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Ch15-Future of The Arctic
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lobal interest in the Arctic is rising as climate
already under serious pressure. Others say the United States is not
paying enough attention to the Arctic and has not set detailed Rapidly melting Arctic ice is providing new
opportunities for shipping, fishing and access to the
priorities for the region. The Obama administration supports energy region’s rich mineral resources. But uncoordinated
development could have serious impacts on the
environment and native communities, many observers
production in Arctic Alaska, including offshore oil and gas drilling, warn. Above, an iceberg rises out of the water off
Qaqortoq, Greenland.
but Shell Oil suffered widely publicized setbacks last year with its
• Should the U.S. Senate rat- Arctic Thaw Will Create MANAGING EDITOR: Thomas J. Billitteri
791 ify the U.N. Convention on
792 New Shipping Routes tjb@sagepub.com
the Law of the Sea? Sea lanes could open during ASSISTANT MANAGING EDITORS: Lyn Garrity,
• Does oil production bene- summer. lyn.garrity@sagepub.com, Kathy Koch,
fit Alaska Natives? kathy.koch@sagepub.com
Melting Arctic Sea Ice
• Should the United States 793 Last September’s Arctic sea SENIOR CONTRIBUTING EDITOR:
build an Arctic deepwater ice cover measured a record Thomas J. Colin
port? tom.colin@sagepub.com
low.
CONTRIBUTING WRITERS: Sarah Glazer,
BACKGROUND 796 Arctic Holds Large Oil Peter Katel, Reed Karaim, Robert Kiener,
and Natural Gas Reserves Barbara Mantel, Tom Price, Jennifer Weeks
Looking North A fifth of the world’s poten-
797 Explorers searched North tial oil and natural gas is in
SENIOR PROJECT EDITOR: Olu B. Davis
American Arctic waters for a the Arctic. FACT CHECKER: Michelle Harris
route to the Pacific Ocean.
Chronology
Alaska’s Resources
799 Key events since 1867.
797 Geologists discovered oil on
Warming Arctic Has
Alaska’s North Slope in 1968. 800 Repercussions Elsewhere
Arctic Warming Melting ice affects weather, An Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc.
801 Scientists detected rising Arctic ocean levels in other regions. VICE PRESIDENT AND EDITORIAL DIRECTOR,
temperatures and shrinking HIGHER EDUCATION GROUP:
Arctic and Antarctic Are
sea ice. 802 Poles Apart
Michele Sordi
Both are cold and remote, EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR, ONLINE LIBRARY AND
REFERENCE PUBLISHING:
CURRENT SITUATION but they differ.
Todd Baldwin
At Issue:
803 Outside Interests
China and other non-Arctic
805 Should the United States sus- Copyright © 2013 CQ Press, an Imprint of SAGE Pub-
nations show strong interest pend Arctic offshore drilling? lications, Inc. SAGE reserves all copyright and other
in the region. rights herein, unless previously specified in writing.
No part of this publication may be reproduced
Drilling on Hold FOR FURTHER RESEARCH electronically or otherwise, without prior written
804 Shell Oil ran into trouble permission. Unauthorized reproduction or transmis-
For More Information
drilling offshore in the
Alaskan Arctic.
809 Organizations to contact.
sion of SAGE copyrighted material is a violation of
federal law carrying civil fines of up to $100,000.
790 CQ Researcher
Future of the Arctic
BY JENNIFER WEEKS
Bering
Sea Greenland Europe program at the Center for Strate-
Sea
gic and International Studies (CSIS), a
Be
ICELAND
Se
(Denmark)
ALASKA how little will the United States devel-
(USA) op its own Arctic?”
Baffin ATLANTIC
Bay
OCEAN
But Alaska politicians welcomed a
statement of U.S. regional priorities.
it
ra
St
Gulf of
Dav
792 CQ Researcher
Washington people are throwing out Dutch Shell to conduct exploratory
sea anchors,” said Republican Lt. Gov. Melting Arctic Sea Ice drilling for oil and gas off Alaska’s Arc-
Mead Treadwell in July, describing The Arctic’s sea ice has been tic coast. Shell had numerous operating
Alaskans’ frustration with federal reg- shrinking for several decades problems, including weather delays and
ulations that restrict natural resource a drilling rig that ran aground in south-
as a result of climate change.
development. 13 ern Alaska as it was being towed to
Building new infrastructure to har- In 2012, the minimum cover of Seattle for maintenance.
vest Alaska’s Arctic resources will be sea ice, which occurs in An Interior Department review
extremely expensive and probably September, was about half the found that Shell’s program lacked key
will involve complex negotiations over average recorded over the past components when it began operations,
funding between federal, state and pri- 30 years for that month. Some and the company had not managed
vate entities. Constructing a pipeline scientists predict that within contractors effectively. The depart-
to ship Alaskan gas to market, for in- several decades the Arctic ment directed Shell to develop more
stance, could cost up to $65 billion at could be ice-free in summer. detailed plans for drilling operations
a time when new gas sources in the before it returned to the Arctic, and
lower 48 states have drastically cut the Minimum Arctic Sea Ice in February Shell suspended Arctic
price of natural gas. 14 Roads, ports operations for 2013. 16 Shell leaders
and new icebreaking ships will also have not said whether they plan to
cost hundreds of millions or even bil-
September return to the Arctic in 2014. Earlier
lions of dollars. 15 1980 this month the U.S. Environmental
Others say rules for managing the Protection Agency fined the company
Arctic should come first. “Melting sea $1.1 million for air pollution releases
ice is opening up shipping routes, and during its 2012 operations. 17
we don’t have international law in Norwegian energy company Statoil
place to handle that increased traffic,” and American company ConocoPhillips
says Kevin Harun, Arctic program di- also have postponed plans to drill in
rector at Pacific Environment, a con- the Alaskan Arctic until they see what
servation advocacy group based in kind of documentation federal regu-
San Francisco, Calif. lators require Shell to produce. 18
The International Maritime Organi- In the wake of Shell’s difficulties,
zation, a United Nations organization environmentalists are calling on the
that regulates global shipping, is de- Obama administration to suspend all
veloping a mandatory Polar Code that
September Arctic Ocean oil and gas activities “for
would regulate ships operating in the
Arctic and Antarctic. It would set stan-
2012 the foreseeable future,” and to “care-
fully reassess whether and how off-
dards, such as minimum engine power shore drilling in the Arctic Ocean is
and required survival gear, to operate possible or prudent.” 19 Some indige-
in extreme zones. It also would regulate nous Arctic groups want to ban off-
environmental practices, such as waste shore drilling on the Arctic shelf com-
disposal at sea. pletely. 20 But exploration is moving
“We need a Polar Code in place forward in Russian, Canadian and Nor-
with strong environmental provisions wegian Arctic waters, and the Obama
to manage growth in shipping,” says administration supports Arctic offshore
Harun. “And we need a vision for the Average minimum sea ice energy production. Industry leaders
extent for past 30 years
Arctic that protects communities, in- and Alaska politicians say Arctic oil
digenous people and the environ- Sources: Martin Jeffries, et al., “The and gas can be developed safely. (See
ment. I don’t think the United States Arctic Report Card,” www.star.nesdis. “At Issue,” p. 805.)
sees itself as an Arctic nation yet. The noaa.gov/star/documents/meetings/Ice As state and federal officials, sci-
general public doesn’t know what is 2013/dayOne/Jeffries.pdf; and “Arctic entists and advocacy groups debate
at stake.” Sea Ice News and Analysis,” National U.S. priorities in a changing Arctic,
Snow and Ice Data Center, 2013,
In a high-profile test case last year, here are some issues they are con-
http://nsidc.org/arcticseaicenews/.
the Interior Department allowed Royal sidering:
794 CQ Researcher
ratification, and we need to divorce with pipelines and drill rigs,” it de- Energy and power are central is-
the treaty from politics as best as we clared. “The irresponsible practices of sues in rural Alaska, where a village
can,” says Bellinger. “Businesses also got oil companies everywhere have pro- household can spend up to $2,000 per
engaged [in the debate] in 2012, and vided us with more than enough ev- month on oil in the winter for heat,
if we can keep that effort up over the idence that oil spills in the Arctic seas electricity and transportation. 35
next two years, I think it can be done.” will be inevitable. At the same time “Alaska is a huge state, and most of
there are no effective and tested meth- the rivers drain to the western coast,”
Does oil production benefit Alaska ods to prevent or clean up oil spills says Gwen Holdmann, director of the
Natives? in the freezing Arctic seas.” Alaska Center for Energy and Power in
Alaska’s estimated 120,000 Natives The statement called for banning Fairbanks. “Barging fuel from Valdez
make up 17 percent of the state’s popu- offshore drilling in the Arctic, sus- [where North Slope oil is shipped via
lation, and their numbers are growing. pending onshore drilling and requir- the Trans-Alaska Pipeline for process-
Most Alaska Natives live in rural vil- ing native peoples’ consent for any ing] up to western Alaska would be a
lages, either on the coast or along a extractive projects on indigenous lands. very long and complex route.” Instead,
river. 28 Many rely on subsistence hunt- Signatories included the Alaska Inter- much of the oil used in-state is shipped
ing and fishing for at least part of their Tribal Council, which advocates for from Seattle to regional distribution cen-
livelihood. tribal governments across Alaska, and ters in summer, then delivered to small-
Before Alaska became a state in the Akutan Tribal Council, based in er and more remote communities. 36
1959 and began producing oil in the the Aleutian Islands. 32 Many advocates for Alaska’s Native
1960s, Alaska Natives’ income, em- But some Alaska Natives profit from peoples say the shipping arrangement
ployment and education levels were the oil industry beyond the yearly div- is unsustainable. “If left unaddressed,
among the lowest in the United States. idend. The North Slope Borough, which skyrocketing energy costs threaten the
Although their status has improved, includes eight Inupiat Eskimo villages, very survival of Alaska’s small, remote
they still lag behind non-native Alaskans collects millions of dollars annually in Native communities,” the Alaska Fed-
and other Americans. In 2007, 22 per- property taxes from the area’s land- eration of Natives warned last year. 37
cent of Alaska Natives lived below the based oil industry. The Arctic Slope The organization argues that devel-
federal poverty line, and their medi- Regional Corp., which represents in- oping affordable energy is “critical to
an household income was $42,703, digenous populations in the area, re- the survival” of Alaskan villages, and
compared to $64,333 for all Alaskans. ported $2.3 billion in gross revenues has called on the federal government to
Thirteen percent of Alaska Native in 2010 and paid $64.26 per share in boost energy assistance for low-income
households lacked plumbing. 29 dividends to shareholders. (For com- households, promote renewable ener-
Alaska Natives represent eight broad parison, only three of the 11 other re- gy on rural public lands in Alaska and
cultures. Each is composed of many gional Native corporations paid divi- connect more rural villages to the
separate languages and histories. 30 dends greater than $20 per share, and power grid. 38
They hold diverse views about oil pro- five paid less than $5 per share. 33) Many rural Alaska communities are
duction. Some belong to Native cor- Native corporations were established investing in renewable energy projects.
porations (see p. 798) that have in- under the 1971 Alaska Native Claims “Fairbanks has the largest battery sys-
vested in the industry or in companies Settlement Act to manage resources tem in the United States, and several
that provide related services. 31 (In fact, for Alaska’s indigenous peoples. (See Alaska communities run entirely on wind
every Alaskan, including Natives and Background, p. 798.) energy,” says Holdmann. Alaska already
non-Natives, receives an annual divi- “Our tax base is based on oil and generates more than 20 percent of its
dend check based on the state’s oil gas. There’s nothing else there,” said electricity from renewable sources (al-
revenues. Over the past decade, the Edward Itta, a former mayor of the most entirely hydropower). 39 It also has
yearly dividend has averaged roughly vast North Slope Borough, lobbying good geothermal, wind, biomass and
$1,200 per person.) Other Natives say in Washington, D.C., in 2012 for off- solar resources.
oil production threatens valuable resources, shore Arctic oil and gas development. “Alaska’s cheap oil and gas resources
such as the animals they hunt. Thanks to oil and gas revenues, he have already been developed, and are
More than 40 indigenous groups said, “We have schools, airports, roads, limited,” says Holdmann. “We need to
from Arctic nations released a joint landfills, health facilities, hospitals, de- take advantage of the wealth we’ve
statement last May criticizing Arctic oil cent homes which keep warm now earned and develop infrastructure that
development. “Our culture and history and have light and power, which will make a long-term difference for
cannot be bought off and replaced when I grew up we didn’t have.” 34 residents.”
796 CQ Researcher
Harun of Pacific Environment has mads moved north again. Some crossed For example, American explorers
urged state and federal agencies to ex- the Bering land bridge from Asia to the Robert Peary and Matthew Henson both
amine local needs more closely. “There North American Arctic between 14,000 fathered children with Inuit women. 50
are a lot of infrastructure needs in the and 12,000 B.C. 48 Later, as northern lat- Peary had the bodies of several Green-
region, from oil spill response to col- itudes warmed further, subsistence soci- land natives who had died in an epi-
lection facilities that will reduce incen- eties developed in the Arctic regions. demic removed from their graves and
tives to dump waste in the ocean,” he European explorers began venturing brought to the United States, where he
says. “This study zeroed in on criteria north during the Middle Ages, estab- sold them to the American Museum of
that matter for energy and mining, but lishing colonies in Iceland, Greenland Natural History as anthropological spec-
we should be working with Arctic com- and northern Russia. By 1500, ships imens. 51 He also traded a gun for sev-
munities to determine what they want.” from England, France, Spain, Portugal eral large pieces of a meteorite that
Indigenous communities, many of and the Netherlands were sailing across Inuit in Greenland considered holy. His
whom hunt and fish along the coast, the Atlantic and mapping new trade wife sold the pieces to the Smithson-
are alarmed by increasing ship traffic routes. Some explored the Arctic coast ian for $40,000. 52
and concerned about potential impacts, of North America in search of a North- Nonetheless, explorers also made im-
such as fuel spills, ballast water and west Passage connecting the Atlantic portant contributions, mapping many
waste discharges and ship collisions with and Pacific oceans. France and England Arctic zones and reporting back on con-
whales. At a hearing chaired by Sen. established colonies in Canada, while ditions there. In 1905 Norwegian ex-
Begich last March, several representa- Russia claimed Siberia and Alaska. plorer Roald Amundsen completed the
tives of indigenous groups called for The United States was a latecomer first successful navigation of the North-
broad strategies, such as training coastal to the Arctic. In 1867 it bought Alas- west Passage. Between 1905 and 1909
residents to participate in emergency ka from Russia for $7.2 million. The Peary and his former friend and ship-
response operations and providing re- new territory covered 375 million acres, mate, American explorer Frederick Cook,
ceivers and computers to enable coastal twice as large as the original 13 colonies competed to be the first explorer to find
residents to track ship traffic. 45 and about three-quarters the size of the North Pole — a difficult mission be-
“There is no single port location the Louisiana Purchase. Alaska at that cause the pole was located on drifting
or, for that matter, response plan that time had only about 35,000 residents, sea ice, not on a fixed point of land.
is going to fulfill the many needs fac- nearly all of them members of in- In 1909 Peary claimed to have reached
ing industry, government and residents digenous groups. 49 the North Pole and through a concert-
in the Arctic,” said Matt Ganley, vice Critics argued that Alaska was a ed public relations campaign supplant-
president of the Bering Straits Native frozen wasteland and called the pur- ed Cook’s claim, announced a week
Corporation. 46 chase “Seward’s Folly,” after Secretary earlier than Peary’s, to have reached it
of State William H. Seward, who ne- in 1908. (A reassessment of Peary’s claim
gotiated the deal. Seward and other ex- in 1988 cast doubt on his achievements,
798 CQ Researcher
Chronology
a global treaty governing use of 2007
1860s-1960s
Nations explore Arctic for re-
the oceans. The Northwest Passage is ice-free
for first time on record. . . . Russia
sources. 1977 plants its flag on the North Pole
Trans-Alaska pipeline starts pumping seabed, galvanizing other Arctic na-
1867 oil 800 miles from northern Alaska tions into asserting their own sover-
Russia sells Alaska to the United to the ice-free southern port of eignty. . . . U.S. Senate Foreign Rela-
States for $7.2 million. Valdez. . . . Inuit establish the Inuit tions Committee approves UNCLOS,
Circumpolar Council to represent bringing it closer to ratification.
1905 their interests. . . . Soviet nuclear-
Norwegian explorer Roald Amund- powered icebreaker Arktika is the 2008
sen navigates Northwest Passage. first ship to reach the North Pole. U.S. authorizes oil and gas explo-
ration in Chukchi Sea. . . . Polar
1909 1982 bear is listed as a threatened
U.S. explorer Robert Peary claims U.N. adopts the Convention on species due to the decline of its
to be first to reach the North Pole. the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and sea ice habitat. . . . Arctic nations
opens it for ratification. Eventually agree to use UNCLOS to resolve
1922 166 nations, not including the Arctic territorial claims. . . . U.S.
Oil exploration begins on Alaska’s United States, will ratify it. and Canada begin collaborating on
North Slope. mapping the Arctic seabed to pur-
1984 sue continental shelf claims.
1925 Snohvit gas field is discovered in
Canada is first nation to claim terri- Norway’s Barents Sea. 2009
tory extending to North Pole. A federal fishery management council
1989 votes to close off fishing in Alaskan
1945 The Exxon Valdez oil tanker runs Arctic waters to allow research on
President Harry S. Truman claims aground in Alaska’s Prince William local fish stocks and the effects of
jurisdiction over all resources on Sound, spilling 11 million gallons climate change on the area.
the U.S. continental shelf. of oil and contaminating over
1,000 miles of shoreline. 2011
1959 Arctic Council member nations sign
Alaska becomes the 49th state. • binding agreement to coordinate
search and rescue operations.
1968
Major oil and gas deposits are dis-
covered in Alaska’s Prudhoe Bay.
1990s-Present
Arctic nations seek a balance
2012
Royal Dutch Shell attempts ex-
between cooperation and com- ploratory drilling in the Beaufort
• petition. and Chukchi seas but struggles in
Arctic conditions. . . . Norwegian
1994 company Statoil postpones plans
1970s-1980s
Alaska’s oil industry develops
UNCLOS enters into force. to drill offshore exploratory wells
in the Alaskan Arctic.
quickly. 1999
Canada establishes Nunavut Territory 2013
1971 in the north, comprising a fifth of U.S. and Chinese scientists predict
Congress passes the Alaska Native the country, to restore partial sover- ice-free Arctic summers by mid-
Claims Settlement Act, transferring eignty to Canadian Inuit. century. . . . Environmentalists call
44 million acres to 13 Native re- for suspending Arctic offshore
gional economic development cor- 2001 drilling. . . . An Interior Department
porations. Russia becomes first Arctic nation review bans Shell offshore Arctic
to claim sovereignty over the drilling pending more detailed
1973 North Pole, using a process set up plans. . . . Obama administration
U.N. conference convenes to write under UNCLOS. publishes a U.S. Arctic strategy.
Continued from p. 798 tire state. In 1982 the Alaska Permanent tives completing high school rose from
Thousands of workers moved to Alas- Fund, a state-controlled sovereign wealth 37 percent to 59 percent, and average
ka in the 1970s and early ’80s to work fund, began sending annual checks to family income rose by 39 percent. How-
on the Trans-Alaska Pipeline and in the residents to return some oil and gas ever, Native Alaskans were still poorer,
state’s booming oil industry. Southern revenues to Alaskans. 62 less educated and less healthy than non-
Alaska attracted most of the economic As the state grew, Alaska Natives ben- natives. A majority of Native Alaskans
and population growth, but revenues efited socially and economically. Between continued to live in rural areas, where
from North Slope oil enriched the en- 1970 and ’80 the number of Alaska Na- living costs were higher and fewer so-
800 CQ Researcher
materials such as plants and peat stored in permafrost could
release carbon dioxide — the main greenhouse gas that con-
tributes to climate change — as the permafrost melts. But re-
of the American Meteorological Society, vol. 94, no. 8 (2013), pp. S111-S112, Bomb?” Grist, Aug. 9, 2013, http://grist.org/climate-energy/how-much-should-
http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2013BAMSStateoftheClimate.1. you-worry-about-an-arctic-methane-bomb/.
2 “Aerosols May Drive a Significant Portion of Arctic Warming,” NASA, April 8, 11 Andrew C. Revkin, “Arctic Methane Credibility Bomb,” The New York
cial services were available compared Union in 1991, U.S. concerns about a velopment, concerns of indigenous peo-
to urban Anchorage and Fairbanks. 63 long-range nuclear attack over the North ples and scientific research.” 64
Pole eased. In 1994 President Bill Clin- Though geographically remote, the Arc-
ton signed Presidential Decision Di- tic was becoming acutely vulnerable to
Arctic Warming rective 26, hailing new opportunities global environmental threats. Ocean cur-
for “collaboration among all eight Arc- rents and global wind patterns carried
ith the end of the Cold War tic nations on environmental protec- toxic environmental chemicals thousands
W and the collapse of the Soviet tion, environmentally sustainable de- Continued on p. 803
802 CQ Researcher
Continued from p. 801 relocate, and the communities often failed countries and the EU over seal hunt-
of miles north from industrialized coun- to qualify for federal disaster prepared- ing. It also postponed considering ap-
tries, concentrating them in Arctic re- ness and recovery programs. 72 plications from Greenpeace and sev-
gions. 65 And scientists studying glob- eral other international organizations
al climate change detected ominous until its 2015 meeting. 74
trends: rapid warming of temperatures
across the Arctic and shrinking Arctic CURRENT China has shown strong interest in
Arctic affairs. As a major exporting na-
SITUATION
sea ice. tion, China would benefit from oppor-
In the mid-1990s researchers began tunities to send cargo ships through
reporting that Arctic sea ice was the Arctic. Along with India, China also
shrinking — a result, according to is a potential customer for Arctic oil
global climate models, of rising lev- and gas. 75 After China was admitted to
els of heat-trapping greenhouse Outside Interests the Arctic Council, the country’s Polar
gases in the atmosphere. 66 Field stud- Research Institute announced that it would
any nations, including some lo- establish a joint China-Nordic Arctic Re-
ies also found that existing ice was
becoming thinner. 67 By 2000, sci-
entists were predicting the Arctic
M cated far from the Arctic Circle,
are interested in commercial opportu-
search Center in Shanghai to fund schol-
arships and research. “Understanding the
Ocean could be ice-free in summer- nities in the Arctic. Some, including Arctic is incredibly difficult. We need all
time within as little as 50 years. 68 China and Japan, have already sent the talented people we can get,” said
In 2004 the Arctic Climate Impact scientists to conduct research in the Kim Holmen, international director of
Assessment, a major scientific study Arctic. And many companies around the Norwegian Polar Institute. 76
prepared at the request of the Arc- the world would like to compete to As the Arctic Council’s profile rises,
tic Council members, released its find- manufacture equipment for Arctic de- some observers say the United States
ings in three reports. “The Arctic is velopment, such as oil drilling plat- needs an Arctic ambassador like the
now experiencing some of the most forms or icebreaking ships. officials who represent other countries
rapid and severe climate change on Earlier this year the Arctic Council in the council. Even some non-Arctic
earth,” it stated. These changes were admitted six non-Arctic countries as nations, such as Japan, have appoint-
likely to increase access to resources observers: China, India, Singapore, Italy, ed Arctic ambassadors. In the United
and shipping routes but would have Japan and South Korea. Opinion among States, dozens of federal agencies, states
major impacts on plants, animals and Arctic nations reportedly was mixed and tribes help make Arctic policy,
humans throughout the region. 69 about this step: Canada had warned managed by six interagency groups at
Environmentalists seized on polar before the meeting that expansion could the White House. Those groups in-
bears as a potent symbol of climate complicate the council’s work, and Rus- clude representatives from the de-
change effects. In 2005 the Center for sia was said to be reluctant. But Nordic partments of State, Defense, Commerce,
Biological Diversity, a national envi- countries argued that new participants Homeland Security, Transportation
ronmental advocacy group, petitioned would make the council “a lot more and Energy, among other federal agen-
the Interior Department to list polar relevant to the whole world,” in the cies. The most senior policy group for
bears as an endangered species. 70 words of Espen Barth Eide, Norway’s the Arctic coordinates Alaskan energy
Three years later, the Interior Depart- foreign minister. 73 development and is led by a deputy
ment designated the polar bear as Many international observers agree. secretary of the Interior. 77
“threatened,” a less urgent status than “The Arctic Council could either re- “It is not news . . . that America is
endangered. 71 main a regional club or let others par- behind the curve when it comes to Arc-
By this time flooding and erosion ticipate, and it saw that there was a tic development and planning,” Alaskan
from climate change were endanger- global role to play,” says Conley of the journalist Carey Restino wrote in May.
ing some Alaska Native communities, Center for Strategic and International “An Arctic ambassador would represent
most of which were located along rivers Studies. “If other nations had been put this country’s interests as well as edu-
and coastlines. In 2009 the U.S. Gov- off, they could have created compet- cate our nation’s leaders on the impor-
ernment Accountability Office reported ing structures, which wouldn’t have tance of these issues.” She noted that
that 31 Alaska communities were threat- served anyone’s purpose.” the United States has ambassadors-at-
ened and that 12 were seeking to re- The council rejected the European large handling specific issues such as
locate. But no overarching federal pro- Union’s request for observer status be- international religious freedom, global
gram was available to help these villages cause of disputes between Arctic women’s issues and HIV and AIDS. 78
Alaska Native Lillian Lane prepares locally caught whale meat and skin at her
home in Point Hope, one of the oldest continuously occupied communities in Displaced Towns
North America. Storm-caused erosion threatens the ancient outpost, where
residents live a mostly subsistence life of hunting whales, seal, caribou and n Shishmaref and Kivalina, native
walrus and fishing for salmon. Coastal Alaska residents generally have difficulty
obtaining federal disaster relief for flooding and erosion damage. I villages located on the Chukchi Sea,
buildings have fallen into the sea, and
Shell sent two floating drilling rigs [the oil industry has] been doing a lot erosion threatens key facilities in both
and 20 support vessels to the Arctic of work in areas like the Greenland towns, including airports, drinking water
and planned to drill up to 10 ex- Sea, the Sakhalin Basin in Russia and supplies and sewage containment areas.
ploratory wells in the Beaufort and the North Sea,” says Richard Ranger, a Flooding in Newtok, near the Bering
Chukchi seas. 79 The company drilled senior policy adviser at the American Sea in western Alaska, has damaged the
two nonproducing wells but failed to Petroleum Institute. “With each new village’s barge landing and repeatedly
win Coast Guard approval of its oil-spill project, companies draw on relevant flooded its water supply, spreading raw
containment barge when a containment lessons from other places.” sewage throughout the village. 84
dome sank and was crushed by water Moreover, he asserts, Shell executed All three of these villages have de-
pressure during a test. 80 After the com- its operations at the drill sites satisfac- cided to relocate to avoid further threats
pany left the drill sites, its Kulluk rig torily. “Interior’s main concerns [in its from climate change. But federal dis-
ran aground near Kodiak Island while review] related to towing the Kulluk aster relief programs are limited, and
being towed in stormy weather. 81 across the Gulf of Alaska in midwin- Continued on p. 806
804 CQ Researcher
At Issue:
Should the United States suspend Arctic offshore drilling?
yes
t he vast oil and gas resources off Alaska’s Arctic coast rep-
yes no
ing new lease sales, in the Arctic Ocean because a major resent a challenge and opportunity America cannot afford
oil spill would devastate our rich marine environment and to ignore.
the coastal communities that depend on it. Shell Oil has Government estimates indicate the Chukchi and Beaufort
demonstrated it lacks the equipment and ability to operate safely seas hold 24 billion barrels of oil and more than 100 trillion
in the Beaufort and Chukchi seas off Alaska’s North Slope. In- cubic feet of natural gas. These numbers are enormous by
dustry and government have not proved they can satisfactorily any definition. Speaking with their wallets, major oil and gas
respond to oil spills at these drilling sites, where heavy seas producers have paid the federal government more than $3 bil-
and ocean ice consistently prevent the successful deployment of lion to access these resources.
drilling and safety equipment. For Alaskans, long providers of responsibly produced energy
Shell’s poor track record and the Interior Department’s criti- to our nation, it’s clear why we should develop these resources.
cal review of its operations only punctuate why drilling and Each day, Americans drive 250 million cars and trucks.
lease sales should be suspended. In 2012 alone, Shell’s drill While new federally mandated fuel-economy standards are
ship Noble Discoverer almost ran aground near Dutch Harbor; leading to greater vehicle efficiency, we still burn about 7 bil-
its Kulluk drill rig grounded near Kodiak Island after its super- lion barrels of oil annually. About half that amount comes from
tug lost power; the oil spill response barge Arctic Challenger other countries, including many that do not have our best in-
couldn’t meet safety standards and was absent during drilling terests at heart. Coupled with vast oil and gas production gains
operations; and Shell’s oil spill containment dome, designed to from the Bakken Shale in North Dakota and other regions, the
vacuum up oil spills gushing beneath the surface, was “crushed Arctic Ocean can bring us closer to energy independence.
like a beer can” during sea-trial tests in Puget Sound accord- Admittedly, challenges have come up as we return to these
ing to an Interior Department official. The Coast Guard found Arctic basins 20 years after some 35 exploration wells were
violations on Shell’s ships and has turned over its investigation drilled without incident. Federal permitting agencies were slow
to the Department of Justice. Now picture these kinds of to staff up and initially lacked coordination and cooperation.
events shaping the “development” of the Arctic Ocean. But with the help of an executive order by President Obama
Politicians, industry scientists, marketing firms and corporate and the heroic efforts of former Interior Deputy Secretary David
representatives continually hold conferences on oil-spill response Hayes, the Alaska Inter-Agency Energy Working Group brought
all over Alaska. They’ve produced plenty of reports, but not a people and agencies together, shortened permit lead times and
single successful demonstration of full oil-spill response capa- made government more sensible and responsive.
bilities at the Arctic drilling sites under real conditions, with The producers also had high-profile setbacks. Shell’s troubles
moving broken ice and massive sheets of pack ice. While transporting the Kulluk drill rig this winter, some 1,000 miles
some skimming, booming and towing systems are tested and away from its drill site, demonstrated both the logistical chal-
certified in protected bays around Alaska, conditions in these lenges and capabilities of industry and government.
areas are far from those in Arctic waters where offshore de- Just as improving technology has delivered startling, new
velopment is occurring. Industry and government agencies production gains in oil and natural gas from source rock in
want Alaskans to trust their response plans and systems, but unexpected places, the technology also exists to manage geo-
we need proven capabilities! logically simple wells drilled in shallow Arctic waters.
Coastal communities along Arctic Alaska rely on the ocean As we learn more about Arctic marine ecosystems, weather,
to subsist. Abundant harvests of fish and marine mammals currents and winter ice movements, we also must learn more
sustain rural Alaskan populations, providing healthy, rich food about energy resources through active exploration. The invest-
in a harsh and challenging environment. Intricate food chains ments and infrastructure needed to bring them to market are
connect the Arctic Ocean environment to its native stewards substantial and will take nearly a decade to put in place.
nutritionally and culturally. These rural communities have a While we must be prudent, we should not hesitate to re-
way of life already challenged by a changing climate and now sponsibly produce Arctic resources to reduce our dependence
are threatened by dysfunctional offshore development.
no
on foreign oil.
806 CQ Researcher
In debates about U.S. and interna- 6 See also Brian Beary, “Race for the Arctic,” more-than-1-million.html.
18 Clifford Krauss, “ConocoPhillips Suspends
tional interests in the Arctic, the chal- CQ Global Researcher, August 2008, pp. 213-242.
lenge of managing change looms great- 7 Undiscovered recoverable resources are be- Its Arctic Drilling Plans,” The New York Times,
est for the region’s residents. “The lieved to exist based on geological modeling April 10, 2013, www.nytimes.com/2013/04/11/
and to be recoverable using today’s technology. business/energy-environment/conocophillips-
Internet has come to northwest Alas-
“Circum-Arctic Resource Appraisal: Estimates suspends-arctic-drilling-plans.html.
ka. Rap music. Cell phones. Canadian 19 Letter to Interior Secretary Ken Salazar from
of Undiscovered Oil and Gas North of the Arc-
whiskey. Ipods. Ebay. YouTube. Low- 18 regional and national conservation advocacy
tic Circle,” U.S. Geological Survey, 2008, http://
rise jeans,” writes award-winning au- pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2008/3049/. groups, Jan. 9, 2013, http://earthjustice.org/
thor Seth Kantner, who grew up hunt- 8 Denmark is considered an Arctic nation be- sites/default/files/ArcticCEOlettertoDOI.pdf.
ing, trapping and fishing in the Brooks cause it controls the Faroe Islands and Green- 20 Joint Statement of Indigenous Solidarity for
Range of northern Alaska and lives in land, most of which lies above the Arctic Circle. Arctic Protection, www.greenpeace.org/canada/
northwest Alaska today. 9 Secretary of State John Kerry, remarks at Global/Canada/pr/2013/o5/statement-postcon
Modern conveniences and devel- the Arctic Council Ministerial Meeting, Kiruna, ference.pdf.
21 See U.S. Geological Survey, “Circum-Arctic
opment have transformed Arctic resi- Sweden, May 15, 2013, www.state.gov/secretary/
dents’ historic connection to their land. remarks/2013/05/209403.htm. Resource Appraisal: Estimates of Undiscovered
10 “National Strategy for the Arctic Region,” Oil and Gas North of the Arctic Circle,” 2008,
“If you can turn your back to the wind,
The White House, May 2013, www.whitehouse. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2008/3049/. Natural gas
not see or know . . . out on the land, liquids are components of natural gas such as
gov/sites/default/files/docs/nat_arctic_strategy.
the caribou are in storm and cold right propane and butane that are extracted during
pdf (quote on p. 4).
now; they are cratering down through 11 “Political Reaction to Obama Administra- processing.
drifted snow to get to the tundra to tion’s National Strategy for the Arctic,” May 10, 22 For background see www.continentalshelf.
feed. Those hunters, the wolves, they 2013, www.blog.haulinggear.com/2013/05/po org/about/1143.aspx. Although the United
are there, too,” writes Kantner. “Nei- litical-reaction-to-obama.html. States has not joined UNCLOS, President Ronald
ther has changed hardly a blink in the 12 The law, nicknamed the Alaska Lands Act, Reagan issued a proclamation in 1983 that
last how many thousand years. We are set aside more than 100 million acres of fed- claimed jurisdiction over activities in the U.S.
the ones who have changed. And I’m eral lands in Alaska as national parks, wildlife EEZ. Proclamation 5030, March 10, 1983, www.
afraid we’ve only just begun.” 88 refuges, national monuments, wilderness areas archives.gov/federal-register/codification/
and national parks. For background, see “What proclamations/05030.html.
23 For more information see “Continental
is ANILCA?” National Parks Conservation As-
sociation, Oct. 27, 2011, www.npca.org/news/ Shelves,” Marine Bio Conservation Society, http://
marinebio.org/oceans/continental-shelves.asp.
Notes media-center/fact-sheets/anilca.html.
13 Mead Treadwell, speech at the Center for 24 The hearings took place on May 23, June
Strategic and International Studies, Washington, 14, and June 28, 2012, www.foreign.senate.
1 “Arctic Report Card: Update for 2012,” Na- D.C., July 30, 2013, http://csis.org/event/bene gov/hearings/.
25 Testimony before the Senate Foreign Re-
tional Oceanographic and Atmospheric Admin- fits-and-costs-cold.
istration, Jan. 21, 2013, www.arctic.noaa.gov/ 14 Heather A. Conley, et al., “Arctic Economics lations Committee, June 28, 2012, p. 5, www.
reportcard/exec_summary.html. in the 21st Century: The Benefits and Costs of foreign.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/REVISED_
2 For background, see Jennifer Weeks, “Cli- Cold,” Center for Strategic and International Stud- Gerard_Testimony.pdf.
26 Kristina Wong and Sean Lengell, “DeMint:
mate Change,” CQ Researcher, June 14, 2013, ies, July 2013, p. 61, http://csis.org/event/bene
pp. 521-544. fits-and-costs-cold. For background on new Law of the Sea Treaty Now Dead,” The Wash-
3 “Polar Discovery,” Woods Hole Oceanographic gas discoveries, see Daniel McGlynn, “Frack- ington Times, July 16, 2012, www.washington
Institution, http://polardiscovery.whoi.edu/arc ing Controversy,” CQ Researcher, Dec. 16, 2011, times.com/news/2012/jul/16/demint-says-law-
tic/geography-en.html. pp. 1049-1072. sea-treaty-now-dead/?page=all.
4 Arctic sea ice expands during cold months 15 Conley, “Arctic Economics,” op. cit., pp. 61-63. 27 Letter to U.S. Sens. Ted Stevens and Lisa
and shrinks during warm months, typically 16 “Department of the Interior Releases As- Murkowski, Sept. 13, 2007, http://archive2.global
reaching its maximum extent in March and sessment of Shell’s 2012 Arctic Operations,” solutions.org/files/general/Palin_LOS_Letter.pdf.
28 Eddie Hunsinger and Eric Sandberg, “The Alas-
its minimum point in September. National Snow March 14, 2013, www.doi.gov/news/pressreleas
and Ice Data Center, Boulder, Colo., ftp://sidads. es/department-of-the-interior-releases-assess ka Native Population,” Alaska Economic Trends,
colorado.edu/DATASETS/NOAA/G02135/Sep/ ment-of-shells-2012-arctic-operations.cfm; Mar- April 2013, p. 4, http://labor.state.ak.us/trends/
(figures are for sea ice extent in September, garet Kriz Hobson, “Is Arctic Oil Exploration apr13.pdf.
29 Stephanie Martin and Alexandra Hill, “The
converted to square miles). Dead in the U.S.?” EnergyWire, July 18, 2013,
5 “Arctic Nearly Free of Summer Sea Ice Dur- www.eenews.net/stories/1059984582. Changing Economic Status of Native Alaskans,
ing 1st Half of 21st Century,” National Oceanic 17 Lisa Demer, “EPA Fines Shell More Than 1970-2007,” Institute of Social and Economic
and Atmospheric Administration, April 12, 2013, $1 Million for Pollution Violations in Alaska Arc- Research, University of Alaska-Anchorage, July
www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2013//2013 tic,” Anchorage Daily News, Sept. 5, 2013, www. 2009, www.iser.uaa.alaska.edu/Publications/web
0412_arcticseaice.html. adn.com/2013/09/05/3060253/epa-fines-shell- note/WebNote5.pdf.
40 Years After Establishment, and Future Con- 764482822. Portland Monthly, December 2010, www.port
43 Alexandra Gutierrez, “Begich Calls for In- landmonthly.com/portmag/2010/12/meet-the-
siderations,” U.S. Government Accountability
Office, GAO-13-121 (December 2012), p. 39, vestment in Arctic Ports,” Alaska Public Radio, other-pearys/.
March 4, 2013, www.alaskapublic.org/2013/03/ 53 In 1988 National Geographic published an
www.gao.gov/assets/660/650857.pdf.
34 Richard Harris, “Native Alaskans Divided 04/begich-calls-for-investment-in-arctic-ports/. article that reexamined Peary’s papers and
44 For details see www.poa.usace.army.mil/Li concluded that he had probably missed the
on State’s Oil Drilling Debate,” National Public
Radio, March 20, 2012, www.npr.org/2012/03/ brary/ReportsandStudies/AlaskaRegionalPorts pole. Bruce Henderson, “Who Discovered the
20/148754357/native-alaskans-divided-on-states- Study.aspx. North Pole?”, op. cit.
45 Statement of Jack Omelak before the U.S. 54 “Alaskans and the United States,” Alaska
oil-drilling-debate.
35 “Alaska Energy Brief,” Alaska Federation of Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, History and Cultural Studies, www.akhistory
Natives, May 2012, p. 5, www.nativefederation. and Transportation, Subcommittee on Oceans, course.org/articles/article.php?artID=170.
Atmosphere, Fisheries and Coast Guard, An- 55 “When was oil discovered and developed
org/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/2012-afn-cap-
alaska-day-brief.pdf. chorage, Alaska, March 27, 2013, www.com in Alaska?” Alaska Historical Society, www.
36 Ibid. merce.senate.gov/public/?a=Files.Serve&File_ alaskahistoricalsociety.org/index.cfm/discover-
37 Ibid., p. 5. The Alaska Federation of Na- id=80540302-2c7c-4eda-883c-c02328f70045. alaska/FAQs/10.
46 Statement of Matt Ganley before the U.S. 56 For more information see “National Petro-
tives represents the state’s 13 for-profit regional
Native corporations, 244 Native villages, and Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and leum Reserve — Alaska,” Bureau of Land Man-
12 regional non-profit tribal consortia. Transportation, Subcommittee on Oceans, At- agement, www.blm.gov/ak/st/en/prog/energy/
38 “Alaska Native Priorities for the 2012-2013 Pres- mosphere, Fisheries and Coast Guard, Anchor- oil_gas/npra.html.
age, Alaska, March 27, 2013, p. 2, www.com 57 “Military History in Alaska, 1867-2000,” Joint
idential and Congressional Transition,” Alaska Fed-
eration of Natives, December 2012, pp. 9-10, merce.senate.gov/public/?a=Files.Serve&File_id Base Elmendorf-Richardson, Nov. 13, 2006, www.
www.nativefederation.org/wp-content/uploads/ =87addd59-89e7-4220-816f-6fc1c40a46f6. jber.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=
47 Hillary Mayell, “Bones, Tools Push Back 5304.
2012/10/AFN_TransitionWhitePaper_121912.pdf.
39 “Alaska Renewable Energy Profile 2010,” U.S. Human Settlement in Arctic Region,” National 58 Jason Reagle, “The First ICEX,” Undersea
Energy Information Administration, March 8, 2012, Geographic News, Oct. 2, 2001, http://news. Warfare, Summer 2009, www.navy.mil/navydata/
www.eia.gov/renewable/state/Alaska/. nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/10/1001_ cno/n87/usw/usw_summer_09/nautilus.html.
40 Margaret Kriz Hobson, “Limited Resources arctichabitation.html. 59 Hull and Leask, op. cit., p. 3.
48 John McCannon, A History of the Arctic: 60 Ibid., p. 2.
May Force Coast Guard to Get Creative During
Nature, Exploration and Exploitation (2012), 61 Janie Leask, “The Alaska Claims Settlement,”
Next Arctic Traffic Jam,” EnergyWire, Nov. 30,
August 1984, www.alaskool.org/projects/anc
sa/JLeask/Alaska_Claims_Settlement_JLeask.
About the Author htm.
62 A sovereign wealth fund is a government-
Jennifer Weeks is a Massachusetts freelance writer who controlled fund used to manage revenues
specializes in energy, the environment and science. She has from the sale of valuable natural resources
written for The Washington Post, Audubon, Popular Me- such as oil, natural gas or minerals. For back-
chanics and other magazines and previously was a policy an- ground see Jennifer Weeks, “The Resource Curse,”
alyst, congressional staffer and lobbyist. She has an A.B. de- CQ Researcher, Dec. 20, 2011, pp. 597-622.
63 “Changes in the Well-Being of Alaska Since
gree from Williams College and master’s degrees from the
ANCSA,” Alaska Review of Social and Econom-
University of North Carolina and Harvard. Her recent CQ Re- ic Conditions, November 1984, www.alaskool.
searcher reports include “Coastal Development” and “Manag- org/projects/ancsa/arsec.pdf.
ing Wildfires.” 64 Presidential Decision Directive/NSC-26, June
9, 1994, p. 2, www.clintonlibrary.gov/pdd.html.
808 CQ Researcher
65 For an overview see Marla Cone, Silent
Snow: The Slow Poisoning of the Arctic (2006).
66 For example, see Malcolm Browne, “Ice Shifts FOR MORE INFORMATION
May Be Tied To Warming,” The New York Times, Alaska Immigration Justice Project, 431 West 7th Ave., Suite 208, Anchorage,
Nov. 18, 1997, www.nytimes.com/1997/11/18/ AK 99501; 907-279-2457; www.akijp.org. Nonprofit agency that provides low-cost
science/ice-shifts-may-be-tied-to-warming.html. legal assistance to immigrants and refugees in Alaska.
67 Malcolm W. Browne, “Researchers Find
Signs of Warming in Arctic Air, Ice and Water,” American Petroleum Institute, 1220 L St., N.W., Washington, DC 20005; 202-
The New York Times, Oct. 20, 1998, www.ny 682-8000; www.api.org. National trade association representing the U.S. oil and
times.com/1998/10/20/us/researchers-find-signs- natural gas industries.
of-warming-in-arctic-air-ice-and-water.html;
William K. Stevens, “Thinning Sea Ice Stokes Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1800 K St., N.W., Washington,
Debate on Climate,” The New York Times, DC 20006; 202-887-0200; www.csis.org. Centrist think tank that offers bipartisan
Nov. 17, 1999, www.nytimes.com/1999/11/17/ policy proposals on U.S. security issues.
us/thinning-sea-ice-stokes-debate-on-climate.html.
68 Walter Gibbs, “Research Predicts Summer Marine Conservation Alliance, 4005 20th Ave. W, Suite 115, Seattle, WA 98199;
206-535-8357; www.marineconservationalliance.org. A coalition that promotes science-
Doom for Northern Icecap,” The New York Times,
based policies for managing the marine resources of the North Pacific and Bering
July 11, 2000, www.nytimes.com/2000/07/11/
Sea.
science/research-predicts-summer-doom-for-
northern-icecap.html.
69 “Impacts of a Warming Arctic,” Arctic Climate
Office of Indian Energy Policy and Programs, U.S. Department of Energy,
1000 Independence Ave., S.W., Washington, DC 20585; 202-586-1272; http://energy.
Impact Assessment (2004), pp. 10-11, www.amap. gov/indianenergy/office-indian-energy-policy-and-programs. Directs and coordinates
no/documents/doc/impacts-of-a-warming-arc federal programs that assist tribes with energy development, infrastructure, costs
tic-2004/786. and electrification of tribal lands.
70 Full text of petition at www.biologicaldiver
sity.org/species/mammals/polar_bear/pdfs/159 Pacific Environment, 215 Kearny St., 2nd Floor, San Francisco, CA 94108; 415-
76_7338.pdf. 399-8850; www.pacificenvironment.org. Nonprofit advocacy group that works to
71 Juliet Eilperin, “Polar Bear is Named Threat- protect the environment of the Pacific Rim, including Russia, China, California,
ened Species,” The Washington Post, May 15, Alaska and the Alaskan Arctic.
2008, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/con
tent/story/2008/05/14/ST2008051403984.html. U.S. Arctic Research Commission, 4350 North Fairfax Dr., Suite 510, Arlington,
72 “Alaska Native Villages: Limited Progress Has VA 22203; 703-525-0111; www.arctic.gov. A small independent federal agency estab-
lished in 1984 that works with other federal agencies to plan and guide scientific
Been Made on Relocating Villages Threatened
research on Arctic issues.
by Flooding and Erosion,” U.S. Government
Accountability Office, GAO-09-551 ( June
2009), www.gao.gov/new.items/d09551.pdf. “The New Foreign Policy Frontier: U.S. In- 84 Robin Bronen, “Climate-Induced Displace-
73 Ellen Emmerentze Jervell and Alistair Mac- terests and Actors in the Arctic,” Center for ment of Alaska Native Communities,” Brook-
Donald, “Six Nations Win Seats on Arctic Strategic and International Studies, March 2013, ings Project on Internal Displacement, Jan. 30,
Council,” The Wall Street Journal, May 15, 2013, p. 23, http://csis.org/publication/new-foreign- 2013, pp. 12-17, www.brookings.edu/research/
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB1000142412788 policy-frontier. papers/2013/01/30-arctic-alaska-bronen.
78 Carey Restino, “Opinion: Arctic Ambassador 85 Suzanne Goldenberg, “ ‘It’s Happening Now
7324767004578484621098493056.html.
74 Ibid. a Good Idea,” The Dutch Harbor Fisherman, . . . The Village is Sinking,’ ” The Guardian,
75 Stephen Blank, “Exploring China’s Arctic Ice- May 3, 2013, www.thedutchharborfisherman. May 15, 2013, www.theguardian.com/environ
breaker,” Asia Times, July 7, 2013, www.atimes. com/article/1318arctic_ambassador_a_good_ ment/interactive/2013/may/15/newtok-safer-
com/atimes/China/CHIN-02-170713.html. idea. ground-villagers-nervous.
76 Trude Patterson, “China Boosts Arctic Re- 79 “Review of Shell’s 2012 Alaska Offshore 86 “Alaska Native Villages: Limited Progress
search,” Barents Observer, June 7, 2013, http:// Oil and Gas Exploration Program,” Report to Has Been Made on Relocating Villages
barentsobserver.com/en/arctic/2013/06/china- the Secretary of the Interior, March 8, 2013, Threatened by Flooding and Erosion,” U.S.
boosts-arctic-research-07-06. pp. 11-12, 16, www.doi.gov/news/pressreleas Government Accountability Office, GAO-09-
77 The groups are the Arctic Policy Group; es/upload/Shell-report-3-8-13-Final.pdf. 551, June 2009, pp. 22-24, www.gao.gov/assets/
80 Ibid., p. 19.
the Interagency Arctic Research Policy Com- 300/290468.pdf.
81 Ibid., pp. 29-30. 87 Speech at the Center for Strategic and Inter-
mittee; the Interagency Policy Committee on
82 Jan. 9, 2013, letter to Secretary Salazar, www.
the Arctic; the Interagency Working Group national Studies, Washington, D.C., July 30, 2013,
on Coordination of Domestic Energy Devel- earthjustice.org/sites/default/files/ArcticCEO http://csis.org/event/benefits-and-costs-cold.
opment and Permitting in Alaska; the Maritime lettertoDOI.pdf. 88 Seth Kantner, “Caribou Currency,” in Arctic
83 “Review of Shell’s Offshore Oil and Gas
Security Working Group; and the National Voices: Resistance at the Tipping Point, Subhankar
Ocean Council. Heather A. Conley, et al., Exploration Program,” op. cit., p. 2. Banarjee, ed. (2012).
McGhee, Robert, The Last Imaginary Place: A Human Struzik, Ed, “China’s New Arctic Presence Signals Future
History of the Arctic World, Oxford University Press, 2005. Development,”Yale Environment 360, June 4, 2013, http://
An archaeologist at the Canadian Museum of Civilization e360.yale.edu/feature/chinas_new_arctic_presence_sig
recounts the history of human settlement of the Arctic. nals_future_development/2658/.
A Canadian journalist reports that China’s recent observer-
Østreng, Willy, et al., Shipping in Arctic Waters: A Com- status admission to the Arctic Council signals that economic
parison of the Northeast, Northwest and Trans Polar development of the increasingly ice-free region is becoming
Passages, Springer-Verlag, 2013. a top priority for Arctic nations and others.
The authors evaluate the conditions along three Arctic trans-
portation corridors. Reports and Studies
Articles “National Security Strategy for the Arctic Region,” The
White House, May 10, 2013, www.whitehouse.gov/sites/
“Arctic Politics: Cosy Amid the Thaw,” The Economist, default/files/docs/nat_arctic_strategy.pdf.
March 24, 2012, www.economist.com/node/21551029. The Obama administration presents its three-pronged Arctic
The British newsweekly reports on the Arctic Council’s strategy: advancing U.S. security interests, pursuing respon-
growing importance as a forum for cooperation among Arc- sible Arctic regional stewardship and strengthening interna-
tic nations. tional cooperation.
“A New Normal for Arctic Sea Ice,” National Snow & Ice “Review of Shell’s 2012 Alaska Offshore Oil and Gas
Data Center, July 2, 2013, http://nsidc.org/arcticseaice Exploration Program,” Report to the Secretary of the
news/2013/07/a-new-average-for-arctic-sea-ice/. Interior, U.S. Department of the Interior, March 8, 2013,
The national data center monitors Arctic sea ice and finds www.doi.gov/news/pressreleases/loader.cfm?csModule=
it is shrinking by about 3.6 percent per decade. security/getfile&pageid=348469.
An Interior Department review of Shell’s offshore oil and
Bellinger III, John B., “Treaty on Ice,” The New York gas exploration efforts in Alaska in 2012 finds that the com-
Times, June 23, 2008, www.nytimes.com/2008/06/23/ pany was not fully prepared to operate in Arctic conditions.
opinion/23bellinger.html?_r=0.
A legal adviser to former Secretary of State Condoleezza Bronen, Robin, “Climate-Induced Displacement of Alaska
Rice argues that the United States should ratify the Law of Native Communities,” Brookings Institution, Jan. 30, 2013,
the Sea Convention to protect its rights to Arctic offshore www.brookings.edu/research/papers/2013/01/30-arctic-
resources. alaska-bronen.
An Alaska immigration-rights lawyer contends that govern-
Freedman, Andrew, “In Rapidly Changing Arctic, U.S. ment agencies are not providing the right kind of support
Playing Game of Catch-Up,” Climate Central, July 21, to relocate communities threatened by climate change.
2013, www.climatecentral.org/news/in-rapidly-changing-
arctic-u.s.-playing-game-of-catch-up-16271. Conley, Heather A., “The New Foreign Policy Frontier:
A science journalist reports on how U.S. military and sci- U.S. Interests and Actors in the Arctic,” Center for Strate-
entific agencies are scrambling to cope with the looming gic and International Studies, April 22, 2013, http://csis.
prospect of a seasonally ice-free Arctic Ocean. org/publication/new-foreign-policy-frontier.
A centrist think tank calls for the United States to update
Goldenberg, Suzanne, “America’s Climate Refugees,” The its Arctic policy and for high-level U.S. officials to focus more
Guardian, May 13-15, 2013, www.guardian.co.uk/environ on the region.
810 CQ Researcher
The Next Step:
Additional Articles from Current Periodicals
Development in the Region Sen. Mark Begich, D-Alaska, said he is more concerned
about the risks of shipping accidents than the dangers of
Baczynska, Gabriela, “Veteran explorer stakes Russia’s offshore drilling.
claim over the Arctic,” Reuters, Feb. 27, 2013, www.
reuters.com/article/2013/02/27/us-russia-arctic-idUSBRE Sullivan, Dan, “It’s time to develop our Arctic resources,”
91Q11F20130227. CNN, July 20, 2012, www.cnn.com/2012/07/20/opinion/
A Russian polar explorer is spearheading Russia’s effort to sullivan-arctic-drilling.
claim more of the Arctic shelf in the mineral-rich region. Development of Alaska’s mineral resources will promote
the nation’s interests, argues an Alaskan government official.
Berkman, Paul Arthur, “Preventing an Arctic Cold War,”
The New York Times, March 12, 2013, www.nytimes.com/ Warming Climate
2013/03/13/opinion/preventing-an-arctic-cold-war.html.
Arctic and non-Arctic states need to work together to man- “Polar bear hunting and migration ‘hit by warming cli-
age the region’s resources so development is both sustain- mate,’ ” The Guardian, March 20, 2013, www.theguardian.
able and peaceful, says an op-ed columnist. com/environment/2013/mar/20/polar-bear-hunting-mi
gration-warming-climate.
Bolstad, Erika, “White House airs new policy on key Polar bears’ hunting time on sea ice is declining as the
Arctic challenges; President says it aims to balance con- Arctic warms up, affecting their health and the ability of
flicting goals in the region,” Anchorage Daily News, cubs to survive to adulthood.
May 11, 2013, www.adn.com/2013/05/10/2898235/
white-house-outlines-new-policy.html. Reinwald, Pete, “Something strange in the air,” The
President Obama lays out a national strategy to pursue Chicago Tribune, Aug. 22, 2013, http://articles.chicago
economic opportunities in the Arctic while conserving its tribune.com/2013-08-22/news/ct-met-weird-weather-2013
environment. 0822_1_weird-weather-jet-stream-the-weather-channel.
The warming of the Arctic is causing changes in the polar
Native Communities jet stream, resulting in prolonged weather events, according
to several scientists.
Hanley, Charles J., “Traditional life slipping away in
Greenland,” Los Angeles Times, Dec. 4, 2011. Spotts, Pete, “Arctic sea ice falls to record low. Global
The traditional Inuit way of life in Greenland is changing warming?” The Christian Science Monitor, Sept. 8, 2012,
rapidly along with the Arctic environment. www.csmonitor.com/Environment/2012/0908/Arctic-sea-
ice-falls-to-record-low.-Global-warming.
McNicholas, Laurie, “Arctic communities want role in The Arctic has been warming twice as fast as the whole
oil spill response activities,” The Nome Nugget (Alaska), of the Northern Hemisphere.
Aug. 22, 2013, www.nomenugget.net/archives/2013/
08.22.13%20NN.pdf. CITING CQ RESEARCHER
As oil and gas exploration expands in the Arctic, Alaskan Sample formats for citing these reports in a bibliography
communities want to be included in responses to shipping
accidents and oil spills. include the ones listed below. Preferred styles and formats
vary, so please check with your instructor or professor.
Rosenthal, Elisabeth, “A Melting Greenland Weighs Perils
Against Potential,” The New York Times, Sept. 24, 2013, MLA STYLE
www.nytimes.com/2012/09/24/science/earth/melting- Jost, Kenneth. “Remembering 9/11.” CQ Researcher 2 Sept.
greenland-weighs-perils-against-potential.html?pagewant 2011: 701-732.
ed=all.
As commercial fishing declines, new mining opportunities APA STYLE
are appearing on the horizon for a Greenland community. Jost, K. (2011, September 2). Remembering 9/11. CQ Re-
Offshore Drilling searcher, 9, 701-732.
CHICAGO STYLE
Joling, Dan, “Begich: Shipping riskier than drilling in Arc-
tic,” JuneauEmpire.com, March 13, 2013, http://juneauem Jost, Kenneth. “Remembering 9/11.” CQ Researcher, Sep-
pire.com/state/2013-03-28/begich-shipping-riskier-drilling- tember 2, 2011, 701-732.
arctic#.UhuMEtI3s30.
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