Nuclear Waste

PAUL K. ANDERSEN and ABBAS GHASSEMI

New Mexico State University
Las Cruces, New Mexico, United States
MAJID GHASSEMI
New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology
Socorro, New Mexico, United States

daughter A nuclide that results from the radioactive decay

1. Nuclear Fission of another nuclide (the ‘‘parent’’ nuclide).
2. Nuclear Fuel Cycle depleted uranium Uranium containing less than the
natural fraction of U-235 (0.71%).
3. Radionuclides in Nuclear Waste electronvolt (eV) A unit of energy, defined as the kinetic
4. Classification of Radioactive Wastes energy acquired by an electron that is accelerated
5. Disposal of Low-Level Wastes through a potential difference of 1 volt; an electronvolt
6. Management of Spent Nuclear Fuel is equal to 1.6022  1019 J.
7. Disposal of High-Level Wastes enrichment The process of increasing the proportion of
a fissile isotope in a nuclear fuel above its natural
8. Radioactive Waste Management in the United States
fraction.
9. Radioactive Waste Management in France fertile element A nonfissile element that can be made fissile
10. Radioactive Waste Management in Japan by the absorption of neutrons.
fissile element A heavy element that readily undergoes
fission by the absorption of thermal (i.e., slow) neutrons.
fission The splitting of a heavy nucleus into two roughly
Glossary equal fragments, with the accompanying release of
actinides The 14 elements having atomic numbers in the energetic neutrons and (sometimes) a light nucleus such
range from Z ¼ 90 (thorium) to Z ¼ 103 (lawrencium); as tritium.
the element actinium (Z ¼ 89) is sometimes included as gamma radiation (c) High-energy photons emitted from
well. unstable nuclei.
activation Creation of a radioactive element from a stable gaseous diffusion A separation process that depends on
one by the absorption of neutrons or protons. differences in diffusion rates of gaseous compounds
alpha radiation (a) Nuclear radiation consisting of helium through a membrane; gaseous diffusion is used to
nuclei, each comprising two neutrons and two protons. separate (238U)F6 and (235U)F6.
Becquerel (Bq) The SI unit of radioactivity, equal to one half-life The time required for half of the nuclei in a
disintegration per second. radioactive sample to decay.
bentonite A soft plastic clay formed by the chemical hex Abbreviation for uranium hexafluoride, UF6.
alteration of volcanic ash, which expands on the igneous rock Rock that solidified from molten or partly
absorption of water. molten material.
beta radiation Energetic electrons (denoted b) or posi- ion exchange A separation process in which ions are
trons (denoted b þ ) emitted from unstable nuclei. removed from a liquid solution to an insoluble solid
calcining (or calcination) The process of heating a material (typically a polymer resin) and are replaced by ions
to a high temperature below its melting point to drive from the solid.
off volatile species or promote chemical changes. isotope Any one of multiple forms of the same element
centrifugal separation An enrichment process that uses a having the same atomic number Z but different mass
series of high-speed centrifuges to separate (238U)F6 and numbers A.
(235U)F6 according to the difference in their molecular leaching The removal of soluble constituents from a solid
masses. by the action of a liquid solvent.
clay Unconsolidated sediments consisting of particles less nuclide A species of atom existing for a measurable length
than 1/256 mm in diameter. of time and having an atomic number Z, a mass

Encyclopedia of Energy, Volume 4. r 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 449
450 Nuclear Waste

number A, and nuclear energy distinct from any other
species of atom.
radionuclide A radioactive nuclide.
radiotoxicity A measure of the potential of a radioactive
substance to cause harm to living tissue by radiation
after introduction into the body.
reprocessing The separation of spent nuclear fuel into
useful materials (especially uranium and plutonium)
and wastes.
solvent extraction A process for removing chemical solutes
from a liquid solution using a second immiscible liquid
phase.
spent nuclear fuel Fuel after it has been used in a nuclear
reactor, containing fission products, plutonium, and
unreacted uranium.
transuranic element An element having an atomic number
Z greater than 92.
tuff Rock formed from consolidated volcanic ash; welded
tuff results when ash particles are fused together by heat
and pressure.
vitrification The process of converting or incorporating
nuclear wastes into a glass for permanent disposal.
yellowcake The solid product of uranium milling, nomin-
ally U3O8 but actually consisting of mixed uranium
oxides, hydrides, and impurities.
U-235 (0.71% by weight) and U-238 (99.28% by
weight). Only U-235 is fissile, meaning that it readily
undergoes fission by the absorption of slow neutrons.
The fission of U-235 can be represented by
n þ235 U-fission fragments þ 2:43n:
A fission reaction produces two (or more) fission
fragments or products and additional neutrons (2.43
neutrons on average); the latter can initiate further
fission reactions. Each fission reaction releases
approximately 200 MeV (million electronvolts) of
energy, predominantly as the kinetic energy of the
fission fragments. In contrast, the chemical combus-
tion of a hydrocarbon fuel typically releases less than
7 eV per molecule of CO2 formed.
The more abundant uranium isotope U-238 is
not fissile. However, U-238 is fertile, meaning that
it can capture neutrons and be converted to
plutonium-239:
n þ238 U-239 Pu:
Plutonium-239 is fissile:
n þ239 Pu-fission fragments þ 2:88n:

Radioactive waste may be defined as any material

that contains a higher concentration of radio- 2. NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE
nuclides than is considered safe and for which no
further use is contemplated. Nuclear waste is a The nuclear fuel cycle based on uranium is depicted
radioactive by-product of nuclear power generation, in Fig. 1. The complete cycle consists of nine
nuclear weapons production, and the medical and major steps: (1) mining and milling, (2) conversion,
industrial applications of radioactive substances. (3) enrichment, (4) fuel fabrication, (5) reactor
This article focuses on radioactive waste from operation, (6) interim storage, (7) reprocessing, (8)
civilian nuclear power. In 2002, there were 438 stabilization and immobilization, and (9) final
nuclear power plants operating in 31 nations, disposal.
producing more than 16% of the electricity gener-
ated worldwide. In some countries, nuclear power
plants supply more than half of the electricity 5. Reactor operation
generated. Worldwide, nuclear power generation
Fuel Spent nuclear fuel
produces more than 200,000 m3 of nuclear waste
annually, of which less than 5% is highly radioactive. 4. Fuel fabrication 6. Interim storage
The total volume of nuclear wastes is nearly 20 Plu
ton
million m3. Enriched uranium ium

Depleted
3. Enrichment 7. Reprocessing
uranium
m
aniu
Uranium hexafluoride Ur High-level waste
1. NUCLEAR FISSION
2. Conversion 8. Immobilization
All commercial nuclear power plants rely on the
Yellowcake Immobilized waste
fission of uranium and, to a lesser extent, plutonium.
Uranium
(An alternative cycle, based on thorium, has been mill 1. Mining and milling 9. Final disposal
explored but never commercialized.) Naturally oc- tailings

curring uranium consists of two major isotopes: FIGURE 1 Nuclear fuel cycle based on uranium.

2.1 Mining and Milling
Uranium is excavated from open-pit or deep-shaft
mines using conventional mining techniques (step 1 in
the fuel cycle). The ore is crushed and the uranium is
leached out using sulfuric acid or sodium carbonate
and bicarbonate. The uranium is recovered from the
liquid using processes such as ion exchange, solvent
extraction, precipitation, and drying. The product is
yellowcake, a solid consisting of U3O8 and various
other oxides, hydroxides, and impurities.
2.2 Conversion
In the second step of the fuel cycle, yellowcake is
reacted with hydrogen fluoride and fluorine to produce
uranium hexafluoride (UF6) or ‘‘hex.’’ Depending on
the temperature and pressure, hex may be handled as a
solid, a liquid, or a gas.
2.3 Enrichment
Most commercial reactors require enriched fuel in
which the concentration of U-235 has been increased
from its natural value of 0.71% to as much as 5% by
weight. (A few power reactors, most notably the
early British gas-cooled reactors and the Canadian
CANDU reactors, do not require enriched fuel.)
Weapons-grade uranium must be enriched even
further, to approximately 90% U-235. The most
common enrichment processes are gaseous diffusion
and centrifugation, both of which take advantage of
the minute difference in mass between U-235 and U-
238. The by-product from enrichment is depleted
uranium, which contains less than 0.71% U-235
(typically 0.25–0.30%).
2.4 Fuel Fabrication
Fuel for commercial power reactors may contain
uranium oxide (UO2), metallic uranium, or mixed
uranium and plutonium oxides (UO2 þ PuO2 or
‘‘MOX’’). The majority of commercial power reac-
tors use uranium oxide, produced by chemically
converting enriched UF6 to UO2 powder. The powder
is pressed, sintered, and machined to form cylindrical
pellets, which are then stacked inside metal tubes
called fuel pins or fuel rods. A number of fuel pins are
gathered to form fuel bundles or assemblies.
2.5 Reactor Operation
The core of a nuclear power plant that produces
1000 MW of electricity typically contains approxi-
Nuclear Waste 451
mately 75 metric tons (165,000 pounds) of enriched
uranium oxide fuel. Approximately 25 metric tons
(55,000 pounds) of fresh fuel is required each year.
Thus, each fuel assembly spends about 3 years in the
reactor core. The heat from the fission reactions is
used to generate steam for running power turbines.
Most of the power output comes from the fission of
U-235. However, some U-238 is transformed into Pu-
239, the fission of which provides about a third of
the reactor’s energy output.
2.6 Interim Storage
When first withdrawn from the reactor, reactor fuel is
both thermally hot and highly radioactive because of
fission products. Spent nuclear fuel (SNF) assemblies
are kept in cooling pools at the reactor site until their
radioactivity and heat generation have declined to
safer levels. This generally requires several months.
(However, in the United States, spent fuel has
remained in cooling ponds for decades awaiting the
development of a permanent national disposal site.)
2.7 Reprocessing
Irradiated fuel from reactors may be reprocessed to
remove fission products and to recover the uranium
and plutonium. The fuel rods are chopped up and
dissolved in acid, and the various components are
separated chemically. In a true cycle, the uranium
and plutonium are recycled for use as fuel. However,
some countries (including the United States) employ
the so-called once-through or open fuel cycle, which
omits this step.
2.8 Stabilization and Immobilization
The high-level wastes from the reprocessing of SNF
are mostly in liquid form. The liquid waste is calcined
to produce a dry powder, which is then converted to a
glass (a process called vitrification) or ceramic. (In a
once-through cycle, this step is omitted because spent
uranium oxide fuel is already in ceramic form.) The
glass or ceramic is then sealed in corrosion-resistant
canisters for long-term disposal.
2.9 Final Disposal
High-level wastes resulting from reprocessing (and
SNF from a once-through cycle) must be deposited
for hundreds or thousands of years to allow the
radionuclides to decay to safe levels. Most proposals
for final deposition envision some kind of deep
452 Nuclear Waste

geological repository in stable crystalline rock, salt
deposits, or clay.
3. RADIONUCLIDES IN
NUCLEAR WASTE
More than 2500 nuclides have been discovered or
created. Most of these are too short-lived to be of
practical interest. The Index of Radioisotopes,
published by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commis-
sion (NRC), lists some 770 isotopes. Those of
concern in radioactive wastes generally fall into one
of three categories:
 Activation products. Substances used as cool-
ants, moderators, and reactor structures can become
radioactive by absorbing neutrons. These are usually
light- or medium-mass nuclides.
 Medium-mass fission products. The fission of
uranium produces more than 200 different radio-
nuclides, covering about a third of the periodic table
from copper to the lanthanides. Fission fragments
tend to have neutron-rich nuclei with mass numbers
from approximately 70 to 160, with peak production
occurring near mass numbers 95 and 135. Most
fission products are beta or beta/gamma emitters.
 Heavy nuclei. Nuclei having mass numbers
between 232 and 246 are used as fuels for nuclear
fission or are produced by neutron capture in fission
reactions. Most of these are long-lived alpha emitters.
Table I lists some radionuclides of concern in
nuclear wastes. These radionuclides are also dis-
cussed in detail in what follows.
3.1 Americium
Americium (Am, atomic number 95) is an artificial
actinide. Its most important isotope is americium-
241 (half-life 432.7 years), which is produced by the
beta-decay of plutonium-241. Americium-241 is
used commercially in applications such as smoke
detectors, thickness gauges, and fluid level gauges.
Although americium-241 has very high radiotoxicity,
it is not very mobile in the environment. It decays by
alpha emission to neptunium-237.

TABLE I
Some Radionuclides in Nuclear Wastes

Decay energy Relative

Nuclide Z Half-life Decay mode (MeV) radiotoxicity

Americium-241 95 432.7 years a 5.4857 Very high

Carbon-14 6 5,730 years b 0.157 Moderate
Cesium-137 55 30.17 years b, g 1.17 High
Cobalt-60 27 5.272 years b, g 2.824 High
Hydrogen-3 1 12.26 years b 0.0186 Low
Iodine-129 53 16  106 years b 0.193 Low
Iodine-131 53 8040 days b 0.971 High
Iodine-133 53 20.8 hours b, g 1.76 Moderate
Krypton-85 36 10.72 years b, g 0.687 Low
Neptunium-237 93 2.14  106 years a 4.957 Very high
Plutonium-238 94 87.7 years a 5.593 Very high
Plutonium-239 94 24,110 years a 5.244 Very high
Plutonium-242 94 376,000 years a 4.983 Very high
Radium-226 88 1,600 years a, g 4.870 Very high
Radium-228 88 5.75 years b 0.045 Very high
Radon-222 86 3.82 days a 5.590 Moderate
Ruthenium-106 44 372.2 days b 0.039 High
Strontium-90 38 29 years b 0.546 High
Technitium-99 43 213,000 years b 0.293 Low
Thorium-232 90 1.40  1010 years a 4.081 High
Uranium-234 92 2.46  105 years a 4.776 Very high
Uranium-235 92 7.04  108 years a, g 4.679 Low
Uranium-238 92 4.46  109 years a 4.039 Low

3.2 Carbon
Carbon (C, atomic number 6) occurs in nature
predominantly as the stable isotopes carbon-12
(98.89%) and carbon-13 (1.1%). Its most important
radioactive isotope is carbon-14, a weak beta-emitter
having a half-life of 5730 years. Carbon-14 is formed
naturally in the upper atmosphere by the action of
cosmic rays on nitrogen. It is also produced by
neutron capture in nuclear explosions and fission
reactors if nitrogen-containing materials are present.
Carbon-14 can replace carbon-12 in biological
systems. The radiotoxicity of carbon-14 is moderate.
3.3 Cesium
Cesium (Cs, atomic number 55) is an alkali metal
having 40 isotopes, ranging in mass from 112 to
151. Of these, the fission product cesium-137 (half-
life 30.17 years) is of greatest concern. Cesium-137 is
one of the nuclides most responsible for the radio-
activity of used reactor fuel and high-level waste
(with the other being strontium-90). Cesium-137 is
highly radiotoxic. It is widely used in moisture,
liquid level, and thickness gauges as well as to treat
cancer.
3.4 Cobalt
The transition metal cobalt (Co, atomic number 27)
is brittle, hard, and magnetic. Naturally occurring
cobalt, consisting of the isotope cobalt-59, is used to
make very hard and corrosion-resistant alloys. The
absorption of a neutron converts cobalt-59 to radio-
active cobalt-60 (half-life 5.272 years), which decays
by the emission of a beta particle and a high-energy
gamma ray to nickel-60.
3.5 Hydrogen
Hydrogen (H, atomic number 1) has two stable
isotopes: hydrogen-1 and hydrogen-2 (deuterium).
Hydrogen-3 (tritium) is a low-energy beta-emitter
having a half-life of 12.26 years, produced naturally
by the action of cosmic rays in the upper atmosphere.
Tritium also occurs as a product in a small fraction of
fission reactions and is produced commercially by the
irradiation of lithium-6. Tritium is most likely to be
found bound to oxygen to form tritiated water,
which has chemical properties that are virtually
identical to those of ordinary water. Tritium is
usually taken into the body by inhalation and skin
absorption, although ingestion is also possible. Blood
Nuclear Waste 453
flow distributes the tritiated water evenly throughout
the soft tissues of the body. Its radiotoxicity is low.
3.6 Iodine
Iodine (I, atomic number 53) is a halogen occurring
below bromine in the periodic table. Two radioactive
isotopes of iodine are of importance in nuclear
wastes. Iodine-129 (half-life 1.6  107 years) and
iodine-131 (half-life 8.040 days) occur as fission
products. Both are beta-emitters that tend to con-
centrate in the thyroid. The radiotoxicity of iodine-
129 is low; the radiotoxicity of iodine-131 is high.
Other isotopes (e.g., iodine-123, iodine-124) are
commonly used in medical imaging and treatment.
3.7 Krypton
Krypton (Kr, atomic number 36) is one of the noble
gases, which as a group have little tendency to react
chemically with other elements. A total of 32
isotopes of krypton have been identified, having
atomic masses ranging from 69 to 100. Six of these
are stable. The fission product krypton-85 is a beta-
emitter having a half-life of 10.72 years. Because it is
chemically inert, krypton is difficult to separate from
process streams. Although krypton is not absorbed
appreciably in body tissues, it may be inhaled and
affect the lungs. Its radiotoxicity is low.
3.8 Neptunium
Neptunium (Np, atomic number 93) is the first
transuranic element. Neptunium-239 (half-life 2.36
days) occurs as an intermediate in the formation of
plutonium from uranium but is too short-lived to be
of concern in most wastes. In contrast, neptunium-
237 (half-life 2.14  106 years) is a major source of
alpha radiation in spent fuel and high-level wastes. It
is formed by alpha decay of americium-241 or beta
decay of uranium-238. The radiotoxicity of neptu-
nium-237 is very high.
3.9 Plutonium
Isotopes of plutonium (Pu, atomic number 94) are
generated by neutron capture in uranium-238 or
thorium-232. Plutonium-239 (half-life 24,110 years)
is of greatest concern because it is fissionable. Other
important isotopes are plutonium-238 (half-life 87.7
years), plutonium-240 (half-life 6564 years), pluto-
nium-241 (half-life 13 years), and plutonium-242
454 Nuclear Waste

(half-life 3.76  105 years). All of these isotopes have 3.14 Technetium
very high radiotoxicity.
The first artificially produced element, technetium
(Tc, atomic number 43) occurs in nature only in
3.10 Radium minute amounts. At least 34 isotopes have been
produced, having atomic masses ranging from 85 to
Radium (Ra, atomic number 88) is a naturally
118; of these, the beta-emitter technetium-99 (half-
occurring radioactive element. Radium-228 (half-life
5.76 years) is a decay product of thorium; radium- life 2.13  105 years) is of special concern because it
is produced in fission reactors, both as a fission
226 (half-life 1600 years) is a decay product of
fragment and as an activation product. Like iodine,
uranium. Radium-226 and its daughters (including
technetium is absorbed by the thyroid. The radio-
radon-222) are the major sources of radioactivity in
toxicity of technetium is relatively low.
uranium mine tailings. Chemically, radium is an
alkaline earth metal like calcium and tends to
concentrate in the bone. The radiotoxicity of radium 3.15 Thorium
is very high.
Thorium (Th, atomic number 90) is a naturally
occurring radioactive element, several times more
3.11 Radon abundant than uranium, which has been considered
as the basis for an alternative fuel cycle. The most
Radon (Rn, atomic number 86) is a radioactive noble
important natural isotope is thorium-232 (half-life
gas produced by the decay of radium. The two most
14.0  10 years), which is weakly radioactive, decay-
important isotopes are the alpha-emitters radon-220
ing by alpha and gamma emission to radium-228.
(half-life 54.6 s) and radon-222 (half-life 3.82 days).
The radiotoxicity of thorium-232 is relatively low.
Being a gas, radon is highly mobile; in some areas,
radon is a concern because it can accumulate in Another isotope, thorium-230 (half-life 75,400
years) is produced naturally by the decay of
buildings. Both radon-220 and radon-222 are
uranium-234. The radiotoxicity of thorium-230 is
moderately radiotoxic.
very high. A third isotope, thorium-228 (half-life 1.9
years) also has very high radiotoxicity.
3.12 Ruthenium
Ruthenium (Ru, atomic number 44) belongs to the 3.16 Uranium
platinum family of metals. It has seven stable natural
isotopes. The most important radioactive isotope is Uranium (U, atomic number 92) is the heaviest
element found in appreciable amounts in nature,
ruthenium-106 (half-life 372.2 days), a fission
making up 2 to 4 grams per metric ton of the earth’s
product that decays by low-energy beta emission to
crust. Natural uranium consists of 99.283% by
rhodium-106 (a high-energy beta/gamma emitter
weight uranium-238 (half-life 4.468  109 years),
with half-life of 30 s). Ruthenium-106 has high
0.711% uranium-235 (half-life 7.04  108 years),
radiotoxicity.
and 0.005% uranium-234 (half-life 245,000 years).
All three isotopes are alpha-emitters. Natural ura-
3.13 Strontium nium has relatively low radiotoxicity.
Strontium (Sr, atomic number 38) is an alkaline earth
metal lying below calcium in the periodic table. Four
stable isotopes are found in nature, and 16 radio- 4. CLASSIFICATION OF
active isotopes have been produced artificially. Most
RADIOACTIVE WASTE
of the radioactive isotopes of strontium are short-
lived and of little interest. The exception is stron-
There is no generally accepted classification scheme
tium-90 (half-life 29.1 years), a beta-emitter that is
for radioactive wastes. The following categories are
produced as a fission fragment. Much of the radio-
commonly defined in the United States:
activity of SNF results from strontium-90. Because
its chemical properties resemble those of calcium,  Uranium mill tailings (UMTs) are the residues
strontium-90 tends to concentrate in the bones. It is from the mining and milling of uranium ores. Most
highly radiotoxic, decaying into yttrium-90 (itself an uranium ores in the United States contain uranium at
energetic beta-emitter of moderate radiotoxicity). a concentration of approximately 0.2% (2000 ppm)

by weight. Consequently, the production of 1 kg of
uranium metal requires the excavation of 500 kg (or
more) of ore. Milling creates additional solid and
liquid wastes. Tailings generally contain relatively
low concentrations of radioactive materials; how-
ever, because of the high volumes of tailings, their
overall radioactivity can be high. The principal
radionuclides of concern in UMTs are radium-226
(half-life 1600 years) and its daughter radon-222
(half-life 3.8 days).
 Depleted uranium, the major by-product from
the enrichment process, is uranium containing
less than 0.71% uranium-235. Depleted ura-
nium currently has few civilian uses but could
eventually be converted to fissile plutonium in
breeder reactors. The U.S. Department of Energy
(DOE) stores approximately 730,000 metric tons
of depleted uranium, most of it as uranium hexa-
fluoride.
 Low-level waste (LLW) has relatively low levels
of radioactivity and contains little or no transuranic
radioisotopes (i.e., radionuclides beyond uranium in
the periodic table). LLW may be further divided into
classes A, B, and C, with A being the least hazardous
and C being the most hazardous. (Some LLW is
classified as ‘‘greater than C.’’) Mixed low-level
waste (MLLW) contains both low-level radioactive
and chemically hazardous substances. Although not
shown in Fig. 1, LLW is generated at every step of
the nuclear fuel cycle and may include used
protective clothing, rags, paper, tools, filter elements,
and so on.
 Spent nuclear fuel (SNF) is the irradiated fuel
discharged from nuclear reactors. It contains fission
products, plutonium, and unreacted uranium and is
both thermally hot and highly radioactive.
 Transuranic waste (TRUW) contains alpha-emit-
ting radionuclides having atomic numbers greater
than 92. To qualify as TRUW under U.S. law, the
radionuclides must possess half-lives greater than 20
years and be present in concentrations greater than
100 nCi/g. Although their radioactivity is relatively
low, the long lives of the radioisotopes require
long-term storage. Virtually all of the TRUW in the
United States is the by-product of nuclear weapons
production.
 High-level waste (HLW) includes the residues
resulting from the reprocessing of spent reactor fuel
and the production of nuclear weapons. HLW
contains highly radioactive fission products and
small amounts of plutonium isotopes. SNF may be
considered as HLW in countries that do not reprocess
fuel.
Nuclear Waste 455
Under the foregoing classification scheme, com-
monly followed in the United States, wastes are
categorized according to their source as well as their
radioactivity. However, other countries tend to
categorize wastes according to their radioactivity
alone. For example, in the United Kingdom, solid
wastes are classified as high-, intermediate-, low-, or
very low-level wastes as follows:
 Very low-level waste (VLLW) can safely be
discarded as ordinary refuse. To qualify, bulk waste
must contain less than 400 kBq of beta/gamma
activity per 0.1 m3 of material; individual items
must contain less than 40 kBq of beta/gamma
activity.
 Low-level waste (LLW) has higher levels of
radioactivity than can be safely handled as ordinary
refuse but not exceeding 4 GBq per metric ton of
alpha radiation or 12 GBq per metric ton of beta/
gamma radiation.
 Intermediate-level waste (ILW) has higher radio-
activity levels than does LLW but not so high that
heating becomes a concern.
 High-level waste (HLW) has such high levels of
radioactivity that appreciable thermal heating oc-
curs. Consequently, storage and processing facilities
have to be designed to contain the radiation and
dissipate the generated heat.
5. DISPOSAL OF
LOW-LEVEL WASTE
LLW accounts for approximately 90% of the total
volume of all wastes produced in the nuclear fuel cycle
but only 1% of the total radioactivity. Various
methods have been adopted for disposing of LLW,
depending on the type of waste and its levels of
radioactivity. For example, the NRC requires that
Class A and B wastes be contained for at least 100
years, and Class C waste must be contained for 500
years. Combinations of natural and engineered bar-
riers are used to prevent radioactivity from escaping to
the environment. A major goal is to prevent the
intrusion of ground water and surface water.
5.1 Shallow Land Burial
The cheapest way to dispose of LLW is to bury it in
shallow trenches dug in stable soil (Fig. 2). A typical
disposal trench may be 6 to 10 m deep, 30 m wide,
and 100 to 300 m long. In some cases, the trench may
be lined with a layer of clay, polymer, or concrete.
456 Nuclear Waste

Topsoil Topsoil
Clay cap Clay cap
Backfill Backfill

Waste packages
French drain Drainage layer
Waste packages Vault
French drain Drainage layer
FIGURE 4 Belowground vault disposal.
FIGURE 2 Shallow land burial for LLW.

Waste packages Vault

Topsoil
Clay cap
Backfill

Drainage layer
Drain Impermeable layer

FIGURE 5 Aboveground vault disposal.

Waste packages
buried in trenches. The canisters serve as an
French drain Drainage layer
additional barrier against the release of radioactivity.
Concrete canister

FIGURE 3 Modular concrete canister disposal. 5.3 Belowground Vault

In belowground vault (BGV) disposal (Fig. 4), a
The floor of the trench is sloped and covered with a
specially designed concrete, metal, or polymer vault
layer of sand, gravel, or crushed stone. A drainage
is placed in a trench below ground level. The floor of
system keeps the waste containers dry. Once the LLW
the trench is typically sloped and equipped with
containers are in place, the trench is backfilled with
drains. After the waste containers are placed in the
sand or earth, which is then compacted and capped
vault, the trench is backfilled with permeable sand or
with a layer of clay to reduce water infiltration. The
gravel and capped with impermeable clay, topsoil,
clay cap may be stabilized by a layer of topsoil
and vegetation. BGV disposal is used in Japan at the
planted with vegetation. Shallow land burial (SLB)
Low-Level Waste Disposal Centre at Rokkasho.
has been used throughout the world.

5.4 Aboveground Vault

5.2 Modular Concrete Canister
Modular concrete canister (MCC) disposal (Fig. 3)
differs from SLB in that the waste containers are first
placed inside concrete canisters, which are then
An aboveground vault (AGV) is a concrete, metal, or
masonry structure built above ground level (Fig. 5).
A vault may be a simple reinforced concrete box with
a poured concrete roof, or it may be a more elaborate

structure resembling a large warehouse. The princi-
pal advantage of an AGV is that it allows easy
recovery of wastes for further processing or reuse. Its
principal disadvantage is that the structure is not
protected by earth from the effects of weather,
intrusions, or accidents. Consequently, an AGV is
often considered more for temporary storage than for
permanent disposal. AGVs have been used at the
West Valley Demonstration Project in New York and
at the Point Lepreu and Bruce sites in Canada.
5.5 Earth-Mounded Concrete Bunker
An earth-mounded concrete bunker (EMCB) is a
structure built partly below ground and partly above
ground (Fig. 6). Wastes are segregated according to
activity; higher activity (class B/C) wastes are
embedded in concrete vaults or ‘‘monoliths’’ below
ground level, and lower activity (class A) wastes are
then placed atop the vaults. The wastes are covered
with an impermeable layer of clay and a layer of
topsoil to form a mound or tumulus. This method is
used in France at the Centre de La Manche and the
Centre de l’Aube as well as in Canada at the
Whiteshell Nuclear Research Establishment.
5.6 Shaft Disposal
In a typical shaft disposal (SD) scheme, a hole some
3 m in diameter is sunk 40 or 50 m into the ground
(but well above the water table). The walls of the shaft
may be lined with clay, metal, or concrete, and the
bottom of the shaft may be left unlined for drainage.
Packages for
class A wastes Impermeable layer
Monoliths for
Drain Drainage layer
class B and C
wastes
FIGURE 6 Earth-mounded concrete bunker (or tumulus)
disposal of LLW.
Nuclear Waste 457
After the waste containers have been stacked in the
shaft, it is backfilled with sand or clay and capped
with concrete. Shaft disposal of LLWs has been used
at a number of sites in the United States and Canada.
5.7 Deep Geological Disposal
Some countries have chosen to dispose of LLW and
ILW in deep geological repositories similar to those
planned for HLW. These repositories are to be
located in stable geological media such as igneous
rock, salt, or clay.
6. MANAGEMENT OF SPENT
NUCLEAR FUEL
Nuclear fuel rods are highly radioactive when first
withdrawn from the reactor core because they contain
fission products, principally relatively short-lived
radionuclides. For this reason, the SNF is transferred
to an interim storage facility adjacent to the reactor to
allow the radioactivity to decline to safer levels. The
radioactivity of the spent fuel decreases by approxi-
mately 99% during a year of storage.
Most interim storage facilities keep SNF in pools
of water, commonly known as cooling ponds. The
water serves both as a radiation shield and a heat
transfer medium. Where cooling ponds have become
crowded, some facilities put the SNF in dry storage
instead of building new ponds. Dry storage facilities
may keep SNF in concrete or metal casks, reinforced
concrete vaults, or dry wells. Cooling is accom-
plished by natural convection of ambient air.
As shown in Table II, there is no uniform policy
regarding the management of SNF. Some countries
(e.g., Japan, France, Russia, the United Kingdom)
currently reprocess their SNF. Other countries (e.g.,
TABLE II
National Policies on Reprocessing of Spent Nuclear Fuel
Reprocess (closed cycle)
Belgium, China, France, Germany, India, Japan,
The Netherlands, Russia, Switzerland, United Kingdom
Do not reprocess (once-through cycle)
Canada, Finland, Lithuania, Slovenia, Spain, South Africa,
Sweden, United States
Undecided on reprocessing
Argentina, Brazil, Czech Republic, Hungary, Mexico, Pakistan,
Slovenia, South Korea, Taiwan
458 Nuclear Waste
Canada, Finland, the United States) do not reprocess.
Still other countries (e.g., Czech Republic, South
Korea, Taiwan) have deferred the decision on
whether to reprocess, relying on storage of SNF for
the near term.
7. DISPOSAL OF
HIGH-LEVEL WASTES
7.1 Objectives
Disposal of HLW (and SNF treated as waste) will
require the isolation of the wastes from the biosphere
for thousands of years. The principal concern is the
contamination of ground water that may be trans-
ported to the biosphere. The design of a typical
repository is intended to accomplish all or most of
the following objectives:
 Delay the intrusion of water into the repository.
 Delay the release of radionuclides from the
waste package.
 Retard the dissolution of radionuclides.
 Limit the migration of any radionuclides that
escape containment.
 Dilute any escaped radionuclides to safe levels.
 Permit retrieval of the SNF for reuse.
A variety of methods for the disposal of HLW/SNF
have been studied over the years. Most employ
multiple barriers to provide ‘‘defense in depth.’’ A
typical scheme for HLW might involve solidification
and vitrification of the waste. The vitrified wastes
would then be placed inside one or more specially
engineered metal, plastic, or ceramic containers. The
containers would then be placed in cavities in a
natural medium such as rock, clay, or salt and perhaps
backfilled with a material such as bentonite, which
swells when wet and slows the passage of water.
7.2 Seabed Disposal
In the past, low-level nuclear wastes have been
dumped somewhat haphazardly into the ocean.
Although most nations ended ocean disposal in the
1970s, several proposals have been put forth for the
long-term disposal of HLW in the seabed. One
approach would place the waste in specially designed
canisters that would then be buried in deep sediments
far from inhabited coasts. The sediments would
provide a natural barrier to the movement of
radionuclides, and the seawater would act as a
dilution medium for any radionuclides that managed
to escape containment. Seabed disposal is still
considered a viable option for the future. However,
an international agreement, the 1993 London Con-
vention, banned the disposal of all radioactive wastes
at sea for 25 years, after which such disposal
methods may be reconsidered every 25 years.
7.3 Very Deep Hole Disposal
Nuclear waste containers could be stacked in holes as
deep as 10,000 m (B6 miles) underground, putting
them out of reach of flowing ground water. Despite
uncertainties about the behavior of both the waste
containers and the surrounding rock at such depths,
recent advances in drilling technology have renewed
interest in this approach.
7.4 Space Disposal
The National Aeronautical and Space Administra-
tion (NASA) and the DOE studied the possibility of
disposing of nuclear waste in space. Various schemes
were considered, including placing waste in orbit
around the earth, the sun, or the moon; shooting
waste into the sun; placing waste on the moon; and
sending waste into deep space. Although space
disposal would place the waste permanently outside
the biosphere, it would be expensive. Also, there is
the possibility of an accident during launch, which
could scatter waste over a large area.
7.5 Ice Sheet Disposal
Radioactive waste could be buried in or under the ice
sheets that cover much of the continent of Antarc-
tica. Because the ice can be several kilometers thick
and there is no permanent human population on the
continent, the waste would be effectively isolated
from human contact. However, ice disposal would be
expensive because of the harsh climate and the need
to transport the waste to a remote site. Climate
changes also could cause melting of the polar ice,
releasing the waste. Moreover, the Antarctic Treaty
of 1959 prohibits the disposal of radioactive waste
on the continent.
7.6 Deep Geological Disposal
Most current plans for the long-term disposal of
nuclear waste involve the excavation of deep
repositories in stable geological formations such as
igneous rock, salt deposits, and clay. Each of these
has advantages and disadvantages.
 Nuclear Waste 459

TABLE III
Plans for High-Level Waste Repositories

Country Geological medium Estimated opening Status

Belgium Clay 2035 or later Searching for site

Canada Granite 2035 or later Reviewing repository concept
Finland Crystalline bedrock 2020 Site selected (Olkiluoto)
France Granite or clay 2020 or later Developing repository concept
Germany Salt Unknown Moratorium on development
Japan Granite or sedimentary rock 2030 or later Searching for site
Russia Not selected Unknown Searching for site
Sweden Crystalline rock 2020 Searching for site
Switzerland Crystalline rock or clay 2020 or later Searching for site
United Kingdom Not selected After 2040 Delaying decision until 2040
United States Welded tuff 2010 Site selected (Yucca Mountain)

7.6.1 Igneous Rock to be self-sealing. Clay layers have been under

Intact igneous rock, such as granite or tuff, tolerates
relatively high temperatures and resists the flow of
water. On the other hand, hard rock may fracture,
permitting the intrusion of water through the
resulting fissures. Both the Yucca Mountain reposi-
tory in the United States and the SFR repository in
Sweden are sited in igneous rock.
consideration for repositories in Belgium, France,
and Switzerland.
Table III summarizes the HLW repository plans of
major nuclear countries. The nuclear waste manage-
ment policies of the three leading nuclear countries
(the United States, France, and Japan) are examined
in more detail in the following sections.

7.6.2 Salt Deposits

The presence of a stable salt deposit indicates that
little or no flowing water has been present at the site
for geological ages. Left undisturbed, the salt should
remain dry for thousands of years. Salt is easily
mined. It deforms plastically under the influence of
heat and pressure, eventually flowing around the
waste and sealing it in a tight, resolidified mass. Salt
has very low permeability. It also has a relatively high
thermal conductivity, which would aid in the
dissipation of heat from the waste. On the other
hand, if water found its way into the repository, the
resulting salt brine would tend to be highly corrosive.
The Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) in the United
States is located in bedded rock salt. The Gorlben
repository in Germany is located in a salt dome.
7.6.3 Clay
By definition, clays are unconsolidated sediments
consisting of particles less than 1/256 mm in dia-
meter. (Clay particles are too small to feel gritty
between the fingers or teeth.) Clays are commonly
composed of hydrous aluminum silicates having a
sheet–silicate structure, producing grains that tend to
be flat. Clay resists the intrusion of water and retards
the migration of radionuclides. Like salt, clay tends
8. RADIOACTIVE WASTE
MANAGEMENT IN THE
UNITED STATES
The United States has by far the largest civilian
nuclear program in the world, with a total of 104
reactors having a power capacity of 97.5 GW. In
2000, these plants produced approximately 20% of
the country’s electricity.
8.1 History
The world’s first nuclear reactor, built under the
direction of Enrico Fermi, was put into operation at
the University of Chicago on December 2, 1942. This
led to the rapid development of an immense industrial
complex for the wartime production of weapons-
grade uranium and plutonium under the aegis of the
Manhattan Project. On July 16, 1945—less than 3
years after Fermi’s reactor achieved the first chain
reaction—the first atomic bomb (a plutonium device)
was exploded near Alamogordo, New Mexico. In
August 1945, the United States dropped atomic
bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan.
460 Nuclear Waste
The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) was
established in 1946 and given the responsibility for
both civilian and military nuclear programs. Initially,
waste management was given lower priority than the
development of nuclear weapons and (later) a
nuclear power industry. It was widely expected that
plants would be constructed to reprocess SNF.
Uranium and plutonium would be reused; reproces-
sing wastes would be solidified and transferred to a
permanent repository for disposal.
The National Academy of Sciences recommended
in 1957, and again in 1970, that a federal waste
repository be built in a stable bedded salt deposit.
Accordingly, in 1970, the AEC investigated salt beds
near Lyons, Kansas, as a possible site for a repository.
However, the Lyons site was rejected in 1972 because
of concerns about its geology and hydrology as well
as the large number of boreholes left by previous oil
and gas drilling in the area. In 1974, the AEC began
exploring salt beds in southeastern New Mexico. The
next year, a site for the WIPP was selected.
In 1974, the AEC was abolished by Congress, and
its responsibilities were transferred to two new
agencies. The Energy Research and Development
Administration (ERDA) was created to develop and
promote nuclear power, and the NRC was created to
regulate civilian nuclear programs. In 1976, the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was given
the responsibility of setting radiation protection
standards for nuclear wastes. The next year, the
ERDA was replaced by a new cabinet-level agency,
the DOE. The new department was also given
responsibility for nuclear weapons programs.
Given these organizational changes, it is perhaps
not surprising that the executive branch of the
federal government made little progress in formulat-
ing a coherent policy for nuclear waste management
during the 1970s. Congress has repeatedly stepped in
and formulated policies for waste disposal. Some of
the major pieces of legislation include the following:
 The Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Act of
1980 requires each state to be responsible for
disposing of LLW generated within its borders, either
by providing a suitable disposal site or by entering
into compacts with other states to develop a shared
site. The disposal sites were to be in operation by
1986.
 The Nuclear Waste Policy Act (NWPA) of 1982
created the Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste
Management in the DOE and gave it the responsi-
bility for developing a system to manage SNF and
HLW. The act also directed the secretary of energy to
nominate five sites for study as possible SNF/HLW
repositories. Based on these initial studies, the
secretary was to recommend (by January 1, 1985)
three of the five sites for intensive study. Finally,
one site was to be recommended by March 31, 1987.
The goal was to have the first repository in operation
by 1998.
 The Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy
Amendments Act (LLRWPAA) of 1985 was crafted
to address difficulties arising out of the Low-Level
Waste Policy Act of 1980. The formation of state
compacts and the development of disposal facilities
had taken longer than was expected. The LLRWPAA
kept open the three existing commercial disposal
sites and set regulations for the disposal of LLW.
 The Nuclear Waste Policy Amendments Act of
1987 specified that Yucca Mountain be the sole site
for study as an HLW repository instead of having
three site studies proceeding in parallel. The amend-
ment also canceled the requirement from the NWPA
of 1982 that a second repository be created. The
selection of Yucca Mountain was a political decision,
not a scientific or technical one; local opposition to
other sites made them less attractive politically.
 The Waste Isolation Pilot Plant Land With-
drawal Act of 1992 transferred control of the WIPP
site from the Department of Interior to the DOE. The
act also gave the EPA responsibility for ensuring
compliance with environmental regulations.
 The Energy Policy Act of 1992 was a large and
comprehensive piece of legislation covering a broad
range of energy policy issues, including energy
efficiency and conservation, integrated resource
planning, alternative fuels, and competitive restruc-
turing of wholesale electricity markets. The act
required that the EPA set standards for the Yucca
Mountain repository based on recommendations by
the National Academy of Sciences. The NRC was to
assume long-term responsibility for the repository.
8.2 Low-Level Waste Repositories
Six commercial LLW disposal sites have been created
in the United States: Barnwell, North Carolina;
Beatty, Nevada; Richland, Washington; Maxey Flats,
Kentucky; Sheffield, Illinois; and West Valley, New
York. All of these sites have used some form of SLB.
Because of leaks, the latter three sites have been
closed.
Low-level military wastes have been stored at a
number of sites around the country, including
Amarillo, Texas; Hanford, Washington; the Idaho
National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory;

Los Alamos, New Mexico; Paducah, Kentucky; and
Savannah River, South Carolina.
8.3 Waste Isolation Pilot Plant
The WIPP is an underground waste repository
located in bedded salt formations in southeastern
New Mexico, approximately 40 km (25 miles) east of
Carlsbad. The WIPP repository was created for the
permanent disposal of TRUW resulting from nuclear
weapons production. It is the first deep geological
repository designed specifically for long-term dis-
posal of nuclear waste.
The waste destined for the WIPP site consists of a
variety of materials contaminated with transuranic
isotopes, including items such as protective clothing,
laboratory equipment, used reagents, and solidified
sludge. The principal radionuclides are plutonium,
americium, and neptunium; small amounts of thor-
ium, uranium, and other nuclides may also be
present. Although the overall radioactivity of TRUW
is much lower than that of SNF and other high-level
waste, TRUW contains long-lived radionuclides that
remain hazardous for thousands of years.
The WIPP repository is located in the 240 million-
year-old salt beds of the Permian Salado Formation.
The salt beds are the remains of a shallow saltwater
sea that once covered what is now west Texas and
southeastern New Mexico. The Salado Formation is
200 to 400 m thick, consisting mostly of halite (rock
salt) containing thin layers (0.1–1.0 m thick) of
nonhalite materials such as anhydrite (calcium
sulfate) and potash.
The WIPP repository is situated 658 m (2160 feet)
below the surface. It comprises a network of
excavations connected to the surface by four vertical
shafts: a salt-handling shaft, a TRUW shaft, an air
intake shaft, and an air exhaust shaft. Underground
roadways called drifts lead from the shafts to the
waste disposal areas. TRUW is placed in rectangular
rooms that are 4 m high, 10 m wide, and 91 m long.
Adjacent rooms are separated by pillars of unexca-
vated salt that are 31.5 m wide. A group of seven
rooms is called a panel. A total of eight panels are
planned, but only one had been excavated by the
time the first shipment of waste arrived in 1999.
Other tunnels and rooms have been excavated for
various scientific experiments.
8.4 Yucca Mountain
The Yucca Mountain repository is located in the
Mojave Desert of southern Nevada, approximately
Nuclear Waste 461
120 km (75 miles) northwest of Las Vegas. The repo-
sitory is intended for the permanent disposal of SNF
and HLW from both civilian and defense sources.
As planned, the Yucca Mountain repository will
hold SNF that is currently kept in 131 temporary
storage facilities in the United States. By 2002, these
sites contained some 45,000 metric tons of SNF from
commercial reactors and 2500 metric tons from
defense reactors. Another 380,000 m3 of liquid HLW
from nuclear weapons production was stored at sites
operated by the DOE; this waste is to be stabilized in
the form of borosilicate glass.
Yucca Mountain is composed of tuff, a material
formed from volcanic ash and dust. Some of the tuff
is welded, meaning that the fine glassy particles of
the tuff have been fused together by natural heat and
pressure. The repository would be sited at a depth of
approximately 350 m in a layer of welded tuff known
as the Topapah Spring Member. Above and below
the repository are layers of nonwelded tuffs that
contain few fractures.
Yucca Mountain is located in an arid region,
where the mean precipitation is less than 20 cm per
year and an estimated 95% of the water runs off or
evaporates before it can seep into the ground. The
water table lies approximately 300 m (1000 feet)
below the level of the repository. Ground water tends
to flow to the south toward the Amargosa Desert,
which lies in an isolated hydrological basin having no
outlet to the ocean.
In July 2002, the U.S. Congress voted in favor of a
resolution recommending that Yucca Mountain be
considered for development as a permanent reposi-
tory. At that time, no final design for the repository
had been adopted, but two cases were being
considered.
The base or statutory case would provide an
eventual storage capacity of 70,000 metric tons of
heavy metal (MTHM). The base case repository
would store waste containers in 58 tunnels called
emplacement drifts, each 5.5 m (18 feet) in diameter.
The emplacement drifts would be spaced 81 m (266
feet) apart, and their total length would be 56,222 m
(184,455 feet). An additional 12,988 m (42,612 feet)
of excavations would be created for access to the
repository, with another 6542 m (21,463 feet) of
excavations being created for the exhaust main.
The full inventory case would have a capacity of
97,000 MTHM. It would consist of 90 emplacement
drifts having a total length of 74,214 m (243,484
feet). The design could be expanded to accommodate
as much as 119,000 MTHM if such expansion ever
becomes necessary.
462 Nuclear Waste
9. RADIOACTIVE WASTE
MANAGEMENT IN FRANCE
France has the second largest civilian nuclear
program in the world, with 59 reactors in operation.
In 2000, French nuclear plants had a total capacity of
63.2 GW and produced 76% of the country’s power,
a higher percentage than in any other country.
9.1 Low- and Intermediate-Level Wastes
Disposal of nuclear waste is the responsibility of
ANDRA (Agence Nationale pour la Gestion des
Déchets Radioactifs). Waste is classified according to
half-life as well as activity. Waste having half-life less
than 30 years is designated as ‘‘short-lived’’ (SL), and
waste having half-life greater than 30 years is
designated as ‘‘long-lived’’ (LL). Four activity levels
are defined: very low-level waste (VLLW), low-level
waste (LLW), intermediate-level waste (ILW), and
high-level waste (HLW).
The Centre de la Manche Disposal Facility,
located near Cherbourg in Normandy, operated from
1969 to 1994 as a disposal site for LLW and ILW.
Initially, waste was placed in simple trenches. Over
the years, the EMCB concept was developed. The la
Manche facility holds nearly 530,000 m3 of waste
and is no longer accepting waste shipments.
In 1992, the Centre de l’Aube Disposal Facility
near Troyes began accepting low- and intermediate-
level waste (LILW-SL). The Centre de l’Aube has a
capacity of 1 million m3, expandable to 2 million m3.
9.2 Management of Spent Nuclear Fuel
SNF is kept in storage ponds for a year to allow its
radioactivity to decline to safe levels, after which it is
transported to a reprocessing plant.
France has reprocessed its own nuclear fuel since
1958 and has provided reprocessing services for
Belgium, Germany, Japan, The Netherlands, and
Switzerland. The French nuclear fuel company
COGEMA (Compagnie Générale des Matiéres Nu-
cléaires) currently operates two reprocessing plants
at La Hague, west of Cherbourg in Normandy.
9.3 High-Level Wastes
HLW from reprocessing is vitrified at the reproces-
sing plant in La Hague. Vitrified HLW from French
sources is currently stored at La Hague awaiting
disposal. Vitrified HLW from foreign sources is
returned to the countries of origin.
Since 1991, ANDRA and CEA (Commissariat à
l’Energie Atomique) have been studying several
options for long-lived radioactive waste, including
deep geological disposal in clay or granite. A decision
to begin construction on a deep repository could be
made as early as 2006.
10. RADIOACTIVE WASTE
MANAGEMENT IN JAPAN
Japan operates 53 nuclear power plants, giving it the
third-largest civilian nuclear program. In 2000,
Japan’s nuclear plants had a total capacity of
43.5 GW, producing about a third of the country’s
electrical power.
10.1 Low-Level Wastes
Since 1992, Japan has operated the Low-Level Waste
Disposal Centre at Rokkasho at the northern end of
Honshu Island. The BGV is the preferred method of
disposal. Ultimately, the facility at Rokkasho will
hold 600,000 m3 of waste.
10.2 Management of Spent Nuclear Fuel
SNF is stored in cooling ponds for 4 years or longer
before being sent on for reprocessing.
Since 1977, Japan has operated a small reproces-
sing plant at Tokai Mura for SNF; however, most
SNF is shipped to France or Great Britain for
reprocessing. Japan is constructing its own reproces-
sing plant at the Rokkasho nuclear complex. It is
expected to begin full-scale operations in 2005.
10.3 High-Level Wastes
Vitrified nuclear wastes are returned to Japan from
the reprocessor. High-level vitrified wastes are sent to
the High-Level Radioactive Waste Storage Facility at
Rokkasho to be stored for 30 to 50 years.
In 2000, the Nuclear Waste Management Orga-
nization (NUMO) was created to develop a dis-
posal repository in granite or sedimentary rock.
Construction of the repository is expected to begin
around 2030.

SEE ALSO THE
FOLLOWING ARTICLES
Nuclear Engineering  Nuclear Fuel: Design and
Fabrication  Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing  Nuclear
Fusion Reactors  Nuclear Power, History of 
Nuclear Power Plants, Decommissioning of  Nucle-
ar Power: Risk Analysis  Nuclear Proliferation and
Diversion  Occupational Health Risks in Nuclear
Power  Public Reaction to Nuclear Power Siting and
Disposal  Radiation, Risks and Health Impacts of
Nuclear Waste 463
Further Reading
Bodansky, D. (1996). ‘‘Nuclear Energy: Principles, Practices,
and Prospects.’’ American Institute of Physics, Woodbury,
NY.
Murray, R. L. (1994). ‘‘Understanding Radioactive Waste.’’ 4th ed.
Battelle Press, Columbus, OH.
National Research Council. (1996). ‘‘The Waste Isolation
Pilot Plant: A Potential Solution for the Disposal of
Transuranic Waste.’’ National Academy Press, Washington,
DC.
Wilson, P. D. (ed.). (1996). ‘‘The Nuclear Fuel Cycle: From Ore to
Waste.’’ Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.