What is communication?

Communication (from the Latin term “communis” which means to share and inform ideas, feelings, etc.) is
the act of transmitting intended meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of mutually
understood signs and semiotic rules.
The different categories of communication include:
Spoken or Verbal Communication: face-to-face, telephone, radio or television and other media.
Non-Verbal Communication: body language, gestures, how we dress or act – even our scent.
Written Communication: letters, e-mails, books, magazines, the Internet or via other media.
Visualizations: graphs and charts, maps, logos and other visualizations can communicate messages.
THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION
October 14, 2016

The basic steps of communication are:

1. The forming of communicative intent– (the speaker generates an idea)

2. Message encoding– (the speaker encodes an idea or converts the idea into words or actions)
3. Transmissionof the encoded message as a sequence of signals using a specific channel or medium– (the speaker
transmits or sends out a message)
4. Receptionof signals-(the receiver gets the message)
5. Reconstructionof the original message
6. Interpretationand making sense of the reconstructed message- (the receiver decodes or interprets the message
based on the context)
7. The receiver sends or provides feedback.

COMMUNICATION MODELS
1. Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication
The first major model for communication was introduced by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell
Laboratories in 1949. The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone
technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender, channel, and receiver. The sender was the
part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the
phone where one could hear the other person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that
interferes with one listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise.
Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following elements:

1. An information source, which produces a message.

2. A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
3. A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission
4. A noise source, which distorts the signal while it propagates through the channel
5. A receiver, which ‘decodes’ (reconstructs) the message from the signal.
6. A destination, where the message arrives.

2. The Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model

In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear model of communication and created the
SMCR Model of Communication. The Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication separated the
model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are
communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through
which medium), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schram (1954) also
indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on the target
of the message. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice
and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of
communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content
 and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being,
another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
1. Speaker- the source of information or message
2. Message- the information, ideas, or thoughts conveyed by the speaker in words or in actions
3. Encoding- the process of converting the message into words, actions, or other forms that the speaker understands
4. Decoding- the process of interpreting the encoded message of the speaker by the receiver
5. Receiver- the recipient of the message, or someone who decodes the message
6. Barrier- the factors that affect the flow of communication
7. Channel (Medium). It refers to the way the message is sent. In public speaking the medium is vibrations in the air
between speaker and listener, set in motion by the speaker’s voice. The message could also be written in any
language, put into some code known to both speaker and listener, tape-recorded or videotaped, put into sign
language, translated into Braille, or even sent by smoke signal.
8. It includes all messages, verbal or nonverbal, sent by the listener to the speaker.
9. (1) the occasion during which communication occurs, the occasion refers to the reason why people assembled; it
could be serious or festive, planned or spontaneous, relaxed and informal, traditional or formal and (2) the
physical setting or site where communication occurs; it includes the size of the room, the number of audience, the
facilities present, the light etc.
10. These are barriers to effective communication.
 The use of jargon. Over-complicated, unfamiliar and/or technical terms.
 Emotional barriers and taboos. Some people may find it difficult to express their emotions and some topics may
be completely ‘off-limits’ or taboo.
 Lack of attention, interest, distractions, or irrelevance to the receiver.
 Differences in perception and viewpoint.
 Physical disabilities such as hearing problems or speech difficulties.
 Physical barriers to non-verbal communication. Not being able to see the non-verbal cues, gestures, posture and
general body language can make communication less effective.
 Language differences and the difficulty in understanding unfamiliar accents.
 Expectations and prejudices which may lead to false assumptions or stereotyping. People often hear what they
expect to hear rather than what is actually said and jump to incorrect conclusions.
 Cultural differences. The norms of social interaction vary greatly in different cultures, as do the way in which
emotions are expressed. For example, the concept of personal space varies between cultures and between
different social settings.

VERBAL & NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Verbal communication consist of messages being sent and received continuously with the speaker and the listener, it
is focused on the way messages are portrayed. Verbal communication is based on language and use of expression,
the tone in which the sender of the message relays the communication can determine how the message is received
and in what context.

Factors that affect verbal communication:

 Tone of voice
 Use of descriptive words
 Emphasis on certain phrases
 Volume of voice
The way a message is received is dependent on these factors as they give a greater interpretation for the receiver
as to what is meant by the message. By emphasizing a certain phrase with the tone of voice, this indicates that it is
important and should be focused more on.
Along with these attributes, verbal communication is also accompanied with non-verbal cues. These cues make the
message clearer and give the listener an indication of what way the information should be received.
Example of non-verbal cues
 Facial expressions
 Hand gestures
 Use of objects
 Body movement
In terms of intercultural communication there are language barriers which are affected by verbal forms of
communication. In this instance there is opportunity for miscommunication between two or more parties. Other
barriers that contribute to miscommunication would be the type of words chosen in conversation.

EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Features of an Effective Communication

In their pioneer book Effective Public Relations, Professors Broom, Cutlip, and Center (2012) list the 7 Cs of
Effective Communication. The list is widely used today, especially in public relations and advertising.
 Completeness
Complete communication is essential to the quality of the communication process in general. Hence,
communication should include everything that the receiver needs to hear for him/her to respond, react, or
evaluate properly.
Conciseness
Conciseness does not mean keeping the message short but makint it direct or straight to the point. Insignificant or
redundant information should be eliminated from the communication that will be sent to the recipient.
Consideration
To be effective, the speaker should always consider relevant information about his/her receiver such as mood,
background, race, preference, education, status, needs, among others. By doing so, he/she can easily build rapport
with the audience.
Concreteness
Effective communication happens when the message is concrete and supported by facts, figures, and real-life
examples and situations. In this case, the receiver is more connected to the message conveyed.
Courtesy
The speaker shows courtesy in communication be respecting the culture, values, and beliefs of his/her receivers.
Being courteous all the time creates a positive impact on the audience.
Clearness
Clearness in communication implies the use of simple and specific words to express ideas. It is also achieved when
the speaker focuses only on a single objectives in his/her speech so as not to confuse the audience.
Correctness
Correctness in grammar eliminates negative impact on the audience and increases the credibility and effectiveness
of the message.
FIVE ELEMENTS OF EFF ECTIVE COMMUNICATION:

1. APPROACH
Timing of communication; choice of medium; tone and point of view (perspective, attitude, and relationship
regarding audience, purpose, and material); recognition of audience (reader vs. writer orientation); direct vs.
indirect presentation (ordering of evidence and conclusions); persuasive strategies and rhetorical appeals (logos,
pathos, ethos)
Checkpoints:
□Timing and choice of medium are appropriate to the purpose, audience, and material.
□Tone is appropriate to the purpose, audience, and material.
□Material is made relevant to the reader (reader’s interests and concerns are recognized).
□Conclusions are presented directly (conclusion first, evidence last) to a sympathetic audience, indirectly (evidence
first, conclusion last) to an unsympathetic or hostile audience.
□Persuasive strategy incorporates a mixture of rhetorical approaches (appeals to logic, feelings, and ethics or
credibility).
2. DEVELOPMENT
Organization (logical arrangement and sequence); evidence and support (relevance, specificity, accuracy and
sufficiency of detail); knowledge of subject and material; quality of perception, analysis, and insight
Checkpoints:
□Material is arranged in a logical and coherent sequence.
□Conclusion or closing restates the argument and identifies the action to be taken.
□Examples are relevant, specific, detailed, sufficient, and persuasive.
□Quotations support the argument.
□Handling of material demonstrates knowledge and insight.
3. CLARITY
Presentation of thesis or central argument (statement of purpose, delineation or narrowing of topic, relevance of
subordinate or secondary arguments); word choice; technical language and jargon; structure (sentence, paragraph,
document); coherence devices (organizational statement, repetition of words and phrases, progression from
familiar to unfamiliar, topic and transitional sentences); textual markers (headings, highlighting, formatting
features)
Checkpoints:
□Purpose or central idea is sufficiently limited for meaningful discussion.
□Purpose or central idea is stated clearly, usually in the opening.
□Organizational statement is offered, usually at the end of the opening.
□Subordinate ideas are effectively identified and related clearly to the main purpose or central idea.
□Language is clear, specific, accurate, and appropriate to the audience, purpose, and material.
□Word choice is clear, specific, accurate, unassuming, and free of clichés and misused jargon.
□Technical language and terms are defined and explained as needed (depending on knowledge of the audience).
□Sentences are free of ambiguity.
□Text is coherent, with new information linked to previously discussed information (ordered within sentences as
“something old/something new”).
 □Transitions between paragraphs are clear and helpful.
□Text is appropriately highlighted (bullets, paragraphing, boldface, italics, underlining, etc.) to engage the reader
and reinforce the main points.
4. STYLE
Word choice (economy, precision, and specificity of language and detail; abstract vs. concrete language; action
verbs vs. linking or weak verbs with nominalizations; figures of speech: schemes and tropes); tone (personality and
humor); active vs. passive voice; sentence variety
Checkpoints:
□Word choice is economical, clear, specific, accurate, unassuming, and free of clichés and misused jargon.
□Action verbs are preferred over weak verbs with nominalizations (as in recommend over make a
recommendation).
□Language is appropriately concrete or abstract (signifying or not signifying things that can be perceived by the
senses).
□Figurative language (metaphors and similes, as well as other tropes and schemes) enrich and deepen the
argument.
□Active voice is preferred over passive voice (active voice is used to emphasize the performer of the action;
passive voice is used to emphasize the receiver of the action).
□Sentences are free of wordiness and unnecessarily complex constructions.
□Variety in sentence structure and sentence length creates emphasis.
□Author’s values, personality and – when appropriate – humor are conveyed in a way that reinforces the message.
5. CORRECTNESS
Rules and conventions of spelling, grammar, punctuation, usage, and idiom; style (appropriateness of word choice
and level of formality to audience, purpose, and material); social and cultural appropriateness; accuracy in
proofreading
Checkpoints:
□Spelling (including technical terms and proper names) is correct.
□Correct words are used to convey the intended meaning.
□Rules of grammar and syntax are followed, including pronoun-noun agreement, subject-verb agreement,
appropriate verb tense, pronoun case, possessive forms, parallel construction, etc.
□Punctuation (particularly comma placement) reflects standard usage.
□Copy is free of mechanical errors and lapses in proofreading.
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Intercultural communication is a form of communication that aims to share information across different cultures
and social groups. It is used to describe the wide range of communication processes and problems that naturally
appear within an organization or social context made up of individuals from different religious, social, ethnic, and
educational backgrounds. Intercultural communication is sometimes used synonymously with cross-cultural
communication. In this sense it seeks to understand how people from different countries
and cultures act, communicate and perceive the world around them. Many people in intercultural business
communication argue that culture determines how individuals encode messages, what medium they choose for
transmitting them, and the way messages are interpreted.
With regard to intercultural communication proper, it studies situations where people from different cultural
backgrounds interact. Aside from language, intercultural communication focuses on social attributes, thought
patterns, and the cultures of different groups of people. It also involves understanding the different cultures,
languages and customs of people from other countries.
PROBLEMS

The problems in intercultural communication usually come from problems in message transmission. In
communication between people of the same culture, the person who receives the message interprets it based on
values, beliefs, and expectations for behavior similar to those of the person who sent the message. When this
happens, the way the message is interpreted by the receiver is likely to be fairly similar to what the speaker intended.
However, when the receiver of the message is a person from a different culture, the receiver uses information from
his or her culture to interpret the message. The message that the receiver interprets may be very different from what
the speaker intended.

Attribution is the process in which people look for an explanation of another person’s behavior. When someone does
not understand another, he/she usually blames the confusion on the other’s “stupidity, deceit, or craziness”.

Effective communication depends on the informal understandings among the parties involved that are based on the
trust developed between them. When trust exists, there is implicit understanding within communication, cultural
differences may be overlooked, and problems can be dealt with more easily. The meaning of trust and how it is
developed and communicated vary across societies. Similarly, some cultures have a greater propensity to be trusting
than others.
 Nonverbal communication is behavior that communicates without words—though it often may be accompanied by
words. Minor variations in body language, speech rhythms, and punctuality often cause mistrust and misperception
of the situation among cross-cultural parties.

Kinesic behavior is communication through body movement—e.g., posture, gestures, facial expressions and eye
contact. The meaning of such behavior varies across countries.
Occulesics are a form of kinesics that includes eye contact and the use of the eyes to convey messages.
Proxemics concern the influence of proximity and space on communication (e.g., in terms of personal space and in
terms of office layout). For example, space communicates power in the US and Germany.
Paralanguage refers to how something is said, rather than the content of what is said—e.g., rate of speech, tone and
inflection of voice, other noises, laughing, yawning, and silence.
Object language or material culture refers to how we communicate through material artifacts—e.g., architecture,
office design and furniture, clothing, cars, cosmetics, and time. In monochronic cultures, time is experienced linearly
and as something to be spent, saved, made up, or wasted. Time orders life and people tend to concentrate on one
thing at a time. In polychronic cultures, people tolerate many things happening simultaneously and emphasize
involvement with people. In these cultures, people may be highly distractible, focus on several things at once, and
change plans often.
MANAGEMENT

Important points to consider:

 Develop cultural sensitivity

 Anticipate the meaning the receiver will get.
 Careful encoding
 Use words, pictures, and gestures.
 Avoid slang, idioms, regional sayings.
 Selective transmission
 Build relationships, face-to-face if possible.
 Careful decoding of feedback
 Get feedback from multiple parties.
 Improve listening and observation skills.
 Follow-up actions

BASIC TOOLS FOR IMPROVEMENT

The following are ways to improve communication competence:

 Display of interest: showing respect and positive regard for the other person.
 Orientation to knowledge: Terms people use to explain themselves and their perception of the world.
 Empathy: Behaving in ways that shows you understand the world as others do.
 interaction management: A skill in which you regulate conversations.
 Task role behaviour: initiate ideas that encourage problem solving activities.
 Relational role behaviour: interpersonal harmony and mediation.
 Tolerance for ambiguity: The ability to react to new situations with little discomfort.
 Interaction posture: Responding to others in descriptive, non-judgemental ways..
IMPORTANT FACTORS

 Proficiency in the host culture language: understanding the grammar and vocabulary.
 Understanding language pragmatics: how to use politeness strategies in making requests and how to avoid giving
out too much information.
 Being sensitive and aware to nonverbal communication patterns in other cultures.
 Being aware of gestures that may be offensive or mean something different in a host culture rather than your own
home culture.
 Understanding a culture’s proximity in physical space and paralinguistic sounds to convey their intended
meaning.
TRAITS

 Tolerating high levels of uncertainty.

 Open-mindedness.
 Engaging in divergent and systems-level thinking.