higher levels.” WHY?

Electrons are “fermions” - particles with spin= =/2

(we say “spin 1/2”)

and no two fermions can occupy the same quantum state.

As opposed to bosons - integer spin particles
like photons or He atoms - which can condense and
all pack into the lowest available level.

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 All atoms are roughly the same size

So if a heavy nucleus is collecting its electrons, the

first ones in can cascade down and get very close
to its strong positive charge.
The next ones have to sit further out
because the closest places are taken.
They are attracted less, because the
inner electrons’ negative charge partially
cancels the nuclear positive charge.

The last electron in only sees one

unit of charge attracting it,
so it has an orbit about the same size as it
would have had in hydrogen - i.e. about one Bohr radius.
So all atoms are about the same size.
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 Nuclei of Atoms

How do we measure them?

Diffraction again - but with a beam
of high energy electrons from an accelerator.
The higher the energy the shorter the
wavelength λ - true for light
hc
E = hf = 2π =f =
λ
and also true for other kinds of particles
when we treat them as waves (as we had to
to get atomic energy levels, for instance).

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 Measuring Nuclei

Diffraction pattern for

420 MeV electrons scattered
from a thin carbon sheet. Angle at
first minimum
Use the same diffraction =51 degrees.
rules as you met in the Lab.

Angle proportional to 1/size.

With appropriate factors

of h etc. we get

rC = 2.3x10-15metres Data from the Stanford Linear Accelerator

in the 1950s

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 Measuring Nuclear Radii

Results after measuring nuclei with a wide

range of mass number A
1
−15
RA = 1.2 A ×10 3
metres

Not like atoms.

Nuclei get consistently bigger as they get heavier.

Why?

What property of normal stuff varies as mass1/3?

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 Nuclear sizes

What property of normal stuff varies as mass1/3?

For instance, if I put 8 times as much weight of

water in a bucket, what increases by x2?

The linear size!

The volumes of nuclei grow proportionally to their

mass - just like drops of liquid Xe, Ne or He.

Why?
Because their consituents are bound by van der Waals
forces. But what are those constituents?

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 Constituents of nuclei

Protons; spin 1/2, charge +e, mass mp ~2000 me

Neutrons; spin 1/2, charge 0, mass mp+~2.3xme

Free neutrons decay n → pe ν −

But the binding energies of neutrons and protons inside nuclei are
typically ~10xme
Sometimes neutrons can decay inside a nucleus - if they can produce a
lower energy proton; normal beta-decay.

Sometimes protons decay to a lower energy neutron;

called beta+ decay. p → ne ν +

The e+ is the positron, the electron’s anti-particle.

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 Which nuclei exist? Why swing to
left?
Z is atomic number = number of protons
gives charge; fixes chemsitry.

A is atomic mass number = protons+neutrons

governs overall mass

so number of neutrons = A-Z

But why only on this band?

Because if we have too
many neutrons, they beta-decay;
or too many protons,
they beta+ decay.
Each has own set of allowed
energies
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 Why only these nuclei?

Swing to more neutrons because they don’t have

electrostatic repulsion like protons. Proton levels
in heavier nuclei are not so tightly bound - can
loose energy by making more neutrons.

Why does the band stop?

Because when there are too many protons

the electrostatic repulsion is too strong;
nuclei fall apart spontaneously - fission.

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 So what sticks nuclei together?

We said it was another “left over” van der Waals force,

but left over from what?
From the binding of quarks! What’s that?
Protons and neutrons (and many
other particles) are made of
red, green and blue quarks
stuck together with gluons.

A little bit of the left over gluon

force is what binds nuclei together.

Next term!
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 Finally

Happy Christmas

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