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Solar tower power plant optimization: a review

Technical Report · November 2016

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.13416.78088

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Solar tower power plant optimization: a review (01.11.2016)

Ahmed Hassan*1
* PhD candidate, Department of mechanical engineering, Engineering faculty, Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversite.

Abstract:
Concentrated Solar Power CSP plants are now under heavy research worldwide due to its potential of
large capacities of power with the ability to store power efficiently in large amounts, which makes it
able to run even after the sunset. Once installed it costs almost nothing to run because no fuel is used.
However, the main problem is the large initial investment and land required to install them. If major
clean energy is going to be real, it has to be cheap; here comes the researchers’ role to design and
optimize the cost and the output power of these technologies. This review article shows basic
information about the concentrated power plants and researchers’ recent studies done in the field of
solar tower power plants. It is noticed through the research the great potential of these technologies;
but in the same time the rare or absence studies from countries with the most benefits of developing
these technologies.
Keywords:

Concentrated solar power plants, Solar towers power plant, solar towers receivers, Thermal energy storage, Optimization,
Plant simulation, Heliostats field, Thermodynamics analysis

Contents
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Brief History .................................................................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 The basic schematic ......................................................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Basic description of the concentrated solar thermal power technologies ......................................................................... 3
1.3.1 Parabolic trough ....................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.3.2 Fresnel Mirror System ............................................................................................................................................. 3
1.3.3 Parabolic dishes ....................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.3.4 Central receiver tower .............................................................................................................................................. 4
1.4 Current and future Status of CSP..................................................................................................................................... 4
2. Solar Thermal Tower Power Plants .............................................................................................................................. 5
2.1 Heliostats ......................................................................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Tower .............................................................................................................................................................................. 6
2.3 Receiver ........................................................................................................................................................................... 6
2.4 Heliostat field .................................................................................................................................................................. 7
2.5 Heat transfer fluid (HTF) ................................................................................................................................................. 9
2.6 Thermal energy storage (TES) ........................................................................................................................................ 10
2.7 Thermodynamics and combinations analysis ................................................................................................................ 11
3. Studies on opportunities in various countries ............................................................................................................ 12
4. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................................... 13
5. References ..................................................................................................................................................................... 13

1
Ahmed Hassan, ahah432@yahoo.com, +905388652306
 Page 2 of 16

1. Introduction power a 60-70 horsepower engine that pumped 6,000

The energy demand is growing rapidly. To provide gallons of water per minute from the Nile River to adjacent
humanity with its increased need for energy, energy cotton fields.[1, 5, 6]
technology efficiency must be improved; furthermore,
renewable resources must be explored and must be
aggressively studied. One of the most promising resource is
the solar energy.[2]
Our sun produces a huge amount of energy, it is about
400,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 watts that is 4x1026
watts of energy every second and it will continue emitting
energy for a very long while; which makes it the most
reliable and abundant source of energy that available at earth
[3]. One hour of sun power emitted to earth provides the
energy needed for everyone in our planet for an whole
year.[4].
Figure 2 Mochut Concentrating Solar Machine [1]
There are many technologies developed to collect energy
from sun to provide energy for different applications like
residence water heating, process heat, water treatment, solar
power plants, etc. The main technologies used in solar
power plants could be classified [3]. as shown in Figure-1.
Among them Concentrated Solar Power systems recently
has additional focus of researchers.

Figure 3 Shuman's solar power plant[1]

The earliest applications of harvesting sun energy were by
concentrating the sun light to produce heat at the
concentration point (Parabolic Dish) or line (Parabolic
Figure-1 Solar power plants classification [1] Trough), which is a type of solar thermal technology.

1.1 Brief History 1.2 The basic schematic

The use of solar energy is not a recent invent, engineers had
started to harvest from sun since middle 1800s. Exactly at
1866 in France, Augustin Mouchot had developed the first
parabolic trough solar collector, and at 1878 he built the first
large-scale solar steam engines, he actually produced ice
using concentrated solar heat. It was a parabolic dish. That
machine could generate enough steam to drive a 1⁄2
horsepower engine at 80 strokes per minute. The machine
shown in Figure 2. [1]
Influenced by Mouchot, Frank Shuman who was an
American inventor built the world’s first solar thermal
power station in Maadi, Egypt (1912-1913). Shuman’s
plant, which shown in Figure 3, used parabolic troughs to
The basic schematic of conversion of solar to mechanical
energy is shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5. In these systems,
solar thermal energy, usually collected by concentrating
solar collectors, is used to operate a heat engine. Some of
these systems also incorporate heat storage, which allows
them to operate during cloudy weather and nighttime.[7].
Generic component options in solar thermal power
generation systems as shown in Figure 6, can be listed as the
concentrator, the heat transfer fluid and the power convertor
(generator).[8]
The main advantage of concentrated solar thermal power
over all other renewable energy technologies is the ability to
efficiently store power. As thermal storages are used, power
can be generated after sunset and during cloudy days.
 Page 3 of 16

Figure 7 Parabolic trough collector [10]

Figure 4 Principle of a concentrating solar collector [9]

Figure 8 Photograph of a thermal plant of Parabolic trough [7]

Figure 5 Schematic diagram of a solar-thermal energy conversion
system [7] 1.3.2 Fresnel Mirror System
A linear concentrating Fresnel solar concentrator, Figure 9,
is a planar array of linear mirror strips that reflect sunlight
onto a stationary thermal receiver. The operation
temperature range is 100–400 ºC. Fersnel solar system is
the most land-efficient solar system; it produces 1.5-3.0
times more power than other solar technology. It is seen as
Figure 6 Generic component options in solar thermal power plants[8] a potential low cost alternative to the parabolic trough
systems.[9]
1.3 Basic description of the concentrated solar
thermal power technologies
1.3.1 Parabolic trough
Parabolic trough reflectors, which shown in Figure 7,
concentrate sunlight onto receiver tubes in which a transfer
fluid is circulated. The fluid flows in the tubes, usually a
special oil, is then pumped through heat exchangers to
produce superheated steam. The steam is converted to
electrical energy in steam turbine generator, the latter can be
integrated into a combined steam and gas turbine cycle.[8].
The use of oil based working fluid limits this system to only
around 400 ºC.[9]. A view of a typical parabolic trough field
is shown in Figure 8.

Figure 9 Linear Fresnel reflector [10]

 Page 4 of 16

1.3.3 Parabolic dishes 1.4 Current and future Status of CSP

Dish systems, like troughs, gets benefits from the geometric
properties of a parabola, but as a three-dimensional
paraboloid, as shown in Figure 10. The reflected direct light
is concentrated to a point focus receiver and heat the fluid
inside this point to an operating temperatures of over
1,000ºC, similar to tower systems. Dish systems offer the
highest potential solar conversion efficiencies of all the CSP
technologies, because they always present their full aperture
directly towards the sun and avoid the ‘cosine loss effect’
that the other approaches experience. They are, however, the
least commercially mature. Dishes up to 24 m diameter have
been demonstrated. It is also applied with ‘micro dishes’
with diameters of just several centimeters [10]
According to the National renewable energy laboratory [11],
many countries have entered the commercial stage of the
CSP. The total capacity of operational plants in the world is
4.81 GW. The main countries in the CSP plants field are
Spain and USA. During the last decade, this technology had
a strong rate of growth. In 2006, the total capacity installed
of CSP was 0.5 GW, today, 2016 the installed capacity has
been multiplied by almost 10, it became almost 5 GW.[9]
The country with largest number of CSP plants is Spain with
a 42 operational plants with total capacity of 2.455 GW,
which makes it also the largest CSP producer country. The
world’s largest five plants are all in USA. Table-1 shows
names, capacities and technology type of these plants. In
USA, the total capacity of all its CSP plants is 1.816 GW.
Table 1 World Largest CSP plants [11]

Capacity Technology Completed

Name Country
MW type in
Ivanpah
Solar Solar power
USA 392 2014
Power tower
Facility
Solar
Energy
Parabolic
Generating USA 359 2014
trough
Systems
(SEGS)
Mojave
Parabolic
Figure 10 Parabolic dish reflectors [8] Solar USA 280 2014
trough
Project
Solana
1.3.4 Central receiver tower Generating USA 280
Parabolic
2013
trough
A central receiver tower system involves an array of Station
heliostats (large mirrors with two axis tracking) that Genesis
Solar Parabolic
concentrate the sunlight onto a fixed receiver mounted at the Energy
USA 250
trough
2014
top of a tower, as illustrated in Figure 11. Higher Project
concentration ratios are achieved compared to linear
focusing systems (Fersnel and Parabolic trough
concentrating solar systems) and this allows thermal The world’s largest under construction CSP plant is in
receivers to operate at higher temperatures about 1,000 ºC, Morocco, named Noor II with a capacity of 200 MW.
with reduced losses. A range of system and heliostat sizes Morocco aims to hit a target of 2 GW by 2020.[12]
have been demonstrated[10] According to the solar thermal electricity global outlook
2016, it is expected CSP will produce 5-12% of the world’s
need of power year 2050.[9]
Table 2 Installed and under construction CSP plants[9]

Largest
Approx. Cap.
Installed Single Plant
No. of Under
Technology Cap. Capacity
plants construction
MW MW -
MW
Location
Parabolic 280
73 4.115 719
Trough USA
Figure 11 Large scale heliostat arrays [8] Central 392
10 497 410
Receiver USA
125
Fresnel 8 179 180
India

Different expectations expressed by [12], who claimed an
uncertain future of CSP plants. They claimed that in
industrialized countries the major development will be in
solar PV and wind like technology, their aim will be
reducing the usage of fossil fuels; in the other countries
(developing countries) the CSP will develop well because
major capacities are needed.
2. Solar Thermal Tower Power Plants
In solar thermal tower power plants, hundreds or even
thousands of large two-axis tracked mirrors are installed
around a tower. These slightly curved mirrors are also called
heliostats; a computer calculates the ideal position for each
of these, and a motor drive moves them into the sun. The
system must be very precise in order to ensure that sunlight
is really focused on the top of the tower. It is there that the
absorber is located, and this is heated up to temperatures of
1000°C or more. Hot air or molten salt then transports the
heat from the absorber to a gas turbine or to steam generator
produces superheated water steam which drives a turbine
and electrical generator [13].
Figure 12 Solar tower power plant
2.1 Heliostats
A heliostat is a mirror that tracks the sun in order to
constantly reflect the rays of sunlight onto a fixed target.
They are a main element in the solar tower system; they
present the sun reflecting and thus concentrating parts of the
system. A field of heliostats concentrates the sunlight onto
a central receiver at the top of the tower. The tower is fixed
and the sun moves, so the heliostats have to track the sun in
order to reflect the rays on the receiver. These mirrors have
to have good reflectivity, accuracy of the tracking system,
resistance to wind, and low specific costs. They are mounted
on a frame, which has horizontal and vertical axes, which
provide the ability of tracking the sun. The mirror facets are
plane rectangular mirror with a slight convex curvature.
Page 5 of 16
Heliostats are characterized by two groups of properties;
namely: geometrical and optical properties. The geometrical
properties are height, width, ratio of the reflective surface
and the height of the pedestal (base). Height and width are
typically around 10 m; ratio of the reflective surface is very
close to 1.0; the height of the base is slightly more than the
half of the mirror height, typically more than 5.5 m. The
optical properties are reflectivity, cleanliness, slope error
and tracking error.
The field of heliostats has many proposed different
arrangements. The main two categories of heliostat fields
are the north-south arrangement, in which the heliostats
field is at one side of the tower and the surrounding field
arrangement. See Figure 13.
Figure 13 Different arrangements of heliostat field
The position of each heliostat in the heliostats field follows
the general pattern of the field. The basic patterns are the
grid and the circular patterns.
The performance of the heliostats field is affected by many
factors; shading, cosine, reflectivity, cleanliness, blocking,
atmospheric and spillage losses. To simulate these losses,
two methods are used: 1. Convolution-based algorithms and
2. Ray-tracing algorithms.
- Shading losses: occur at the start and end of the day as the
sun is low at the sky; some heliostat’s shadow will lay on
other heliostat preventing the full surface reflecting the sun
rays, it is expressed for each heliostat as a ratio of covered
area by others’ shadow to the total mirror’s reflective area.
- The cosine losses: happen when the heliostat plane is not
perpendicular to the sun vector and this way reflects less
than its own area towards the receiver. The cosine losses
cannot be avoided. The cosine efficiency is given by the
heliostat projection area along the sun vector divided by the
heliostat total area, easily expressed by the cosine of the
incidence angle.
- The reflectivity losses: are determined by the amount of
light that is not reflected by the clean mirror, depends on the
manufacturing quality of the mirror and on its resistance to
corrosion.

- The cleanliness losses: are caused by absorption and
diffusion by dirt on the mirror. It depends on dust deposit
and the frequency of cleaning or raining. These last two
losses are described by a loss coefficient, which is equal for
each heliostat and assumed constant over time at a given
annual mean value.
-The blocking losses: occur when solar radiation reflected
by a given heliostat is interrupted by another heliostat,
partially or fully. It is calculated as the ratio of blocked
reflected radiation for each heliostat. Unlike the shadow
losses, blocking losses are fixed during the day and can be
avoided totally by better design of the heliostat field.
- The atmospheric attenuation: affects the reflected solar
radiation by absorption and diffusion through the air
between the heliostat and the receiver. This effect is only
roughly assumed because no such data for the air quality
through the day.
- The spillage losses: occur from the fact that some reflected
solar radiation misses the receiver.
Gauché presented a review of the main software tools used
in the optical design, analysis and optimization of central
receivers systems. More than 10 codes were reviewed and
compared. These codes could be divided into two broad
categories: those used to analyze and optimize field layout
and those capable of accurately simulating the flux incident
on the receiver from one or more heliostats [14].
J. Collado have presented a new code called campo for fast
and accurate calculations of the shadowing and blocking
factor for each and every heliostat in the field [15].
2.2 Tower
The role of the tower is mainly to keep the receiver on its
top. It has to provide a space for the storage tank of the
receiver. The main design parameter of the tower is its
height.
2.3 Receiver
Receivers are the most important elements in concentrated
solar power systems, because the are the translator of the
concentrated radiation to heat. Their performance directly
affects the plant’s output power[16]. Receivers might be
assembled from various materials, those materials
determine their heat properties. They receiver designs can
be grouped in two main groups: external and cavity
receivers. See Figure 14. Cavity receivers have an additional
window around them to prevent heat loss to the air.
Generally they are used with the North-South heliostat
fields. The external receivers do not have this covering box,
so they have a larger heat losses due the winds, but the have
the advantage having a full acceptance angle, which means
more energy input. External receivers usually used with the
surrounding heliostat fields.
Page 6 of 16
Figure 14 solar tower with (A) external receiver, (B) cavity
The elements of the receivers can be in the most cases flat
or cylindrical; Flat elements can be tilted towards the
heliostats to improve capturing the reflected solar radiation.
The energy performance of the central receiver is
determined by its ability to convert the concentrated
radiation into heat power carried by the heat transfer fluid.
There are factors affecting the receiver performance;
namely: reflection, radiation and convection. Reflection of
the concentrated radiation when hits the receiver causes a
less input power. Radiation and convection of the heat to the
air are the main loss sources at the receivers. Losses due to
radiation and reflection are reduced by using a selective
coating.
López-Herraiz presented in details the effect of the optical
properties of the coating of a concentrated solar power
central receiver on its thermal efficiency[17].
The reflection loss of the cavity receiver and solar flux
distributions are discussed in detail by Zhang [18]. An
integrated method is developed to simulate solar radiation
transfer in a solar power tower system with a cavity receiver.
This integrated simulation method not only reveals the
cavity effect on receiver performance but also provides real-
time simulation results.
A complete thermal, mechanical and hydrodynamic analysis
of molten salt receivers has been developing by Rodríguez-
Sánchez to estimate the receiver life. The study included the
effect of corrosion [19].
K. Ho published a review of high-temperature central
receiver designs for concentrating solar power [20]. A new
design of molten salt central receiver proposed and
simulated with CFD solver in ANSYS by Garbrecht. The
new receiver is for a surrounding heliostat field and consists
of many hexagonal pyramid-shaped elements arranged that

their tips pointing to the heliostats [21]. As shown in Figure
15.
Figure 15 The propsed surface hexagonal elements [21]
Mohammedi concluded the existence of an optimal receiver
efficiency value for each steam mass flow, receiver surface
temperature and receiver surface area in the published paper
[22].
Xin-Li developed a model that calculates allowable flux
density on the central tower receiver. The author also
compared between the different types of receivers according
to the allowable flux [23].
Jin-Soo published a paper named “Simplified heat loss
model for central tower solar receiver”[24] This study
presents a numerical simulation calculating convection and
radiation heat losses from four different receiver shapes
including external and cavity type receivers with different
opening ratios (ratio of cavity aperture area to receiver area).
The simulation was carried out using Fluent CFD
(computational fluid dynamics) software. The simulation
results were then used for deriving a simplified correlation
model which gives the fraction of convection heat loss by a
function of opening ratio, receiver temperature, and wind
velocity. The calculated fraction can be easily converted to
convection heat loss, total heat loss, or receiver efficiency.
Wei simulated the effect of the windy conditions on the
thermal performance of a solar cavity receiver [25]. Wang
simulated and studied the cavity receiver with a model that
couples the radiation–heat conversion process, the
determination of convective heat transfer coefficient. The
study contains the effects of sudden radiation disturbance
and the effect of winds[16]. Also Samanes modeled the
cavity receiver and studied the transient performance of
it[26]. Abbasi-Shavazia experimentally investigated the
heat loss of cylindrical cavity receiver[27]. More complex
study done by Zhang-Jing and presented in [28]. Aiming to
enhancement for convection heat transfer of the solar central
receiver, thermal analysis of receiver tube with porous
inserts and non-uniform heat flux had been analyzed.
In a paper named “Optimal energy use of the collector tube
in solar power tower plant”[29] heat transfer and exergy
transfer methods are used to model the energy transfer
process in a collector tube. Different from common analysis
Page 7 of 16
methods, in order to ensure the molten salt to obtain the
maximum available energy, an objective function is
proposed to convert the task into a constrained optimization
problem. The gravitational search (GS) algorithm is
employed to search for the optimal solution of the proposed
objective function.
2.4 Heliostat field
Generally, heliostat field design is conducted with the tower
and receiver design. Many researchers proposed heliostat
designs for a given tower and receiver. Others combine the
two designs. Here the recent research in this area.
Sanchez developed a procedure based on yearly-normalized
energy surfaces to optimize heliostat field layout of central
receiver solar system. The proposed Heliostat Growth
Method (HGM) approach makes use of the Yearly
Normalized Energy Surface (YNES) that represents the
yearly energy usable at each point in our site for a given
tower height. The proposed procedure divides losses like
shadowing, blocking, atmospheric attenuation, cosine effect
and spillage into two groups, those depending only on the
location coordinates (X,Y) of the field with regard to the
tower, and losses which also affected by heliostat positions
and geometry[30].
Simulation and optimization of thermo-economic model for
a normal tower and multi tower of large solar plants is done
by Augsburger [13].
More detailed results obtained by Zheng [31] who studied
the thermodynamics analysis of idealized solar tower
thermal power plant. The objective of the study is to analyze
the influence of various parameters on thermal and exergy
efficiencies. It is found that the solar receiver working
temperature, concentration ratio and endoreversible heat
engine efficiency are three main factors influencing the
system thermal-power conversion efficiency.
An optimization procedure for design of heliostat field
layout of a 1MWe solar tower thermal power plant had been
developed by Xiudong. In this work the mathematical
theory of calculation is derived. The developed procedure
has been named HFLD. The parametric search algorithm,
which allows variation of the field parameters within a
specified range, is used for the optimization of field. The ray
tracing is used for the calculation of the optical efficiency.
Four modes of layout including North-South cornfield,
North-South stagger, Radial cornfield and Radial stagger
were experimented and optimized respectively. Author also
compared the field efficiency for the four optimized results
was made. [32]. The same corresponding author, Xiudong,
with a different team had improved their procedure HFLD.
In the new method, the heliostat boundary is constrained by
the receiver geometrical aperture and the efficiency factor,
which is the product of the annual cosine efficiency and the

annual atmospheric transmission efficiency of heliostat.
With the new method, the annual interception efficiency
does not need to be calculated when places the heliostats,
therefore the total time of design and optimization is saved
significantly. Based on the new method, a new code for
heliostat field layout design (HFLD) has been developed
and a new heliostat field layout for a typical plant has been
designed by using the new code. Compared with current
plant layout, the new designed heliostats have the same
optical efficiency but with a faster response speed [33].
Plaza developed UEGO, which is a mimetic evolutionary
and multimodal global optimization algorithm, which can
solve the optimization of the heliostat layout in a solar tower
power plant and finds good design of the heliostat field
layout to maximize the collected solar energy or to minimize
the cost of that energy. Due to the high computational cost
of the problem a parallelized version of UEGO was
developed [34]. A. Ramos and F. Ramos also used
evolutionary algorithm in addition to three other algorithms
to optimize the heliostat field using their model in which
they parameterized the plant design as a function of eleven
design variables and reduce the problem of finding optimal
designs to the numerical problem of finding the minimum
of a function of several variables. This minimization
problem is solved with different algorithms both local and
global in nature. The variables proposed as collector
variables and receiver variables. The heliostat
characteristics and geographic characteristics are considered
as given or constants (called parameters in the paper). The
first algorithm is a variant of Powell’s algorithm, which is a
line search algorithm, repeated many times until no better
solution found. The second and third algorithms are from
MINUT library, which has been widely used in high-energy
physics field. The used algorithms are MINUT-SEEK
optimizer, which is a Monte Carlo search algorithm; and
MINUT-MIGRAD, which is quasi-Newton algorithm, and
is considered as the best local optimizer in the MINUT
library. The forth algorithm is Genetic Algorithm which is a
stochastic global optimization evolutionary algorithm [35].
Using the algorithm previously proposed by A. Ramos and
F. Ramos optimization algorithms are proposed for more
complex solar power tower system by Carmen-Ana. They
are heuristic optimization algorithms with two optimization
objectives, the total construction cost and the collected
annual energy. The optimization problem had been divided
into two repeating parts, the first is optimizing the tower and
receiver designs with fixed heliostat field, and the second
part is to optimize the heliostat field with the previously
obtained tower-receiver design as fixed. The output of each
part is the input to the other part until no improvement in
objective value obtained, which considered the optimal
design. The multiple receivers problem is presented as the
study case [36]. The exactly same procedure is done by
Page 8 of 16
Carrizosa [37]. Carrizosa furthermore in later work used the
same general procedure but for multiple receivers solar
power towers. The variables related to the receivers (height,
aperture tilt angle, azimuth angle and aperture size) as well
as the heliostat field layout are optimized seeking to
minimize the levelized cost of thermal energy. This is a high
dimensional optimization problem with highly discontinues
objective function. The proposed strategy alternatively
optimizes the receivers and the heliostat field. A separate
aiming region is considered for each receiver. For the field
pattern, the author obtained the heliostat positions through a
pattern-free greedy-based location method [38].
Multiple receiver solar system is also studied by Dongsheng
at the paper of “Novel design of central dual-receiver for
solar power tower” where he proposed a dual-receiver with
a surrounding solar field to improve the efficiency of a solar
power tower (SPT). The proposed design combined an
external and a cavity receiver [39].
Atif and Al-Sulaiman also used evolutionary algorithm to
solve their developed mathematical model of the heliostat
field on annual basis. They based their optimization of
heliostat field layout on the calculation of five optical
performance parameters: the mirror or the heliostat
reflectivity, the cosine factor, the atmospheric attenuation
factor, the shadowing and blocking factor, and the intercept
factor. This model calculates all the performance parameters
at every stage of the optimization, until the best heliostat
field layout based on annual performance is obtained [40].
Farges proposed “Particle swarm optimization of solar
central receiver systems from a monte_carlo direct
model”[41] which presents an optimization approach
coupling a Particle Swarm Optimization algorithm with a
Monte Carlo algorithm applied to the design of Central
Receiver Solar systems. After the validation of the direct
model from experimental data, several PSO algorithms are
tested to pick out efficient parameters.
Another optimization research on the heliostat field is done
by Francisco J. Collad, who proposed a two-staged thermo-
economic optimized design for the heliostats field. First,
energy optimization, which is independent of the cost
models, and Second, economic optimization. The energy
optimization seeks a heliostat layout supplying the
maximum annual incident energy for all the explored
combinations of receiver sizes and tower heights. The
annual electric output is then calculated as the combination
of the incident energy and the simplified (annual averaged)
receiver thermal losses and power efficiencies. Finally, the
figure of merit of the main optimization is the levelised cost
of electric energy (LCOE) where the capital cost models
used for the LCOE calculation are reported by the System
Advisor Model (SAM)-NREL and Sandia [42].
 Page 9 of 16

Variable geometry is a ground breaking concept that is only heat transfer fluid is the Solugas plant, which produces 4.6
recently been researched, and existing optimization MWe in Spain [48]. Which shown in Figure 16.
software for conventional heliostat fields perform poorly
when applied to this new concept. Cádiz presented a code
which consider the variable geometry heliostat fields. [43].
A paper named “Effect of heliostat design wind speed on the
levelised cost of electricity from concentrating solar thermal
power tower plants”[44] published by Emes, assesses the
influence on the levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) of the
design wind speed at which heliostats in concentrating solar
thermal (CST) power tower (PT) plants are installed.
Segal present a method of optimization for design
parameters, such as the receiver working temperature and
the heliostat field density. This method aims at maximizing
the overall efficiency of the three major subsystems that
constitute the entire plant, namely, the heliostat field and the Figure 16 Tower solar plant with pressurized air HTF
tower, the receiver and its accompanying secondary optics,
In solar tower power systems with atmospheric air heat
and the power block. The results of this optimization process
transfer fluid, air enters the receiver from atmosphere
are shown and analyzed. The principal result demonstrates
without additional pressure, gets hot at the receiver and exits
that the operating temperature has an optimal value and its
the tower with high temperature, at last it enters a steam
further increase can lower the overall efficiency of the
generator which produces steam runs steam turbine that runs
system [45].
the electricity generator. Typical example for solar tower
L. Avila-Marin published a review of volumetric receivers with atmospheric air heat transfer fluid is Jülich Solar Power
in Solar Thermal Power Plants with Central Receiver Tower plant in Germany, which produces 1.5 MWe
System technology that covers the research work done since [49],which shown in Figure 17.
1990 up to 2011.[46]

2.5 Heat transfer fluid (HTF)

Heat transfer fluid is one of the main elements in the
concentrated solar power system. Since it is used in the
system with a huge amount, it has to be cheap and safe. In
addition, it has to have very good thermal properties and
fluidity. Many types of materials may be used; but the most
famous are:
1. Pressurized air
2. Atmospheric air (volumetric air)
3. Direct steam
4. Molten salts
The selected heat transfer fluid determines the properties of
the piping and storage ability. K. Vignarooban has a review
paper on the heat transfer fluids for concentrated solar
power systems. Also material selection for piping works and
storage tank materials for any selected heat transfer fluid Figure 17 Tower solar plant with atmospheric air HTF
[47].
In solar tower power systems with pressurized air heat In solar tower power systems with steam heat transfer fluid,
transfer fluid, air enters the receiver from a compressor at water enters the receiver, gets hot at the receiver and exits
high pressure, gets hot at the receiver and exits the tower as superheated steam; at last, it enters a steam turbine that
with high temperature and high pressure, at this point it is runs the electricity generator. The used steam is collected,
optionally combusted, at last it enters a gas turbine condensed and re-enter the tower. Typical example for solar
generating the motion needed by the electricity generator. tower with direct steam heat transfer fluid is Coalinga
Furthermore, the exhaust air from the gas turbine could be
BrightSource in USA, produces 29 MWe [50], which shown
reused in creating steam that could run a second steam
turbine. Typical example for solar tower with pressurized air in Figure 18

Figure 18 Tower solar plant with direct steam HTF [13]
In solar tower power systems with molten salt heat transfer
fluid, molten salt enters the receiver, gets hot at the receiver
and exits at very high temperature; then it enters a heat
exchanger loses its heat to create steam at steam generator,
steam runs steam turbine that runs the electricity generator.
Generally, there would be two salt storage tanks, for the hot
and cold molten salts. Typical example for solar tower with
molten salt heat transfer fluid is Torresol plant in Spain,
produces 19.9 MWe [51], which shown in Figure 19
Figure 19 Tower solar plant with molten salt HTF [13]
2.6 Thermal energy storage (TES)
Also called heat storage, enables concentrated solar
systems plants to serve even in bad weather or night. This
technology is the largest advantage of the CSP plants. The
concept is simple; the excess heat during the day is stored
by heating up some material and save it hot at insolated
containers. When energy is needed this stored thermal
energy is released to the steam generator. Figure 20Error!
Reference source not found. shows a typical plot of
thermal output directly from the sun and the output from the
heat storage. It is clear that the thermal energy storage
extends the output of the plant.
Page 10 of 16
Figure 20 Thermal output vs. time of day of a concentrated solar power
plant with a heat storage. [52]
Thermal storage capacity of a typical storage is far larger
than any possible electrical battery. For example the
Crescent Dune’s 1.1 GW-hour storage stores energy 40
times more than the largest battery storage project in
construction or built to date [9].
The most used heat storage material is molten salt. The heat
transfer material, which is the material that getting heated in
the solar collector, in the plant generally is mineral oil,
molten salt or air.
If the heat storage material is different from the heat transfer
material, the heat storage system would be indirect, because
it will heat the storage material through heat exchanger. On
the other hand, if the heat transfer material is same as heat
storage material, the heat storage could be indirect or direct.
In Direct thermal energy storage system heat storage
material is the heat transfer fluid itself, and controlled
directly by valves.
Figure 21 Solar tower plant with: (a) direct thermal energy storage, (b)
indirect thermal energy storage. [52]

The size of the heat storage is determined by the load
requirement, ranging from small heat storages, which is
needed to act as a regulator in the heat system when energy
is needed only during the day, and the large heat storage
which enables the plants to produce energy continuously.
The thermal energy storage system is a dynamic system.
Therefore, it is usually studied by simulation models as a
part of the dynamic simulation of the whole plant. The
design problem of the heat storage is the control plan.
Studies on storage:
A review done by Goswami about Thermal energy storage
technologies and systems for concentrating solar power
plants. In this paper author presents a review of thermal
energy storage system design methodologies and the factors
to be considered at different hierarchical levels for
concentrating solar power (CSP) plants [53]. Cirecco also
published a review article about energy storage of
concentrated solar power plants. It reviews the energy
storage technologies and optimization techniques to
determine optimal operation and size of storage of a system
to operate in the Australian National Energy Market (NEM)
[54].
An evaluation plant built by Abengoa, has a huge heat
storage in MW scale. Prieto described and discussed plant
and stating how to reflect its data for larger plants [55].
Powell [56] and Manenti [57] studied the dynamic
simulation and control of the two-tank direct thermal energy
storage systems. Powell focused on the storage component,
its interaction with the other components of the system, and
how it can be leveraged to control power output in addition
to collector outlet temperature [56]. Manenti aimed to define
simplified layout of the whole plant as well as to highlight
the main issues to characterize the process dynamics of
these energy systems and their related energy storages.
Detailed first-principles mathematical models of key unit
operations are developed, implemented, and integrated into
commercial codes to improve the reliability of the plant
dynamic simulation as well as the prevision accuracy. The
case of Archimede concentrating solar power plant with the
related two tanks direct thermal energy storage technology
is investigated [57].
Casati stated that from the point of view of investment cost
reduction, the same yearly revenue could be harvested with
using smaller energy storage, if optimally operated. That
was a result of a study included the economical complexity
to the control problem using high level modelling language,
namely Modelica modelling language, and the optimization
done by Optimica extension to Modelica. [58].
Suresh discussed the use of thermal energy storage and
hybridization to enhance the utility of a solar plant [59].
Page 11 of 16
2.7 Thermodynamics and combinations analysis
Another way of optimization of concentrated solar power
plants is by combining them with other technologies. Here
are some of the work done in this area.
[60] In this paper, a review of the previous studies and
papers for integrating solar thermal energy with
conventional and non-conventional power plants was
carried out.
D. Iverson studied the applicability of high-efficiency
thermodynamic cycles to concentrated solar power
plants.[61]
Augsburger conducted a PhD thesis in which a detailed
Thermo-economic simulation and optimization of large
solar tower power plants is performed. The simulation and
optimization applied for a normal tower, multi tower, and
tower-trough combined systems, in which the trough solar
system is used to preheat the flowing material that used in
the tower system [13]. The aim of tower solar plant
combination with trough solar collectors is reduce the total
cost. The heat transfer fluid is heated first at the parabolic
trough collectors to mid temperatures, only the remaining
heating is done at the solar tower. Proposed combined plant
is shown in Figure 22.
Figure 22 solar tower plant combined with parabolic trough field [13]
A comparative study, done by S.Ravelly, compares between
solar tower and parabolic trough solar systems when
combined with other cycles. That is, comparison between
solar tower combined with Integrated Solar Combined
Cycle (ISCC - ST), solar tower combined with solar
Rankine cycle (SRC-ST), parabolic trough collector
combined with Integrated Solar Combined Cycle (ISCC -
PTC), parabolic trough collector combined with solar
Rankine cycle (SRC-PTC). The author concluded that the
best combination is the (ISCC-ST) on the annual solar-to-
electricity efficiency [62].
J. Spelling had done a study of thermo-economic
optimization of a combined cycle solar tower power plant
[63] Figure 23. A dynamic model of a pure-solar combined-
cycle power plant has been developed in order to allow

determination of the thermodynamic and economic
performance of the plant for a variety of operating
conditions and superstructure layouts. The model was then
used for multi-objective thermo-economic optimization of
both the power plant performance and cost, using a
population-based evolutionary algorithm (Genetic
Algorithm). In order to examine the trade-offs that must be
made, two conflicting objectives will be considered, namely
minimal investment costs and minimal levelized electricity
costs.
Figure 23 Solar power plant with gas and steam power blocks [63]
Okoroigwe in the paper [64] presented a review of
integrated combined cycle system (ICCS) driven by solar
tower (ST) Figure 24. Integration of solar tower with hybrid
gas turbine is discussed in terms of system design, techno-
economic analysis, thermodynamics analysis and heliostat
modeling. In addition, in the same manner he discussed the
integration of the solar tower with combined cycle gas
turbine. Possible limiting factors stated as technology
maturity, financial and policy instruments and technical
factors (e.g. solar source, land source, tower height, material
and supply chain and technical expertise) are explained.
Figure 24 ST-ISCCS power plant, showing the solar field, Brayton cycle
and Rankine cycle [64]
Page 12 of 16
3. Studies on opportunities in various countries
A comprehensive report of opportunities and challenges of
implementing concentrated solar power plants in various
countries is presented in the “Solar thermal electricity -
global outlook 2016” [9]. The challenges include huge
initial financial needs, huge land requirement, local policies,
etc.
Srilakshmi discussed challenges and opportunities for Solar
Tower technology in India by assessing the principal
parameters of existing plants, namely, solar to electric
conversion efficiency, mirror and land area per MWe of
equivalent capacity, packing density, field layout
configuration, receiver size, tower height and gross costs of
plants. Using this assessment as a basis, the technical,
financial and policy drivers and barriers for adopting tower
technology in India are discussed. The author concluded that
tower technology with external cylindrical or cavity
receivers with storage should be adopted [65].
Reddy also studied the implementation of concentrated solar
power plants in India. The author compared different types
of concentrated solar power plants for 30 years of project
life with 10% rate of investment and found that parabolic
trough collectors plant is the most cost effective providing
the required energy with the lowest cost [66].
In Brazil it is recommended in some regions of the country
to adopt the concentrated solar power plants as Soria
provided a comparison between concentrated solar power
plants and other renewable energy technologies; concluded
that it has higher potential with small difference in the initial
costs [67].
In [68] Boudaoud presents a technical and economic
analysis for the implementation of a probable molten salt
cavity receiver thermal power plant in Algeria. The author
have investigated the effect of solar field size, storage
capacity factor, solar radiation intensity, hybridization and
power plant capacity on the thermal efficiency and
electricity cost of the selected plant. The system advisor
model has been used to perform the technical performance
and the economic assessment for different locations
(coastal, highland and Sahara regions) in Algeria. Taking
into account various factors, a method has been applied to
optimize the solar multiple and the capacity factor of the
plant, to get a trade-off between the incremental investment
costs of the heliostat field and the thermal energy storage.
The study concluded that hybrid central receiver systems are
attractive solutions for rapid deployment of CSP technology
in Algeria.
Xavier studied the applicability of the concentrated solar
power plants to West Africa countries. The installation of
these systems in West Africa countries is suggested by the
author [69].

Evaluation of the potential of central receiver solar power
plants done by L. Avila-Marin. This study was done
considering the size and location analysis of the plant,
technology analysis, storage analysis and materials cost
analysis. It is a procedure that can be repeated to evaluate
solar tower power plants.[70]
T. Hinkley presented an overview of the costs of
concentrating solar power (CSP) deployed internationally
and an estimate of what these costs are expected to be in
Australia, both for trough and tower technologies [71]. The
author concluded that solar tower system has a greater
potential to reduce cost in higher temperature.
It is encouraged to install concentrated solar power plants in
Serbia according to a study done by M. Pavlovic [72].
Figure 25 World solar energy map [65]
From Figure 25, it is clear that Africa has good intense solar
energy space. Installing such huge plants in Africa would
provides jobs to huge amount of Africans, in addition to the
non-stopping source of electricity which will encourage
other industries.
Figure 26 Current CSP market situation across the world [9]
Page 13 of 16
When comparing Figure 25 and Figure 26 we can notice
that countries with intense solar energy are the least of
using it. According to Figure 26 planned capacities at
Africa and Latin America are huge; with no such huge
capacity planned anywhere else.
4. Conclusion
This work is done to emphasize concentrated solar power
plants technologies. Noticed among researches the
competition between solar tower and parabolic trough
collectors systems. Also noticed that at the level of
published researches, some countries with intense solar
radiation has no contribution to this field at all. Despite the
fact these countries would be the main winner from these
technology. One of the main problems in the field of
concentrated power plants is the mirrors cleaning problem;
but no research found solving this problem. This work
focuses on the power plant level of the thermal solar system;
although that is the global trend intending to cover the high
initial cost, smaller plants like aggregation plants seems to
be an interesting area of research.
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