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Types
We use temperature measuring instruments every day. If we want to measure a fever we use a
thermometer. In a refrigerator, we have to know the temperature inside in order to ensure that our
food is stored under the correct conditions. In a fuel station, we have to perform corrections
according to the fuel temperature in order to sell the fuel at the correct price. Weather stations,
The only way to be sure our temperature measurements are correct is to use calibrated temperature
instruments or thermometer. Before describing the methods of temperature calibration, let’s first see
Resistance thermometers
Resistance thermometers consist of one or more sensing resistors with wire leads and protective
sheath. The resistors are manufactured from Platinum, Copper or Nickel. They have a known value at
a temperature of 0 oC and by changing the temperature, the resistor’s value changes. Each material
has a characteristic and well defined polynomial equation which provides the measuring temperature
as output when the resistance is at 0 oC and the measured resistance at the temperature under
Resistance thermometers are characterized by their tolerance class and their measuring range which
(oC)
AA -50 … +250
A -100 … +450
C -196 … +650
D -196 … +650
B -180 … +200
Copper (CRT)
C -180 … +200
Resistance thermometers may have two, three or four leads depending on the circuitry intended for
the measurement of the resistance. These thermometers must be protected from corrosion, the ingress
of moisture and mechanical and thermal stresses. A very commonly used Platinum resistance
Thermocouples
A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar conductors connected together at the measuring junction.
The other ends (the reference junctions) are connected, either directly or by some suitable means, to a
device for measuring the thermo electromotive force (emf) generated in the circuit. This
measuring and reference junctions but, more specifically, it is generated as a result of the temperature
Most commonly used types of thermocouples are shown in the table below:
TemperatureRange
(oC)
Thermocouples are widely used in industry and science but their limitation is in accuracy since it is
Liquid in Glass
A liquid in glass thermometer consists of a bulb (reservoir of the thermometer liquid), a stem (tube
containing the capillary in which the thermometric liquid moves with a change of temperature), a
thermometric liquid and an inert gas above the liquid column. The working principal of these
thermometers is based on the fact that the volume of the liquid changes slightly with temperature,
causing the liquid to arise into the tube. The body of the thermometer is scaled, allowing us to read
the measured temperature directly. The liquids used for this type of thermometers and their
TemperatureRange
Liquid
(oC)
Accuracy classes of liquid in glass thermometers and their Maximum Permissible Errors (MPE) are
A ± 0.1
B ± 0.2
C ± 0.5
D ± 1.0
E ± 2.0
F ± 5.0
Bimetallic thermometers
They consist of two strips of different metals which expand differently upon increasing or decreasing
temperature. Their working principle is based on the mechanical displacement caused by the
temperature change. Commonly used metals are steel and copper or in some cases steel and brass.
Infrared thermometers
They measure the temperature from a distance without any contact and for this reason, they are
sometimes called non-contact thermometers, temperature guns or laser thermometers (if a laser is
used to help aim the thermometer). These thermometers measure temperature from a portion of the
thermal radiation (sometimes called blackbody radiation) emitted by the object being measured.
Thermistors
Their working principle is similar to the resistance thermometers since they measure temperature
based on resistance change, but they differ from resistance thermometers in that the material used in
a thermistor is generally a ceramic or a polymer. Also, thermistors achieve higher precisions within a
Thermometer Calibration
Procedure
A thermometer consists of:
A thermometer can be calibrated either as a whole system (containing all the three above subsystems)
or by calibrating each subsystem separately. In the case of a liquid in glass thermometer, the three
components cannot be separated, so it is calibrated as a whole system. On the other hand, in the case
of a resistance thermometer, the sensing element (resistor) can be calibrated separately (by measuring
directly resistance at various temperature points) and the temperature indicator can be calibrated on
its own by applying known resistor values and checking the indication. However, when possible, it is
better to calibrate the thermometer as a whole system, since this is how it is used in practice.
Temperature is one of the most widely measured physical quantities. But unlike other quantities,
such as mass and time whose SI units are based on physical realizations, the temperature is defined
on a theoretical set of conditions. The current working temperature scale is the International
(freezing/melting points, triple points or vapour pressure points of pure materials). By using this
method we insert the thermometer in a fixed point cell which provides the desired temperature point.
In the following table the most common fixed points according to ITS-90 are shown:
Temperature
(oC)
Argon Triple Point * – 189.3442
The water triple point is the most important and accurately realizable of the fixed points. The
apparatus used for the realization is a glass flask nearly filled with very pure water and placed in an
ice and water bath that contains the cell at or near the freezing point of water.
The fixed points method is the most accurate calibration method and it is used only in the highest
quality calibrations. It is not commonly used by calibration laboratories since it is very complex and
high cost.
Comparison method
This method of calibration is the most widely used. It is based on comparing the thermometer under
test to a higher accuracy standard thermometer. The comparison usually takes place in a liquid bath
or a dry block calibrator. Thermometers used as standards by comparison method are usually high
Several parameters must be taken into account when using the comparison method. The most
important are immersion depth and homogeneity of the liquid or air where the thermometer is
immersed. The immersion depth depends on the construction of the thermometer, the temperature
difference between the bath and the surrounding atmosphere, the heat transfer capability of the bath
and the temperature stability of the bath. Homogeneity depends on the equipment used.
Better homogeneity is achieved by liquid baths, but we are able to improve homogeneity of dry block
calibrators by inserting a metal equalizing block with thermowells to receive both the standard and
industrial applications.
This category includes mostly direct reading temperature measuring instruments (glass
thermometers, temperature sensors with incorporated indication, etc.). These instruments are
calibrated using the thermal (temperature) calibration method. Depending on their accuracy, either
the comparison method can be selected, or the fixed point method (for instruments requiring a high
accuracy calibration.
Climatic chambers
They are chambers with controlled temperature. They are programmed to a set point and they also
contain a temperature indicator. The comparison method is used for their calibration. But in this case,
a number of standard thermometers, placed in specific positions inside the chamber, are required.
There are special rules and procedures for climatic chambers calibration.
applications in several sectors such as food industry, medical industry, calibration laboratories, etc.
Especially for the liquid baths, the liquid used depends on the desired temperature, so alcohols are
used for temperatures below 0 oC, water from 0 oC to 80 oC and oils up to 300 oC. Their calibration
is similar to the one used for the dry block calibrators and is based on the comparison method.
Chart recorders
They provide a hard copy record of the measured temperature. They may contain additional functions
such as real-time display or alarm. Their calibration is performed by using the comparison method.
Data Loggers
They are similar to the chart recorders, but they are electronic measuring instruments and they do not
provide paper-based records. They store the measurements into their memory. Data loggers may also
contain real-time display, alarm outputs and other functions. Their calibration is similar the one used
Thermocouples
They consist of two dissimilar conductors connected together at the measuring junction. The
temperature change at the reference junction causes a voltage to be generated. Depending on the type
of the thermocouple (K, J, T, etc.) there are reference tables which correspond the generated voltage
into temperature values. Thermocouples are calibrated by measurement either with fixed-point
There are of course several other instruments used to either produce or measure temperature. All
these instruments are used in many different applications and processes. No matter the purpose of the
application, the only way to be sure about our temperature measurements is to use instruments which
ensure that there are no malfunctions such as gaps in the measuring liquid, errors in the measuring
scale, etc.
We must perform the calibration in a laboratory with ambient temperature within 23 oC ± 3 oC and
temperature stability, during the testing period, of ± 1 oC. We must make sure that the thermometer
under test is left in the laboratory for sufficient time period in order to be conditioned to the lab’s
environmental conditions.
The thermometer we want to calibrate has a measuring range of -10 oC to +50 oC and it is a partial
immersion thermometer, which means that its bulb and a specified part of its stem must be inserted
into the bath, in order to indicate correct temperature readings. The thermometer is a C accuracy
The calibration is performed by using a liquid bath, containing ethanol, for temperatures from -10 oC
to 0 oC, a dry block calibrator (with its thermowells) for temperatures from 0 oC to +50 oC, and a Pt-
100 Platinum resistance thermometer alongside a high accurate digital multimeter for measuring the
Firstly, we insert the thermometer under test and our standard thermometer in the liquid bath. We set
the bath’s temperature at -10 oC and leave it to stabilize. When we achieve stabilization we take the
readings of both the under test instrument and the standard. We repeat this procedure for the 0 oC
temperature point.
We remove the thermometers from the liquid bath and insert them into the dry block calibrator. We
set the dry block calibrator at +10 oC, leave it to stabilize and record the readings of both instruments.
We repeat this procedure for the rest temperature points (+20 oC, +30 oC, +40 oC and +50 oC). (We
can use different measurements points, less or more, depending on our procedures or on the
The calibration report will contain the measurement results in a table similar to the following:
In order for our calibration report to be complete, we must also include a column containing the
uncertainties of measurements, which can be evaluated by using the document EA-04/2 “Expression