Maurya Empire

This article has multiple issues. Please help

improve it or discuss these issues on the talk more
Learn

The Maurya Empire was a geographically-

extensive Iron Age historical power based
in Magadha and founded by Chandragupta
Maurya which dominated the Indian
subcontinent between 322 and 187 BCE.
Comprising the majority of South Asia, the
Maurya Empire was centralized by the
conquest of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, and
its capital city was located at Pataliputra
(modern Patna).[6][7] The empire was the
largest political entity to have existed in
the Indian subcontinent, spanning over
5 million square kilometres (1.9 million
square miles) at its zenith under Ashoka[8].
 Maurya Empire
Jambudvīpa, Pṛthvī[1]
322 BCE–185 BCE

The maximum extent of the Maurya Empire, as

shown in many modern maps.
See also this alternative map.[2]
Capital Pataliputra
(Present-day Patna,
Bihar)

Common languages Sanskrit, Magadhi

Prakrit

Religion Buddhism
 Jainism, Ajivika,
Hinduism

Government Absolute monarchy, as

described in
Chanakya's
Arthashastra

Emperor  

• 322–298 BCE Chandragupta

• 298–272 BCE Bindusara

• 268–232 BCE Ashoka

• 232–224 BCE Dasharatha

• 224–215 BCE Samprati

• 215–202 BCE Shalishuka

• 202–195 BCE Devavarman

• 195–187 BCE Shatadhanvan
• 187–180 BCE Brihadratha

Historical era Iron Age

• Conquest of the 322 BCE

Nanda Empire

• Assassination of 185 BCE
Brihadratha by
Pushyamitra
Shunga

Area

261 BCE[3] 3,400,000 km2

(1,300,000 sq mi)

250 BCE[4] 5,000,000 km2

(1,900,000 sq mi)

Population

• 261 BCE[5] 50 million

Currency Panas

Preceded by Succeeded by
Nanda Empire Shunga Empire
Mahajanapada Satavahana dynasty
Magadha Mahameghavahana
Pauravas dynasty
Taxila Indo-Scythians

Chandragupta Maurya raised an army, with

the assistance of Chanakya (also known
as Kauṭilya),[9] and overthrew the Nanda
Empire in c. 322 BCE. Chandragupta
rapidly expanded his power westwards
across central and western India by
conquering the satraps left by Alexander
the Great, and by 317 BCE the empire had
fully occupied northwestern India.[10] The
Mauryan Empire then defeated Seleucus I,
a diadochus and founder of the Seleucid
Empire during the Seleucid–Mauryan war,
thus acquiring territory west of the Indus
River.[11][12]

At its greatest extent, the empire stretched

along the natural boundary of the
Himalayas, to the east into Assam, to the
west into Balochistan (southwest Pakistan
and southeast Iran) and the Hindu Kush
mountains of what is now eastern
Afghanistan.[13] The dynasty expanded
into India's southern regions[14][15] by the
reign of the emperors Pushkar and
Bindusara, but it excluded Kalinga (modern
Odisha), until it was conquered by
Ashoka.[16] It declined for about 50 years
after Ashoka's rule, and dissolved in
185 BCE with the foundation of the
Shunga dynasty in Magadha.

Under Chandragupta Maurya and his

successors, internal and external trade,
agriculture, and economic activities all
thrived and expanded across South Asia
due to the creation of a single and efficient
system of finance, administration, and
security. The Maurya dynasty built the
Grand Trunk Road, one of Asia's oldest and
longest trade networks, connecting the
Indian subcontinent with Central Asia.[17]
After the Kalinga War, the Empire
experienced nearly half a century of
centralized rule under Ashoka.
Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of
Jainism increased socio-religious reform
across South Asia, while Ashoka's
embrace of Buddhism and sponsorship of
Buddhist missionaries allowed for the
expansion of that faith into Sri Lanka,
northwest India, Central Asia, Southeast
Asia, Egypt, and Hellenistic Europe.[18]

The population of the empire has been

estimated to be about 50–60 million,
making the Mauryan Empire one of the
most populous empires of antiquity.[19][20]
Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan
rule in South Asia falls into the era of
Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW).
The Arthashastra[21] and the Edicts of
Ashoka are the primary sources of written
records of Mauryan times. The Lion
Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath is the
national emblem of the modern Republic
of India.

Etymology
The name "Maurya" does not occur in
Ashoka's inscriptions, or the contemporary
Greek accounts such as Megasthenes's
Indica, but it is attested by the following
sources:[22]

The Junagadh rock inscription of

Rudradaman (c. 150 CE) prefixes
"Maurya" to the names Chandragupta
and Ashoka.[22]
The Puranas (c. 4th century CE or
earlier) use Maurya as a dynastic
appellation.[22]
The Buddhist texts state that
Chandragupta belonged to the "Moriya"
clan of the Shakyas, the tribe to which
Gautama Buddha belonged.[22]
The Jain texts state that Chandragupta
was the son of a royal superintendent of
 peacocks (mayura-poshaka).[22]

According to the Buddhist tradition, the

ancestors of the Maurya kings had settled
in a region where peacocks (mora in Pali)
were abundant. Therefore, they came to be
known as "Moriyas", literally, "belonging to
the place of peacocks". According to
another Buddhist account, these ancestors
built a city called Moriya-nagara ("Moriya-
city"), which was so called, because it was
built with the "bricks coloured like
peacocks' necks".[23]

The dynasty's connection to the peacocks,

as mentioned in the Buddhist and Jain
traditions, seems to be corroborated by
archaeological evidence. For example,
peacock figures are found on the Ashoka
pillar at Nandangarh and several
sculptures on the Great Stupa of Sanchi.
Based on this eviedence, modern scholars
theorize that the peacock may have been
the dynasty's emblem.[24]

Some later authors, such as Dhundiraja (a

commentator on the Mudrarakshasa) and
an annotator of the Vishnu Purana,state
that the word "Maurya" is derived from
Mura, the name of the wife of a Nanda
king and the mother (or grandmother) of
the first Maurya king. However, the
Puranas themselves make no mention of
Mura and do not talk of any relation
between the Nanda and the Maurya
dynasties.[25] Dhundiraja's derivation of the
word seems to be his own invention:
according to the Sanskrit rules, the
derivative of the feminine name Mura
(IAST: Murā) would be "Maureya"; the term
"Maurya" can only be derived from the
masculine "Mura".[26]

History
Chandragupta Maurya and
Chanakya

The Maurya Empire was founded by

Chandragupta Maurya, with help from
Chanakya, at Takshashila, a noted center
of learning. According to several legends,
Chanakya travelled to Magadha, a
kingdom that was large and militarily
powerful and feared by its neighbours, but
was insulted by its king Dhana Nanda, of
the Nanda dynasty. Chanakya swore
revenge and vowed to destroy the Nanda
Empire.[27] Meanwhile, the conquering
armies of Alexander the Great refused to
cross the Beas River and advance further
eastward, deterred by the prospect of
battling Magadha. Alexander returned to
Babylon and re-deployed most of his
troops west of the Indus River. Soon after
Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BCE, his
empire fragmented into independent
kingdoms led by his generals.[28]

The Greek generals Eudemus and Peithon

ruled in the Indus Valley until around
317 BCE, when Chandragupta Maurya
(with the help of Chanakya, who was now
his advisor) orchestrated a rebellion to
drive out the Greek governors, and
subsequently brought the Indus Valley
under the control of his new seat of power
in Magadha.[10]

Chandragupta Maurya's rise to power is

shrouded in mystery and controversy. On
one hand, a number of ancient Indian
accounts, such as the drama
Mudrarakshasa (Signet ring of Rakshasa –
Rakshasa was the prime minister of
Magadha) by Vishakhadatta, describe his
royal ancestry and even link him with the
Nanda family. A kshatriya clan known as
the Maurya's are referred to in the earliest
Buddhist texts, Mahaparinibbana Sutta.
However, any conclusions are hard to
make without further historical evidence.
Chandragupta first emerges in Greek
accounts as "Sandrokottos". As a young
man he is said to have met Alexander.[29]
He is also said to have met the Nanda
king, angered him, and made a narrow
escape.[30] Chanakya's original intentions
were to train army under Chandragupta's
command.

Conquest of Magadha
 Territorial evolution of the Mauryan Empire

Territory of Magadha and the Maurya Empire

between 600 and 180 BCE, including Chandragupta's
overthrow of the Nanda Empire (321 BCE) and gains
from the Seleucid Empire (303 BCE), the southward
expansion (before 273 BCE), and Ashoka's conquest
of Kalinga (261 BCE).[31]
 The same animation, modified in accordance with
Kulke and Rothermund (see right). Hermann Kulke
and Dietmar Rothermund believe that Ashoka's
empire did not include large parts of India, which
were controlled by autonomous tribes.[2]

Chanakya encouraged Chandragupta

Maurya and his army to take over the
throne of Magadha. Using his intelligence
network, Chandragupta gathered many
young men from across Magadha and
other provinces, men upset over the
corrupt and oppressive rule of king Dhana
Nanda, plus the resources necessary for
his army to fight a long series of battles.
These men included the former general of
Taxila, accomplished students of
Chanakya, the representative of King
Parvataka, his son Malayaketu, and the
rulers of small states. The Macedonians
(described as Yona or Yavana in Indian
sources) may then have participated,
together with other groups, in the armed
uprising of Chandragupta Maurya against
the Nanda dynasty.[32][33] The
Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well as
the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan talk of
Chandragupta's alliance with the
Himalayan king Parvataka, often identified
with Porus,[34][35] although this
identification is not accepted by all
historians.[36] This Himalayan alliance
gave Chandragupta a composite and
powerful army made up of Yavanas
(Greeks), Kambojas, Shakas (Scythians),
Kiratas (Himalayans), Parasikas (Persians)
and Bahlikas (Bactrians) who took
Pataliputra (also called Kusumapura, "The
City of Flowers"):[37]

"Kusumapura was besieged from every

direction by the forces of Parvata and
Chandragupta: Shakas, Yavanas, Kiratas,
Kambojas, Parasikas, Bahlikas and
 others, assembled on the advice of
Chanakya" in Mudrarakshasa 2 [38][37]

Preparing to invade Pataliputra, Maurya

came up with a strategy. A battle was
announced and the Magadhan army was
drawn from the city to a distant battlefield
to engage with Maurya's forces. Maurya's
general and spies meanwhile bribed the
corrupt general of Nanda. He also
managed to create an atmosphere of civil
war in the kingdom, which culminated in
the death of the heir to the throne.
Chanakya managed to win over popular
sentiment. Ultimately Nanda resigned,
handing power to Chandragupta, and went
into exile and was never heard of again.
Chanakya contacted the prime minister,
Rakshasas, and made him understand that
his loyalty was to Magadha, not to the
Nanda dynasty, insisting that he continue
in office. Chanakya also reiterated that
choosing to resist would start a war that
would severely affect Magadha and
destroy the city. Rakshasa accepted
Chanakya's reasoning, and Chandragupta
Maurya was legitimately installed as the
new King of Magadha. Rakshasa became
Chandragupta's chief advisor, and
Chanakya assumed the position of an
elder statesman.
Chandragupta Maurya

Pataliputra, capital of the Mauryas. Ruins of pillared

hall at Kumrahar site.

The Pataliputra capital, discovered at the Bulandi Bagh

site of Pataliputra, 4th-3rd c. BCE.
In 305 BCE, Chandragupta led a series of
campaigns to retake the satrapies left
behind by Alexander the Great when he
returned westwards, while Seleucus I
Nicator fought to defend these territories.
The two rulers concluded a peace treaty in
303 BCE, including a marital alliance.
Chandragupta snatched the satrapies of
Paropamisade (Kamboja and Gandhara),
Arachosia (Kandhahar) and Gedrosia
(Balochistan), and Seleucus I Nicator
received 500 war elephants that were to
have a decisive role in his victory against
western Hellenistic kings at the Battle of
Ipsus in 301 BCE. Diplomatic relations
were established and several Greeks, such
as the historian Megasthenes, Deimakos
and Dionysius resided at the Mauryan
court. Megasthenes in particular was a
notable Greek ambassador in the court of
Chandragupta Maurya.[39] According to
Arrian, ambassador Megasthenes (c.350–
c.290 BCE) lived in Arachosia and travelled
to Pataliputra.[40]

Chandragupta established a strong

centralized state with an administration at
Pataliputra, which, according to
Megasthenes, was "surrounded by a
wooden wall pierced by 64 gates and 570
towers". Aelian, although not expressly
quoting Megasthenes nor mentionning
Pataliputra, described Indian palaces as
superior in splendor to Persia's Susa or
Ectabana.[41] The architecture of the city
seems to have had many similarities with
Persian cities of the period.[42]

Chandragupta's son Bindusara extended

the rule of the Mauryan empire towards
southern India. The famous Tamil poet
Mamulanar of the Sangam literature
described how the Deccan Plateau was
invaded by the Maurya army.[43] He also
had a Greek ambassador at his court,
named Megasthenes.[44]
Megasthenes describes a disciplined
multitude under Chandragupta, who live
simply, honestly, and do not know writing:

The Indians all live frugally,

especially when in camp. They
dislike a great undisciplined
multitude, and consequently
they observe good order. Theft is
of very rare occurrence.
Megasthenes says that those
who were in the camp of
Sandrakottos, wherein lay
400,000 men, found that the
thefts reported on any one day
did not exceed the value of two
hundred drachmae, and this
among a people who have no
written laws, but are ignorant of
writing, and must therefore in
all the business of life trust to
memory. They live, nevertheless,
happily enough, being simple in
their manners and frugal. They
never drink wine except at
sacrifices. Their beverage is a
liquor composed from rice
 instead of barley, and their food
is principally a rice-pottage.

— Strabo XV. i. 53–56,

quoting Megasthenes.

Chandragupta renounced his throne and

followed Jain teacher
Bhadrabahu.[45][46][47] He is said to have
lived as an ascetic at Shravanabelagola for
several years before fasting to death, as
per the Jain practice of sallekhana.[48]

Bindusara
A silver coin of 1 karshapana of the Maurya empire,
period of Bindusara Maurya about 297-272 BC,
workshop of Pataliputra. Obv: Symbols with a Sun Rev:
Symbol Dimensions: 14 x 11 mm Weight: 3.4 g.

Bindusara was born to Chandragupta, the

founder of the Mauryan Empire. This is
attested by several sources, including the
various Puranas and the Mahavamsa.[49]
He is attested by the Buddhist texts such
as Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa
("Bindusaro"); the Jain texts such as
Parishishta-Parvan; as well as the Hindu
texts such as Vishnu Purana
("Vindusara").[50][51] According to the 12th
century Jain writer Hemachandra's
Parishishta-Parvan, the name of
Bindusara's mother was Durdhara.[52]
Some Greek sources also mention him by
the name "Amitrochates" or its
variations.[53][54]

Historian Upinder Singh estimates that

Bindusara ascended the throne around
297 BCE.[43] Bindusara, just 22 years old,
inherited a large empire that consisted of
what is now, Northern, Central and Eastern
parts of India along with parts of
Afghanistan and Baluchistan. Bindusara
extended this empire to the southern part
of India, as far as what is now known as
Karnataka. He brought sixteen states
under the Mauryan Empire and thus
conquered almost all of the Indian
peninsula (he is said to have conquered
the 'land between the two seas' – the
peninsular region between the Bay of
Bengal and the Arabian Sea). Bindusara
didn't conquer the friendly Tamil kingdoms
of the Cholas, ruled by King Ilamcetcenni,
the Pandyas, and Cheras. Apart from these
southern states, Kalinga (modern Odisha)
was the only kingdom in India that didn't
form the part of Bindusara's empire.[55] It
was later conquered by his son Ashoka,
who served as the viceroy of Ujjaini during
his father's reign, which highlights the
importance of the town.[56][57]

Bindusara's life has not been documented

as well as that of his father Chandragupta
or of his son Ashoka. Chanakya continued
to serve as prime minister during his reign.
According to the medieval Tibetan scholar
Taranatha who visited India, Chanakya
helped Bindusara "to destroy the nobles
and kings of the sixteen kingdoms and
thus to become absolute master of the
territory between the eastern and western
oceans."[58] During his rule, the citizens of
Taxila revolted twice. The reason for the
first revolt was the maladministration of
Susima, his eldest son. The reason for the
second revolt is unknown, but Bindusara
could not suppress it in his lifetime. It was
crushed by Ashoka after Bindusara's
death.[59]

Bindusara maintained friendly diplomatic

relations with the Hellenic World.
Deimachus was the ambassador of
Seleucid emperor Antiochus I at
Bindusara's court.[60] Diodorus states that
the king of Palibothra (Pataliputra, the
Mauryan capital) welcomed a Greek
author, Iambulus. This king is usually
identified as Bindusara.[60] Pliny states
that the Egyptian king Philadelphus sent
an envoy named Dionysius to India.[61][62]
According to Sailendra Nath Sen, this
appears to have happened during
Bindusara's reign.[60]

Unlike his father Chandragupta (who at a

later stage converted to Jainism),
Bindusara believed in the Ajivika sect.
Bindusara's guru Pingalavatsa (Janasana)
was a Brahmin[63] of the Ajivika sect.
Bindusara's wife, Queen Subhadrangi
(Queen Aggamahesi) was a Brahmin[64]
also of the Ajivika sect from Champa
(present Bhagalpur district). Bindusara is
credited with giving several grants to
Brahmin monasteries (Brahmana-
bhatto).[65]

Historical evidence suggests that

Bindusara died in the 270s BCE. According
to Upinder Singh, Bindusara died around
273 BCE.[43] Alain Daniélou believes that
he died around 274 BCE.[58] Sailendra Nath
Sen believes that he died around 273-272
BCE, and that his death was followed by a
four-year struggle of succession, after
which his son Ashoka became the
emperor in 269-268 BCE.[60] According to
the Mahavamsa, Bindusara reigned for 28
years.[66] The Vayu Purana, which names
Chandragupta's successor as
"Bhadrasara", states that he ruled for 25
years.[67]

Ashoka

Aśoka pillar at Sarnath. ca. 250 BCE.

Ashoka pillar at Vaishali.

Fragment of the 6th Pillar Edict of Ashoka (238 BCE), in

Brahmi, sandstone, British Museum.

As a young prince, Ashoka

(r. 272–232 BCE) was a brilliant
commander who crushed revolts in Ujjain
and Takshashila. As monarch he was
ambitious and aggressive, re-asserting the
Empire's superiority in southern and
western India. But it was his conquest of
Kalinga (262–261 BCE) which proved to be
the pivotal event of his life. Ashoka used
Kalinga to project power over a large
region by building a fortification there and
securing it as a possession.[68] Although
Ashoka's army succeeded in
overwhelming Kalinga forces of royal
soldiers and civilian units, an estimated
100,000 soldiers and civilians were killed
in the furious warfare, including over
10,000 of Ashoka's own men. Hundreds of
thousands of people were adversely
affected by the destruction and fallout of
war. When he personally witnessed the
devastation, Ashoka began feeling
remorse. Although the annexation of
Kalinga was completed, Ashoka embraced
the teachings of Buddhism, and renounced
war and violence. He sent out
missionaries to travel around Asia and
spread Buddhism to other
countries.Template:Cite book needed

Ashoka implemented principles of ahimsa

by banning hunting and violent sports
activity and ending indentured and forced
labor (many thousands of people in war-
ravaged Kalinga had been forced into hard
labour and servitude). While he maintained
a large and powerful army, to keep the
peace and maintain authority, Ashoka
expanded friendly relations with states
across Asia and Europe, and he sponsored
Buddhist missions. He undertook a
massive public works building campaign
across the country. Over 40 years of
peace, harmony and prosperity made
Ashoka one of the most successful and
famous monarchs in Indian history. He
remains an idealized figure of inspiration
in modern India.Template:Cite book
needed

The Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, are

found throughout the Subcontinent.
Ranging from as far west as Afghanistan
and as far south as Andhra (Nellore
District), Ashoka's edicts state his policies
and accomplishments. Although
predominantly written in Prakrit, two of
them were written in Greek, and one in
both Greek and Aramaic. Ashoka's edicts
refer to the Greeks, Kambojas, and
Gandharas as peoples forming a frontier
region of his empire. They also attest to
Ashoka's having sent envoys to the Greek
rulers in the West as far as the
Mediterranean. The edicts precisely name
each of the rulers of the Hellenic world at
the time such as Amtiyoko (Antiochus),
Tulamaya (Ptolemy), Amtikini (Antigonos),
Maka (Magas) and Alikasudaro
(Alexander) as recipients of Ashoka's
proselytism.Template:Cite book needed
The Edicts also accurately locate their
territory "600 yojanas away" (a yojanas
being about 7 miles), corresponding to the
distance between the center of India and
Greece (roughly 4,000 miles).[69]

Decline

Ashoka was followed for 50 years by a

succession of weaker kings. Brihadratha,
the last ruler of the Mauryan dynasty, held
territories that had shrunk considerably
from the time of emperor Ashoka.
Brihadratha was assassinated in 185 BCE
during a military parade by the Brahmin
general Pushyamitra Shunga, commander-
in-chief of his guard, who then took over
the throne and established the Shunga
dynasty.[70]

Shunga coup (185 BCE)

Buddhist records such as the

Ashokavadana write that the
assassination of Brihadratha and the rise
of the Shunga empire led to a wave of
religious persecution for Buddhists,[71] and
a resurgence of Hinduism. According to
Sir John Marshall,[72] Pushyamitra may
have been the main author of the
persecutions, although later Shunga kings
seem to have been more supportive of
Buddhism. Other historians, such as
Etienne Lamotte[73] and Romila Thapar,[74]
among others, have argued that
archaeological evidence in favour of the
allegations of persecution of Buddhists
are lacking, and that the extent and
magnitude of the atrocities have been
exaggerated.

Establishment of the Indo-Greek

Kingdom (180 BCE)

The fall of the Mauryas left the Khyber

Pass unguarded, and a wave of foreign
invasion followed. The Greco-Bactrian
king, Demetrius, capitalized on the break-
up, and he conquered southern
Afghanistan and parts of northwestern
India around 180 BCE, forming the Indo-
Greek Kingdom. The Indo-Greeks would
maintain holdings on the trans-Indus
region, and make forays into central India,
for about a century. Under them, Buddhism
flourished, and one of their kings,
Menander, became a famous figure of
Buddhism; he was to establish a new
capital of Sagala, the modern city of
Sialkot. However, the extent of their
domains and the lengths of their rule are
subject to much debate. Numismatic
evidence indicates that they retained
holdings in the subcontinent right up to the
birth of Christ. Although the extent of their
successes against indigenous powers
such as the Shungas, Satavahanas, and
Kalingas are unclear, what is clear is that
Scythian tribes, renamed Indo-Scythians,
brought about the demise of the Indo-
Greeks from around 70 BCE and retained
lands in the trans-Indus, the region of
Mathura, and Gujarat.Template:Cite book
needed

Administration
Statuettes of the Mauryan era

The Empire was divided into four

provinces, with the imperial capital at
Pataliputra. From Ashokan edicts, the
names of the four provincial capitals are
Tosali (in the east), Ujjain (in the west),
Suvarnagiri (in the south), and Taxila (in
the north). The head of the provincial
administration was the Kumara (royal
prince), who governed the provinces as
king's representative. The kumara was
assisted by Mahamatyas and council of
ministers. This organizational structure
was reflected at the imperial level with the
Emperor and his Mantriparishad (Council
of Ministers).Template:Cite book needed

Historians theorise that the organisation

of the Empire was in line with the
extensive bureaucracy described by
Kautilya in the Arthashastra: a
sophisticated civil service governed
everything from municipal hygiene to
international trade. The expansion and
defense of the empire was made possible
by what appears to have been one of the
largest armies in the world during the Iron
Age.[75] According to Megasthenes, the
empire wielded a military of 600,000
infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots and
9,000 war elephants besides followers and
attendants.[76] A vast espionage system
collected intelligence for both internal and
external security purposes. Having
renounced offensive warfare and
expansionism, Ashoka nevertheless
continued to maintain this large army, to
protect the Empire and instil stability and
peace across West and South
Asia.Template:Cite book needed

Economy
Maurya statuette, 2nd century BCE.

For the first time in South Asia, political

unity and military security allowed for a
common economic system and enhanced
trade and commerce, with increased
agricultural productivity. The previous
situation involving hundreds of kingdoms,
many small armies, powerful regional
chieftains, and internecine warfare, gave
way to a disciplined central authority.
Farmers were freed of tax and crop
collection burdens from regional kings,
paying instead to a nationally administered
and strict-but-fair system of taxation as
advised by the principles in the
Arthashastra. Chandragupta Maurya
established a single currency across India,
and a network of regional governors and
administrators and a civil service provided
justice and security for merchants,
farmers and traders. The Mauryan army
wiped out many gangs of bandits, regional
private armies, and powerful chieftains
who sought to impose their own
supremacy in small areas. Although
regimental in revenue collection, Maurya
also sponsored many public works and
waterways to enhance productivity, while
internal trade in India expanded greatly
due to new-found political unity and
internal peace.Template:Cite book needed

Under the Indo-Greek friendship treaty, and

during Ashoka's reign, an international
network of trade expanded. The Khyber
Pass, on the modern boundary of Pakistan
and Afghanistan, became a strategically
important port of trade and intercourse
with the outside world. Greek states and
Hellenic kingdoms in West Asia became
important trade partners of India. Trade
also extended through the Malay
peninsula into Southeast Asia. India's
exports included silk goods and textiles,
spices and exotic foods. The external
world came across new scientific
knowledge and technology with expanding
trade with the Mauryan Empire. Ashoka
also sponsored the construction of
thousands of roads, waterways, canals,
hospitals, rest-houses and other public
works. The easing of many over-rigorous
administrative practices, including those
regarding taxation and crop collection,
helped increase productivity and economic
activity across the Empire.Template:Cite
book needed
In many ways, the economic situation in
the Mauryan Empire is analogous to the
Roman Empire of several centuries later.
Both had extensive trade connections and
both had organizations similar to
corporations. While Rome had
organizational entities which were largely
used for public state-driven projects,
Mauryan India had numerous private
commercial entities. These existed purely
for private commerce and developed
before the Mauryan Empire itself.[77]
 Maurya Empire coinage

Hoard of mostly Mauryan coins.

Silver punch mark coin of the Maurya empire, with

symbols of wheel and elephant. 3rd century
BCE.Template:Cite book needed
 Mauryan coin with arched hill symbol on
reverse.Template:Cite book needed

Mauryan Empire coin. Circa late 4th-2nd century

BCE.Template:Cite book needed
 Mauryan Empire, Emperor Salisuka or later. Circa
207-194 BCE.[78]

Religion
Jainism

Bhadrabahu Cave, Shravanabelagola where

Chandragupta is said to have died
Chandragupta Maurya embraced Jainism
after retiring, when he renounced his
throne and material possessions to join a
wandering group of Jain monks.
Chandragupta was a disciple of the Jain
monk Acharya Bhadrabahu. It is said that
in his last days, he observed the rigorous
but self-purifying Jain ritual of santhara
(fast unto death), at Shravana Belgola in
Karnataka.[79][47][80][46] Samprati, the
grandson of Ashoka, also patronized
Jainism. Samprati was influenced by the
teachings of Jain monks like Suhastin and
he is said to have built 125,000 derasars
across India.[81] Some of them are still
found in the towns of Ahmedabad,
Viramgam, Ujjain, and Palitana. It is also
said that just like Ashoka, Samprati sent
messengers and preachers to Greece,
Persia and the Middle East for the spread
of Jainism, but, to date, no research has
been done in this area.[82][83]

Thus, Jainism became a vital force under

the Mauryan Rule. Chandragupta and
Samprati are credited for the spread of
Jainism in South India. Hundreds of
thousands of temples and stupas are said
to have been erected during their reigns.

Buddhism
The stupa, which contained the relics of Buddha, at the
center of the Sanchi complex was originally built by the
Maurya Empire, but the balustrade around it is Sunga,
and the decorative gateways are from the later
Satavahana period.

The Dharmarajika stupa in Taxila, modern Pakistan, is

also thought to have been established by Emperor
Asoka.
Magadha, the centre of the empire, was
also the birthplace of Buddhism. Ashoka
initially practised Hinduism but later
embraced Buddhism; following the Kalinga
War, he renounced expansionism and
aggression, and the harsher injunctions of
the Arthashastra on the use of force,
intensive policing, and ruthless measures
for tax collection and against rebels.
Ashoka sent a mission led by his son
Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta to Sri
Lanka, whose king Tissa was so charmed
with Buddhist ideals that he adopted them
himself and made Buddhism the state
religion. Ashoka sent many Buddhist
missions to West Asia, Greece and South
East Asia, and commissioned the
construction of monasteries and schools,
as well as the publication of Buddhist
literature across the empire. He is believed
to have built as many as 84,000 stupas
across India, such as Sanchi and
Mahabodhi Temple, and he increased the
popularity of Buddhism in Afghanistan,
Thailand and North Asia including Siberia.
Ashoka helped convene the Third Buddhist
Council of India's and South Asia's
Buddhist orders near his capital, a council
that undertook much work of reform and
expansion of the Buddhist religion. Indian
merchants embraced Buddhism and
played a large role in spreading the religion
across the Mauryan Empire.[84]

Architectural remains

Mauryan architecture in the Barabar Caves. Lomas

Rishi Cave. 3rd century BCE.

The greatest monument of this period,

executed in the reign of Chandragupta
Maurya, was the old palace at the site of
Kumhrar. Excavations at the site of
Kumhrar nearby have unearthed the
remains of the palace. The palace is
thought to have been an aggregate of
buildings, the most important of which
was an immense pillared hall supported
on a high substratum of timbers. The
pillars were set in regular rows, thus
dividing the hall into a number of smaller
square bays. The number of columns is
80, each about 7 meters high. According
to the eyewitness account of
Megasthenes, the palace was chiefly
constructed of timber, and was considered
to exceed in splendour and magnificence
the palaces of Susa and Ecbatana, its
gilded pillars being adorned with golden
vines and silver birds. The buildings stood
in an extensive park studded with fish
ponds and furnished with a great variety of
ornamental trees and shrubs.[85] Kauṭilya's
Arthashastra also gives the method of
palace construction from this period. Later
fragments of stone pillars, including one
nearly complete, with their round tapering
shafts and smooth polish, indicate that
Ashoka was responsible for the
construction of the stone columns which
replaced the earlier wooden
ones.Template:Cite book needed
An early stupa, 6 meters in diameter, with fallen
umbrella on side. Chakpat, near Chakdara. Probably
Maurya, 3rd century BCE.

During the Ashokan period, stonework was

of a highly diversified order and comprised
lofty free-standing pillars, railings of
stupas, lion thrones and other colossal
figures. The use of stone had reached
such great perfection during this time that
even small fragments of stone art were
given a high lustrous polish resembling
fine enamel. This period marked the
beginning of the Buddhist school of
architecture. Ashoka was responsible for
the construction of several stupas, which
were large domes and bearing symbols of
Buddha. The most important ones are
located at Sanchi, Bharhut, Amaravati,
Bodhgaya and Nagarjunakonda. The most
widespread examples of Mauryan
architecture are the Ashoka pillars and
carved edicts of Ashoka, often exquisitely
decorated, with more than 40 spread
throughout the Indian subcontinent.[86]

The peacock was a dynastic symbol of

Mauryans, as depicted by Ashoka's pillars
at Nandangarh and Sanchi Stupa.[24]
 Maurya structures and decorations at Sanchi
(3rd century BCE)

Approximate
reconstitution
of the Great
Stupa at
Sanchi under
Remains of the Ashokan Pillar in
the Mauryas. polished stone (right of the Southern
Gateway).
Remains of the shaft of the pillar of
Ashoka, under a shed near the
Southern Gateway.
Pillar and its inscription (the "Schism
Edict") upon discovery.

The capital nowadays.[87]

Natural history

The two Yakshas, possibly 3rd century BCE, found in

Pataliputra.

The protection of animals in India became

serious business by the time of the
Maurya dynasty; being the first empire to
provide a unified political entity in India,
the attitude of the Mauryas towards
forests, their denizens, and fauna in
general is of interest.[88]

The Mauryas firstly looked at forests as

resources. For them, the most important
forest product was the elephant. Military
might in those times depended not only
upon horses and men but also battle-
elephants; these played a role in the defeat
of Seleucus, one of Alexander's former
generals. The Mauryas sought to preserve
supplies of elephants since it was cheaper
and took less time to catch, tame and train
wild elephants than to raise them.
Kautilya's Arthashastra contains not only
maxims on ancient statecraft, but also
unambiguously specifies the
responsibilities of officials such as the
Protector of the Elephant Forests.[89]

On the border of the forest, he

should establish a forest for
elephants guarded by foresters.
The Office of the Chief Elephant
Forester should with the help of
guards protect the elephants in
any terrain. The slaying of an
elephant is punishable by death.

— Arthashastra
The Mauryas also designated separate
forests to protect supplies of timber, as
well as lions and tigers for skins.
Elsewhere the Protector of Animals also
worked to eliminate thieves, tigers and
other predators to render the woods safe
for grazing cattle.Template:Cite book
needed

The Mauryas valued certain forest tracts in

strategic or economic terms and instituted
curbs and control measures over them.
They regarded all forest tribes with
distrust and controlled them with bribery
and political subjugation. They employed
some of them, the food-gatherers or
aranyaca to guard borders and trap
animals. The sometimes tense and
conflict-ridden relationship nevertheless
enabled the Mauryas to guard their vast
empire.[90]

When Ashoka embraced Buddhism in the

latter part of his reign, he brought about
significant changes in his style of
governance, which included providing
protection to fauna, and even relinquished
the royal hunt. He was the first ruler in
history to advocate conservation
measures for wildlife and even had rules
inscribed in stone edicts. The edicts
proclaim that many followed the king's
example in giving up the slaughter of
animals; one of them proudly states:[90]

Our king killed very few

animals.

— Edict on Fifth Pillar

However, the edicts of Ashoka reflect

more the desire of rulers than actual
events; the mention of a 100 'panas'
(coins) fine for poaching deer in royal
hunting preserves shows that rule-
breakers did exist. The legal restrictions
conflicted with the practices freely
exercised by the common people in
hunting, felling, fishing and setting fires in
forests.[90]

Contacts with the Hellenistic

world

Mauryan ringstone, with standing goddess. Northwest

Pakistan. 3rd Century BCE

Foundation of the Empire

Relations with the Hellenistic world may

have started from the very beginning of
the Maurya Empire. Plutarch reports that
Chandragupta Maurya met with Alexander
the Great, probably around Taxila in the
northwest:[91]

"Sandrocottus, when he was a stripling,

saw Alexander himself, and we are told
that he often said in later times that
Alexander narrowly missed making
himself master of the country, since its
king was hated and despised on
account of his baseness and low birth".
Plutarch 62-4[92][91]

Reconquest of the Northwest

(c. 317–316 BCE)
Chandragupta ultimately occupied
Northwestern India, in the territories
formerly ruled by the Greeks, where he
fought the satraps (described as
"Prefects" in Western sources) left in place
after Alexander (Justin), among whom
may have been Eudemus, ruler in the
western Punjab until his departure in
317 BCE or Peithon, son of Agenor, ruler of
the Greek colonies along the Indus until
his departure for Babylon in
316 BCE.Template:Cite book needed

"India, after the death of Alexander, had

assassinated his prefects, as if shaking
the burden of servitude. The author of
this liberation was Sandracottos, but he
had transformed liberation in servitude
after victory, since, after taking the
throne, he himself oppressed the very
people he has liberated from foreign
domination" Justin XV.4.12–13[93]
"Later, as he was preparing war against
the prefects of Alexander, a huge wild
elephant went to him and took him on
his back as if tame, and he became a
remarkable fighter and war leader.
Having thus acquired royal power,
Sandracottos possessed India at the
time Seleucos was preparing future
glory." Justin XV.4.19[94]
Conflict and alliance with
Seleucus (305 BCE)

A map showing the north western border of Maurya

Empire, including its various neighboring states.

Seleucus I Nicator, the Macedonian satrap

of the Asian portion of Alexander's former
empire, conquered and put under his own
authority eastern territories as far as
Bactria and the Indus (Appian, History of
Rome, The Syrian Wars 55), until in
305 BCE he entered into a confrontation
with Emperor Chandragupta:
"Always lying in wait for the
neighbouring nations, strong
in arms and persuasive in
council, he [Seleucus] acquired
Mesopotamia, Armenia,
'Seleucid' Cappadocia, Persis,
Parthia, Bactria, Arabia,
Tapouria, Sogdia, Arachosia,
Hyrcania, and other adjacent
peoples that had been subdued
by Alexander, as far as the
river Indus, so that the
boundaries of his empire were
the most extensive in Asia
 after that of Alexander. The
whole region from Phrygia to
the Indus was subject to
Seleucus". Appian, History of
Rome, The Syrian Wars 55[95]

Though no accounts of the conflict

remain, it is clear that Seleucus fared
poorly against the Indian Emperor as he
failed to conquer any territory, and in fact
was forced to surrender much that was
already his. Regardless, Seleucus and
Chandragupta ultimately reached a
settlement and through a treaty sealed in
305 BCE, Seleucus, according to Strabo,
ceded a number of territories to
Chandragupta, including eastern
Afghanistan and
Balochistan.Template:Cite book needed

Marital alliance

Chandragupta and Seleucus concluded a

peace treaty and a marital alliance in 303
BCE. Chandragupta received vast
territories and in a return gave Seleucus
500 war elephants,[96][97][98][99][100] a
military asset which would play a decisive
role at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE.[101]
In addition to this treaty, Seleucus
dispatched an ambassador, Megasthenes,
to Chandragupta, and later Deimakos to
his son Bindusara, at the Mauryan court at
Pataliputra (modern Patna in Bihar). Later,
Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler of
Ptolemaic Egypt and contemporary of
Ashoka, is also recorded by Pliny the Elder
as having sent an ambassador named
Dionysius to the Mauryan court.[102]

Mainstream scholarship asserts that

Chandragupta received vast territory west
of the Indus, including the Hindu Kush,
modern-day Afghanistan, and the
Balochistan province of Pakistan.[103][104]
Archaeologically, concrete indications of
Mauryan rule, such as the inscriptions of
the Edicts of Ashoka, are known as far as
Kandahar in southern Afghanistan.

“ He (Seleucus) crossed the Indus

and waged war with Sandrocottus
[Maurya], king of the Indians, who
dwelt on the banks of that stream,
until they came to an understanding
with each other and contracted a
marriage relationship. ”
“ After having made a treaty with him
(Sandrakotos) and put in order the
Orient situation, Seleucos went to
war against Antigonus. ”
— Junianus Justinus, Historiarum Philippicarum,
libri XLIV, XV.4.15
The treaty on "Epigamia" implies lawful
marriage between Greeks and Indians was
recognized at the State level, although it is
unclear whether it occurred among
dynastic rulers or common people, or
both.Template:Cite book needed.

Exchange of presents

Classical sources have also recorded that

following their treaty, Chandragupta and
Seleucus exchanged presents, such as
when Chandragupta sent various
aphrodisiacs to Seleucus:[53]

"And Theophrastus says that some

contrivances are of wondrous efficacy in
 such matters [as to make people more
amorous]. And Phylarchus confirms him,
by reference to some of the presents
which Sandrakottus, the king of the
Indians, sent to Seleucus; which were to
act like charms in producing a wonderful
degree of affection, while some, on the
contrary, were to banish love."
Athenaeus of Naucratis, "The
deipnosophists" Book I, chapter 32[105]

His son Bindusara 'Amitraghata' (Slayer of

Enemies) also is recorded in Classical
sources as having exchanged presents
with Antiochus I:[53]
 "But dried figs were so very much
sought after by all men (for really, as
Aristophanes says, "There's really
nothing nicer than dried figs"), that even
Amitrochates, the king of the Indians,
wrote to Antiochus, entreating him (it is
Hegesander who tells this story) to buy
and send him some sweet wine, and
some dried figs, and a sophist; and that
Antiochus wrote to him in answer, "The
dry figs and the sweet wine we will send
you; but it is not lawful for a sophist to
be sold in Greece." Athenaeus,
"Deipnosophistae" XIV.67[106]

Greek population in India

An influential and large Greek population
was present in the northwest of the Indian
subcontinent under Ashoka's rule, possibly
remnants of Alexander's conquests in the
Indus Valley region. In the Rock Edicts of
Ashoka, some of them inscribed in Greek,
Ashoka states that the Greeks within his
dominion were converted to Buddhism:

"Here in the king's dominion

among the Greeks, the
Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the
Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the
Pitinikas, the Andhras and the
Palidas, everywhere people
 are following Beloved-of-the-
Gods' instructions in
Dharma." (Rock Edict Number
13)

An Edict of Ashoka in Shahbazbarhi, KPK, Pakistan.

"Now, in times past (officers)

called Mahamatras of
morality did not exist before.
Mahdmatras of morality were
appointed by me (when I had
been) anointed thirteen years.
These are occupied with all
sects in establishing morality,
in promoting morality, and for
the welfare and happiness of
those who are devoted to
morality (even) among the
Greeks, Kambojas and
Gandharas, and whatever
other western borderers (of
mine there are)." (Rock Edict
Number 5)
The Kandahar Edict of Ashoka, a bilingual edict (Greek
and Aramaic) by king Ashoka, from Kandahar. Kabul
Museum. (Click image for translation).

Fragments of Edict 13 have been found in

Greek, and a full Edict, written in both
Greek and Aramaic, has been discovered
in Kandahar. It is said to be written in
excellent Classical Greek, using
sophisticated philosophical terms. In this
Edict, Ashoka uses the word Eusebeia
("Piety") as the Greek translation for the
ubiquitous "Dharma" of his other Edicts
written in Prakrit:

"Ten years (of reign) having been

completed, King Piodasses (Ashoka)
made known (the doctrine of) Piety
(εὐσέβεια, Eusebeia) to men; and from
this moment he has made men more
pious, and everything thrives throughout
the whole world. And the king abstains
from (killing) living beings, and other
men and those who (are) huntsmen and
fishermen of the king have desisted
from hunting. And if some (were)
intemperate, they have ceased from
their intemperance as was in their
 power; and obedient to their father and
mother and to the elders, in opposition
to the past also in the future, by so
acting on every occasion, they will live
better and more happily". (Trans. by G.P.
Carratelli [1] )

Buddhist missions to the West

(c. 250 BCE)
The distribution of the Edicts of
Ashoka.[107]

Map of the Buddhist missions during the

 reign of Ashoka.

Territories "conquered by the Dharma"

according to Major Rock Edict No.13 of
Ashoka (260–218 BCE).[108][109]

Also, in the Edicts of Ashoka, Ashoka

mentions the Hellenistic kings of the
period as recipients of his Buddhist
proselytism, although no Western
historical record of this event remains:

"The conquest by Dharma has been won

here, on the borders, and even six
hundred yojanas (5,400–9,600 km)
away, where the Greek king Antiochos
rules, beyond there where the four kings
named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and
Alexander rule, likewise in the south
among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as
far as Tamraparni (Sri Lanka)." (Edicts of
Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, S. Dhammika).

Ashoka also encouraged the development

of herbal medicine, for men and animals,
in their territories:
"Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods,
King Piyadasi's [Ashoka's] domain, and
among the people beyond the borders,
the Cholas, the Pandyas, the
Satiyaputras, the Keralaputras, as far as
Tamraparni and where the Greek king
Antiochos rules, and among the kings
who are neighbors of Antiochos,
everywhere has Beloved-of-the-Gods,
King Piyadasi, made provision for two
types of medical treatment: medical
treatment for humans and medical
treatment for animals. Wherever
medical herbs suitable for humans or
animals are not available, I have had
them imported and grown. Wherever
 medical roots or fruits are not available I
have had them imported and grown.
Along roads I have had wells dug and
trees planted for the benefit of humans
and animals". 2nd Rock Edict

The Greeks in India even seem to have

played an active role in the propagation of
Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of
Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, are
described in Pali sources as leading Greek
("Yona") Buddhist monks, active in
Buddhist proselytism (the Mahavamsa,
XII[110]).

Subhagasena and Antiochos III

(206 BCE)

Sophagasenus was an Indian Mauryan

ruler of the 3rd century BCE, described in
ancient Greek sources, and named
Subhagasena or Subhashasena in Prakrit.
His name is mentioned in the list of
Mauryan princesTemplate:Cite book
needed, and also in the list of the Yadava
dynasty, as a descendant of Pradyumna.
He may have been a grandson of Ashoka,
or Kunala, the son of Ashoka. He ruled an
area south of the Hindu Kush, possibly in
Gandhara. Antiochos III, the Seleucid king,
after having made peace with Euthydemus
in Bactria, went to India in 206 BCE and is
said to have renewed his friendship with
the Indian king there:

"He (Antiochus) crossed the Caucasus and

descended into India; renewed his
friendship with Sophagasenus the king of
the Indians; received more elephants, until
he had a hundred and fifty altogether; and
having once more provisioned his troops,
set out again personally with his army:
leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty
of taking home the treasure which this
king had agreed to hand over to him".
Polybius 11.39

Timeline
1. 322 BCE: Chandragupta Maurya
founded the Mauryan Empire by
overthrowing the Nanda Dynasty.
2. 317–316 BCE: Chandragupta Maurya
conquers the Northwest of the Indian
subcontinent.
3. 305–303 BCE: Chandragupta Maurya
gains territory from the Seleucid
Empire.
4. 298–269 BCE: Reign of Bindusara,
Chandragupta's son. He conquers
parts of Deccan, southern India.
5. 269–232 BCE: The Mauryan Empire
reaches its height under Ashoka,
Chandragupta's grandson.
 6. 261 BCE: Ashoka conquers the
kingdom of Kalinga.
7. 250 BCE: Ashoka builds Buddhist
stupas and erects pillars bearing
inscriptions.
8. 184 BCE: The empire collapses when
Brihadnatha, the last emperor, is
killed by Pushyamitra Shunga, a
Mauryan general and the founder of
the Shunga Empire.

In literature
According to Vicarasreni of Merutunga,
Mauryans rose to power in 312 BC.[111]

See also
 Pradyota dynasty
Gupta Empire
History of India
List of largest empires that existed in
India
List of Hindu Empires and Dynasties

Notes
1. Niharranjan Ray; Brajadulal
Chattopadhyaya (2000). A Sourcebook
of Indian Civilization . Orient
Blackswan. p. 553. ISBN 978-81-250-
1871-1. "Aśoka is known to have
designated his realm as Jambudvīpa.
[...] Two terms, Jambudvīpa and Pṛthvī
 now appear to have stood for the [...]
Maurya realm."
2. Hermann Kulke 2004, p. 69-70.
3. Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and
Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline
Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.". Social
Science History. 3 (3/4): 132.
doi:10.2307/1170959 .
JSTOR 1170959 .
4. Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.;
Hall, Thomas D (December 2006).
"East-West Orientation of Historical
Empires" . Journal of world-systems
research. 12 (2): 223. ISSN 1076-
156X . Archived from the original on
17 September 2016. Retrieved
16 September 2016.
5. Thanjan, Davis K. (2011). Pebbles .
Bookstand Publishing.
ISBN 9781589098176.
6. Hermann Kulke 2004, pp. xii, 448.
7. Thapar, Romila (1990). A History of
India, Volume 1. Penguin Books.
p. 384. ISBN 0-14-013835-8.
 8. Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.;
Hall, Thomas D (December 2006).
"East-West Orientation of Historical
Empires". Journal of world-systems
research. 12 (2): 223. ISSN 1076-156X.
Archived from the original on 17
September 2016. Retrieved 16
September 2016
9. Keay, John (2000). India: A History.
Grove Press. p. 82. ISBN 978-0-8021-
3797-5.
10. R. K. Mookerji 1966, p. 31.
11. Seleucus I ceded the territories of
Arachosia (modern Kandahar),
Gedrosia (modern Balochistan), and
Paropamisadae (or Gandhara). Aria
(modern Herat) "has been wrongly
included in the list of ceded satrapies
by some scholars [...] on the basis of
wrong assessments of the passage of
Strabo [...] and a statement by Pliny."
(Raychaudhuri & Mukherjee 1996, p.
594).
12. John D Grainger 2014, p. 109:Seleucus
"must [...] have held Aria", and
furthermore, his "son Antiochos was
active there fifteen years later."
13. The account of Strabo indicates that
the western-most territory of the
empire extended from the
southeastern Hindu Kush, through the
region of Kandahar, to coastal
Balochistan to the south of that
(Raychaudhuri & Mukherjee 1996, p.
594).
14. Sri Lanka and the southernmost parts
of India (modern Tamil Nadu and
Kerala) remained independent, despite
the diplomacy and cultural influence of
their larger neighbor to the north
(Schwartzberg 1992, p. 18; Kulke &
Rothermund 2004, p. 68).
15. The empire was once thought to have
directly controlled most of the Indian
subcontinent excepting the far south,
but its core regions are now thought to
have been separated by large tribal
regions (especially in the Deccan
peninsula) that were relatively
autonomous. (Kulke & Rothermund
2004, p. 68-71, as well as Stein 1998,
p. 74). "The major part of the Deccan
was ruled by [Mauryan administration].
But in the belt of land on either side of
the Nerbudda, the Godavari and the
upper Mahanadi there were, in all
probability, certain areas that were
technically outside the limits of the
 empire proper. Ashoka evidently draws
a distinction between the forests and
the inhabiting tribes which are in the
dominions (vijita) and peoples on the
border (anta avijita) for whose benefit
some of the special edicts were
issued. Certain vassal tribes are
specifically mentioned." (Raychaudhuri
& Mukherjee pp. 275–6)
16. Kalinga had been conquered by the
preceding Nanda Dynasty but
subsequently broke free until it was re-
conquered by Ashoka, c. 260 BCE.
(Raychaudhuri & Mukherjee, pp. 204–
209, pp. 270–271)
17. Bhandari, Shirin (5 January 2016).
"Dinner on the Grand Trunk Road" .
Roads & Kingdoms. Retrieved 19 July
2016.
18. Hermann Kulke 2004, p. 67.
19. Boesche, Roger (1 March 2003). The
First Great Political Realist: Kautilya
and His Arthashastra . p. 11.
ISBN 9780739106075.
20. Demeny, Paul George; McNicoll,
Geoffrey (May 2003). Encyclopedia of
population . ISBN 9780028656793.
21. "It is doubtful if, in its present shape,
[the Arthashastra] is as old as the time
of the first Maurya," as it probably
contains layers of text ranging from
Maurya times till as late as the 2nd
century CE. Nonetheless, "though a
comparatively late work, it may be
used [...] to confirm and supplement
the information gleaned from earlier
sources." (Raychaudhuri & Mukherjee
1996, pp.246–7)
22. Irfan Habib & Vivekanand Jha 2004,
p. 14.
23. R. K. Mookerji 1966, p. 14.
24. R. K. Mookerji 1966, p. 15.
25. H. C. Raychaudhuri 1988, p. 140.
26. R. K. Mookerji 1966, p. 8.
27. Sugandhi, Namita Sanjay (2008).
Between the Patterns of History:
Rethinking Mauryan Imperial
Interaction in the Southern Deccan .
pp. 88–89. ISBN 9780549744412.
28. Paul J. Kosmin 2014, p. 31.
29. :"Androcottus, when he was a stripling,
saw Alexander himself, and we are
told that he often said in later times
that Alexander narrowly missed
making himself master of the country,
since its king was hated and despised
on account of his baseness and low
birth." Plutarch 62-3 Plutarch 62-3
30. :"He was of humble Indian to a change
of rule." Justin XV.4.15 "Fuit hic humili
quidem genere natus, sed ad regni
potestatem maiestate numinis
inpulsus. Quippe cum procacitate sua
Nandrum regem offendisset, interfici a
rege iussus salutem pedum ceieritate
quaesierat. (Ex qua fatigatione cum
somno captus iaceret, leo ingentis
formae ad dormientem accessit
sudoremque profluentem lingua ei
detersit expergefactumque blande
reliquit. Hoc prodigio primum ad spem
regni inpulsus) contractis latronibus
Indos ad nouitatem regni sollicitauit."
 Justin XV.4.15 Archived 1 February
2016 at the Wayback Machine
31. Schwartzberg, Joseph E. A Historical
Atlas of South Asia , 2nd ed.
(University of Minnesota, 1992), Plate
III.B.4b (p.18) and Plate XIV.1a-c
(p.145)
32. Mookerji, Radhakumud (1966).
Chandragupta Maurya and His Times .
Motilal Banarsidass. p. 27.
ISBN 9788120804050.; Mookerji,
Radha Kumud (1957). "The Foundation
of the Mauryan Empire". In K. A.
Nilakanta Sastri (ed.). A
Comprehensive History of India,
Volume 2: Mauryas and Satavahanas .
Orient Longmans. p. 4.: "The
Mudrarakshasa further informs us that
his Himalayan alliance gave
Chandragupta a composite army ...
Among these are mentioned the
following : Sakas, Yavanas (probably
 Greeks), Kiratas, Kambojas, Parasikas
and Bahlikas."
33. Shashi, Shyam Singh (1999).
Encyclopaedia Indica: Mauryas .
Anmol Publications. p. 134.
ISBN 9788170418597.: "Among those
who helped Chandragupta in his
struggle against the Nandas, were the
Sakas (Scythians), Yavanas (Greeks),
and Parasikas (Persians)"
34. Chandragupta Maurya and His Times,
Radhakumud Mookerji, Motilal
Banarsidass Publ., 1966, p.26-27
"Archived copy" . Archived from the
original on 27 November 2016.
Retrieved 26 November 2016.
35. Sir John Marshall, "Taxila", p. 18 et
passim
36. K. A. Nilakanta Sastri (ed., 1967), Age
of the Nandas and Mauryas, p.147
37. Chandragupta Maurya and His Times,
Radhakumud Mookerji, Motilal
Banarsidass Publ., 1966, p.27
"Archived copy" . Archived from the
original on 27 November 2016.
Retrieved 26 November 2016.
38. Sanskrit original: "asti tava Shaka-
Yavana-Kirata-Kamboja-Parasika-
Bahlika parbhutibhih
Chankyamatipragrahittaishcha
Chandergupta Parvateshvara
balairudidhibhiriva parchalitsalilaih
samantaad uprudham Kusumpurama".
From the French translation, in "Le
Ministre et la marque de l'anneau",
ISBN 2-7475-5135-0
39. Paul J. Kosmin 2014, p. 38.
40. "Megasthenes lived with Sibyrtius,
satrap of Arachosia, and often speaks
of his visiting Sandracottus, the king of
the Indians." Arrian, Anabasis
Alexandri Arrian. "Book 5" . Anabasis.
41. "In the royal residences in India where
the greatest of the kings of that
country live, there are so many objects
for admiration that neither Memnon's
city of Susa with all its extravagance,
nor the magnificence of Ectabana is to
be compared with them. ... In the
parks, tame peacocks and pheasants
are kept." Aelian, "Characteristics of
animals" Aelian, Characteristics of
animals, book XIII, Chapter 18 , also
quoted in The Cambridge History of
India, Volume 1, p411
42. "The architectural closeness of certain
buildings in Achaemenid Iran and
Mauryan India have raised much
comment. The royal palace at
Pataliputra is the most striking
example and has been compared with
the palaces at Susa, Ecbatana, and
Persepolis" Aśoka and the decline of
the Mauryas, Volume 5, p.129, Romila
Thapar, Oxford University Press, 1961
43. Upinder Singh 2008, p. 331.
44. Paul J. Kosmin 2014, p. 32.
45. R. K. Mookerji 1966, pp. 39–40.
46. Geoffrey Samuel 2010, pp. 60.
47. Romila Thapar 2004, p. 178.
48. R. K. Mookerji 1966, pp. 39–41.
49. Srinivasachariar 1974, p. lxxxvii.
50. Vincent Arthur Smith (1920). Asoka,
the Buddhist emperor of India .
Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 18–19.
ISBN 9788120613034.
51. Rajendralal Mitra (1878). "On the Early
Life of Asoka" . Proceedings of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal. Asiatic
Society of Bengal: 10.
52. Motilal Banarsidass (1993). "The
Minister Cāṇakya, from the
Pariśiṣtaparvan of Hemacandra". In
Phyllis Granoff (ed.). The Clever
Adulteress and Other Stories: A
Treasury of Jaina Literature .
Translated by Rosalind Lefeber.
pp. 204–206.
53. Paul J. Kosmin 2014, p. 35.
54. Alain Daniélou 2003, p. 108.
55. Dineschandra Sircar 1971, p. 167.
56. William Woodthorpe Tarn (2010). The
Greeks in Bactria and India .
Cambridge University Press. p. 152.
ISBN 9781108009416.
57. Mookerji Radhakumud (1962). Asoka .
Motilal Banarsidass. p. 8. ISBN 978-
81-208-0582-8. Archived from the
original on 10 May 2018.
58. Alain Daniélou 2003, p. 109.
59. Eugène Burnouf (1911). Legends of
Indian Buddhism . New York: E. P.
Dutton. p. 59.
60. S. N. Sen 1999, p. 142.
61. "Three Greek ambassadors are known
by name: Megasthenes, ambassador
to Chandragupta; Deimachus,
ambassador to Chandragupta's son
Bindusara; and Dyonisius, whom
Ptolemy Philadelphus sent to the court
of Ashoka, Bindusara's son", McEvilley,
p.367
62. India, the Ancient Past, Burjor Avari,
p.108-109
63. P. 138 and P. 146 History and
doctrines of the Ājīvikas: a vanished
Indian religion by Arthur Llewellyn
Basham
64. P. 24 Buddhism in comparative light by
Anukul Chandra Banerjee
65. P. 171 Ashoka and his inscriptions,
Volume 1 by Beni Madhab Barua,
Ishwar Nath Topa
66. Kashi Nath Upadhyaya (1997). Early
Buddhism and the Bhagavadgita .
Motilal Banarsidass. p. 33.
ISBN 9788120808805.
67. Fitzedward Hall, ed. (1868). The
Vishnu Purana . IV. Translated by H. H.
Wilson. Trübner & Co. p. 188.
68. Allchin, F.R.; Erdosy, George (1995).
The Archaeology of Early Historic
South Asia: The Emergence of Cities
and States. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. p. 306.
69. Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict,
translation S. Dhammika.
70. Army and Power in the Ancient World
by Angelos Chaniotis/Pierre
Ducrey(Eds.), Franz Steiner Verlag
Stuttgart, P35
71. According to the Ashokavadana
72. Sir John Marshall, "A Guide to Sanchi",
Eastern Book House, 1990, ISBN 81-
85204-32-2, pg.38
73. E. Lamotte: History of Indian
Buddhism, Institut Orientaliste,
Louvain-la-Neuve 1988 (1958)
74. Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas
by Romila Thapar, Oxford University
Press, 1960 P200
75. Gabriel A, Richard (30 November
2006). The Ancient World :Volume 1 of
Soldiers' lives through history .
Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 28.
76. R. C. Majumdar 2003, p. 107.
77. The Economic History of the
Corporate Form in Ancient India.
Archived 4 February 2016 at the
Wayback Machine University of
Michigan.
78. CNG Coins Archived 27 August 2017
at the Wayback Machine
79. R. K. Mookerji 1966, pp. 39-41.
80. Hermann Kulke 2004, pp. 64-65.
81. John Cort 2010, p. 142.
82. John Cort 2010, p. 199.
83. Tukol, T. K. Jainism in South India .
Archived from the original on 4 March
2016.
84. Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters:
Cross-Cultural Contacts in Pre-Modern
Times (New York: Oxford University
Press), 46
85. "L'age d'or de l'Inde Classique", p23
86. "L'age d'or de l'Inde Classique", p22
87. Described in Marshall p.25-28 Ashoka
pillar .
88. Allen, Charles (2012). Ashoka: The
Search for India's Lost Emperor.
London: Hachette Digital. p. 274.
ISBN 978-1-408-70388-5.
89. Rangarajan, M. (2001) India's Wildlife
History, pp 7.
90. Rangarajan, M. (2001) India's Wildlife
History, pp 8.
91. Mookerji, Radhakumud (1966).
Chandragupta Maurya and His Times .
Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 16–17.
ISBN 9788120804050.
92. "Plutarch, Alexander, chapter 1, section
1" .
93. "(Transitum deinde in Indiam fecit),
quae post mortem Alexandri, ueluti
ceruicibus iugo seruitutis excusso,
praefectos eius occiderat. Auctor
libertatis Sandrocottus fuerat, sed
titulum libertatis post uictoriam in
seruitutem uerterat ; 14 siquidem
occupato regno populum quem ab
externa dominatione uindicauerat ipse
seruitio premebat." Justin XV.4.12–13
Archived 20 April 2017 at the
Wayback Machine
94. "Molienti deinde bellum aduersus
praefectos Alexandri elephantus ferus
infinitae magnitudinis ultro se obtulit
et ueluti domita mansuetudine eum
tergo excepit duxque belli et proeliator
insignis fuit. Sic adquisito regno
Sandrocottus ea tempestate, qua
Seleucus futurae magnitudinis
fundamenta iaciebat, Indiam
possidebat." Justin XV.4.19 Archived
20 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine
95. "Appian, The Syrian Wars 11" .
Archived from the original on 3
November 2007.
96. R. C. Majumdar 2003, p. 105.
 97. Ancient India, (Kachroo, p.196)
98. The Imperial Gazetteer of India,
(Hunter, p.167)
99. The evolution of man and society,
(Darlington, p.223)
100. W. W. Tarn (1940). "Two Notes on
Seleucid History: 1. Seleucus' 500
Elephants, 2. Tarmita", The Journal of
Hellenic Studies 60, p. 84-94.
101. Paul J. Kosmin 2014, p. 37.
102. "Pliny the Elder, The Natural History
(eds. John Bostock, M.D., F.R.S., H.T.
Riley, Esq., B.A.)" . Archived from the
original on 28 July 2013.
103. Vincent A. Smith (1998). Ashoka.
Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-
206-1303-1.
104. Walter Eugene Clark (1919). "The
Importance of Hellenism from the
Point of View of Indic-Philology",
Classical Philology 14 (4), p. 297-313.
105. "Problem while searching in The
Literature Collection" . Archived from
the original on 13 March 2007.
106. "The Literature Collection: The
deipnosophists, or, Banquet of the
learned of Athenæus (volume III): Book
XIV" . Archived from the original on
11 October 2007.
107. Reference: "India: The Ancient Past"
p.113, Burjor Avari, Routledge, ISBN 0-
415-35615-6
108. Kosmin, Paul J. (2014). The Land of
the Elephant Kings . Harvard
University Press. p. 57.
ISBN 9780674728820.
109. Thomas Mc Evilly "The shape of
ancient thought", Allworth Press, New
York, 2002, p.368
110. Full text of the Mahavamsa Click
chapter XII Archived 5 September
2006 at the Wayback Machine
111. Kailash Chand Jain 1991, p. 85.

Sources
Alain Daniélou (2003). A Brief History of
India . Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-
59477-794-3.
Arthur Llewellyn Basham (1951). History and
doctrines of the Ājīvikas: a vanished Indian
religion . foreword by L. D. Barnett (1 ed.).
London: Luzac.
Burton Stein (1998). A History of India (1st
ed.), Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
Geoffrey Samuel (2010). The Origins of Yoga
and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth
Century. Cambridge University Press.
H. C. Raychaudhuri (1988) [1967]. "Indian in
the Age of the Nandas". In K. A. Nilakanta
Sastri (ed.). Age of the Nandas and Mauryas
(Second ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
ISBN 978-81-208-0466-1.
H. C. Raychaudhuri; B. N. Mukherjee (1996).
Political History of Ancient India: From the
Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the
Gupta Dynasty. Oxford University Press.
Hermann Kulke; Dietmar Rothermund (2004).
A History of India (4th ed.). London:
Routledge. ISBN 0-415-15481-2.
Irfan Habib; Vivekanand Jha (2004). Mauryan
India . A People's History of India. Aligarh
Historians Society / Tulika Books. ISBN 978-
81-85229-92-8.
J. E. Schwartzberg (1992). A Historical Atlas
of South Asia. University of Oxford Press.
John Keay (2000). India, a History. New York:
Harper Collins Publishers.
John Cort (2010). Framing the Jina:
Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History .
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-
538502-1.
John D Grainger (2014). Seleukos Nikator
(Routledge Revivals): Constructing a
Hellenistic Kingdom . Taylor & Francis.
ISBN 978-1-317-80098-9.
Kailash Chand Jain (1991). Lord Mahāvīra
and His Times . Motilal Banarsidass.
ISBN 978-81-208-0805-8.
Paul J. Kosmin (2014). The Land of the
Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology
in Seleucid Empire . Harvard University Press.
ISBN 978-0-674-72882-0.
R. K. Mookerji (1966). Chandragupta Maurya
and His Times . Motilal Banarsidass.
ISBN 978-81-208-0405-0.
 R. C. Majumdar (2003) [1952]. Ancient India .
Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-0436-8.
Romila Thapar (2004) [first published by
Penguin in 2002]. Early India: From the Origins
to A.D. 1300 . University of California Press.
ISBN 978-0-520-24225-8.
S. N. Sen (1999). Ancient Indian History and
Civilization . New Age International.
ISBN 978-81-224-1198-0.
Upinder Singh (2008). A History of Ancient
and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age
to the 12th Century . Pearson. ISBN 978-81-
317-1677-9.

External links
 Wikimedia Commons has media
related to Mauryan Empire.

Livius.org: Maurya dynasty

Extent of the Empire
Ashoka's Edicts

Preceded by Magadha Succeeded by

Nanda dynasties Shunga
dynasty Maurya Empire dynasty

Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Maurya_Empire&oldid=897518945"
Last edited 3 days ago by an anony…

Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless

otherwise noted.