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1.1 Introduction

CHAPTER 1:
Principles and Objects of
Surveying
By LEE Min Lee
Plot the features in two The third dimension, i.e.
dimensions forming a height or level is represented
horizontal plane by contour line

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1.1 Introduction
1.2 Types of Surveying
1.3 Branches of Surveying
1.2 Types of
1.4 Principles of Surveying Surveying
1.5 Reliability of a Survey Plane Geodetic
Surveying Surveying

• small areas are • involves large

under Types of areas, and thus

TABLE OF CONTENT consideration and

it is assumed that
the earth surface
Surveying the curvature of
the earth must be
taken into
is flat account

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1.2 Types of Surveying

1.1 Introduction • Surveying is defined as an art of making measurement

of the relative positions of natural and man made ASSUMPTION….
features on the earth’s surface and the presentation of
this information either graphically or numerically.
• The most common method of such presentation is by
using a plan
• The measurements include horizontal distances,
elevation differences, and angles.
• The information obtained will be applied further to the
computation of areas and volumes, and to the
establishment of locations with respect to some
coordinate system
Geodetic surveying Plane surveying

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1.2 Types of Surveying 1.2 Types of Surveying

Plane Surveying Geodetic Surveying

⊡ Measurement plotted will ⊡ Consideration of earth curvature is necessary when surveying

represent the projection on the
horizontal plane of the actual
Horizontal plane
field measurement.
⊡ A horizontal plane is one which
is normal to the direction of
gravity.
horizontal distances over a large area, i.e. whole country. These
measurements must be taken to the highest possible standard
⊡ Require use of modern surveying technique: Global positioning
l cosα systems which use transmissions from satellites to obtain the three
α dimensional co-ordinates of any point on the earth’s surface to a
high degree of accuracy
l
⊡ The study of the size and shape of the earth and its gravity field is
known as geodesy

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1.2 Types of Surveying

Plane Surveying (Con’t) 1.3 Branches

Topography
of Surveying Survey
⊡ However, because of the curvature of the earth surface, such a plane
will in fact be tangential to the earth’s surface at the point.
⊡ If a large enough area is considered, a discrepancy will become
apparent between the area of the horizontal plane and the actual
curved area of the earth’s surface Branches of
Surveying by
Purposes Cadastral
⊡ For surveys up to 250 km2 in area, this discrepancy is not serious. Survey
Therefore, the plane surveying will be adequate for most surveying
works for civil engineering.
Engineering
Survey

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1.2 Types of Surveying 1.3 Branches of Surveying

Plane Surveying (Con’t) Topography Surveys

⊡ It produces maps or plans of natural and man made features

⊡ Plan - Used for engineering design and administration purposes only

- Features are drawn such that they are true to scale
You can’t see the
curvature of earth right, ⊡ Map - Used for navigational, recreational, geographical, geological,
can you?
military, exploration purposes.
- Features are represented by symbols

⊡ Height information in map / plan can be represented by either spot heights

or contour lines.

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1.3 Branches of Surveying 1.3 Branches of Surveying

Topography Surveys (Con’t) Cadastral Surveys

⊡ Undertaken to produce plans of property boundaries for legal purposes.

⊡ Used for registration of land ownership.

Topography Plan Topography Map

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1.3 Branches of Surveying

Engineering Surveys 1.4 Principles

of Surveying Locating a
⊡ Before the start of any engineering works, topography plans should be
point from 2 Working
obtained as a basis for design from whole
points of
to part
⊡ The proposed position of any new item of construction will then be plotted reference
on a drawing known as site plan.

⊡ This site plan will be referred when marking the positions of the proposed
construction on the ground. This operation is known as “setting out”. Principles of
Surveying
⊡ Finally ‘as built’ surveys are often required to confirm the position of the
constructed objects.

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1.3 Branches of Surveying 1.4 Principles of Surveying

Engineering Surveys (Con’t) Locating a Point from 2 Points of Reference

⊡ According to this principle, the relative position of a point to be surveyed

should be located by measurement from at least two points of reference in
which their positions have been fixed.

⊡ If ‘A’ and ‘B’ are the two reference points on the ground, any other point,
such as ‘C’, can be located by any of the direct methods shown in the
following figures. These methods generally consist of measurements of
either two distances, one distance and one angle, or two angles.

⊡ Although a single method is sufficient to locate the relative position of ‘C’,

it is necessary to adopt at least any two methods to fix the position of point
‘C’. One method is for locating the point and another acts as a check.
Site Plan

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1.4 Principles of Surveying 1.4 Principles of Surveying

Locating a Point from 2 Points of Reference (Con’t) Working from Whole to Part (Con’t)

Control points

Minor details

Framework

Note: - Points A and B are fixed points of reference Survey area

- Point C is the point to be located by either measurements of 2 distances, 1
distance & 1 angle or 2 angles
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1.4 Principles of Surveying

Locating a Point from 2 Points of Reference (Con’t) 1.5 Reliability • Every technique of measurement is subjected to unavoidable
error, surveyors must be aware of all sources and types of
⊡ From the previous figure, line AB is referred to as a base line.
of a Survey error.
• In general, there are 3 types of errors:
⊡ If point ‘C’ cannot be seen from this base line, additional lines have to be
defined to setup a new points of reference which are intervisible with the i. Mistake
point ‘C’. ii. Systematic Error
iii. Random Error
⊡ The points of the junctions of these lines are called control points and • For every surveying work, we must know:
together with the lines they constitute a framework.
• The requirement on the accuracy
• The surveying techniques that should be adopted in order
to achieve the required accuracy
• The methods that can be used to check the accuracy

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1.4 Principles of Surveying 1.5 Reliability of a Survey

Working from Whole to Part Mistake

⊡ According to this principle, it is always desirable to carry out survey work ⊡ Mistake is mainly caused by carelessness of a surveyor. In practice, mistake
from whole to part. This means, when an area is to be surveyed, first a is unacceptable and it should be detected when checking and be corrected.
system of control points is to be established covering the whole area with
very high precision. Then minor details are located by less precise methods. ⊡ Example:
□ Miscounting the number of tape lengths
□ Recording a wrong reading when booking
⊡ The idea of working this way is to prevent the accumulation of errors and to □ Calculation mistake
control and localize minor errors which, otherwise, would expand to greater
magnitudes if the reverse process is followed, thus making the work ⊡ By following strictly well planned observation and book keeping
uncontrolled at the end. procedures, redundant measurement, as well as independent checks, we
can minimize the occurrence of mistake.

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1.5 Reliability of a Survey

Systematic Error
⊡ Arise from sources which act in a similar manner on observation
⊡ Factors should be considered: Thank you very much for
□ The method of measurement
□ The instruments used your time
□ The physical conditions at the time of measurement

⊡ Example: Upon completion of this lecture, you should be able

□ Expansion of a measuring tape due to temperature changes to:
□ Changes in the equipment constant due to different air pressure ▪ Explain the types and branches of surveying
□ Collimation error when performing leveling survey ▪ Describe the 2 important basic principles of
surveying.
▪ Identify the 3 types of errors in surveying and their
corrective measures.

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1.5 Reliability of a Survey

Systematic Error (Con’t)

⊡ This type of error tends to be accumulating -- If all the individual
measurements contain the same type of systematic error, which by their
nature always act in the same direction, then the total effect is the sum of
them all.
⊡ Can be corrected by applying a correction factor.
⊡ Cannot be revealed by taking the same measurement again with the same
instruments.

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1.5 Reliability of a Survey

Random Error
⊡ Random errors are all those discrepancies remaining once the mistakes
and systematic errors have been removed.
⊡ Even if a quantity is measured many times with the same instrument in the
same way, and if all sources of systematic error have been removed, it is
still highly unlikely that all results will be identical.
⊡ The differences, caused mainly by limitations of instruments and
observers, are known as “random errors”.
⊡ Characteristics of random error:
□ Small magnitudes of errors
□ Positive and negative errors are equally likely to occur

⊡ Random errors are normally left unattended with the assumption that they
tend to cancel each other out (both positive & negative errors).
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