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Shankar IAS Environment 6th Edition
Shankar IAS Environment 6th Edition
Shankar IAS Environment 6th Edition
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ENVIRONMENT
Revised Edition
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ISBN - 978-81-934226-0-1
Pages : 400 (xxxvi + 364)
© Copyright is reserved to the publisher, therefore the person who will try to intimate or to print this book illegally
or without the prior written permission of this publisher in any form, will be responsible for the loss and may be
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“Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s need but not every man’s greed”
- Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi
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CONTENTS
Previous Year UPSC Question paper analysis (2011 to 2018) ��������������������������� xiii
PART-I
ENVIRONMENTAL ECOLOGY
S.No Chapter Page No.
1. ECOLOGY��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 3-9
History of Ecology��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 3
Environment and its Components ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 3
Levels of Organisation ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 4
3. TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM������������������������������������������������������������������23-32
Tundra������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 23
Forest Ecosystem�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 23
Indian Forest Types���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 25
Deforestation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 27
Grassland Ecosystem�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 28
Desert Ecosystem (Thar & Cold)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 29
Desertification��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������31
State of forest report, 2017����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 32
4. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM����������������������������������������������������������������������������33-53
Aquatic Organism������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 33
Lake Ecology��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 35
Eutrophication������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 36
Harmful Algal bloom...............................................................................................................38
Wetland Ecosystem����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 39
National Wetland Conservation Programme����������������������������������������������������������������������� 42
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5. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION�������������������������������������������������������������55-82
Pollutants��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 55
Air Pollution���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 55
Smog����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 56
Indoor Air Pollution����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 57
Fly Ash�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 58
NAMP & NAAQ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 60
Air Pollution in India����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������61
Water Pollution����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 62
Soil Pollution��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 65
Noise Pollution������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 66
Radio Active Pollution������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 67
E-Waste������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 69
Solid Waste�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������71
Thermal Pollution������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 73
Plastics Pollution��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 74
Bio-Remediation���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 76
Environmental Pollution and Health������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 77
Acid Rain��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 78
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PART-II
BIODIVERSITY
S.No Chapter Page No.
9. BIODIVERSITY������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 123-127
Biodiversity�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������123
Levels of Biodiversity�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������123
Measurement of Biodiversity����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 124
Biodiversity Services������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 124
Modes of Conservation����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������125
Botanical Garden and Zoo��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 125
Red Data Book����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 126
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PART-III
CLIMATE CHANGE
S.No Chapter Page No.
17. CLIMATE CHANGE����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 203-210
Global Warming�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 203
Green House Effect���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������204
Green House Gases��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 205
Climate Forcing���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������208
Global Warming Potential����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������209
Receding Glaciers. A Symptom of Global Climate Change������������������������������������������������ 210
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PART-IV
AGRICULTURE
S.No Chapter Page No.
24. AGRICULTURE����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 275-293
Agriculture���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 275
Crop and its Classification��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 276
Tillage������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 279
Cropping System and Pattern����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������280
Farming System�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 282
Sustainable Agriculture�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 283
Organic Farming�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������284
Integrated Farming System������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 285
Soil Science����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������288
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GLOSSARY������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 347-354
APPENDIX ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 355-363
Ramsar Wetland Sites in India�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 355
Tiger Reserves of India��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 355
Elephant Reserves in India�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 356
Mike Sites in India���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 357
Biosphere Reserves��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 357
List of India’s Biosphere Reserves in UNESCO’s Map List������������������������������������������������� 358
Natural World Heritage Sites����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 358
List of Sacred Groves������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 359
Mangrove Sites in India�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 359
List of Key Activities and Likely Associated Air Pollutants�����������������������������������������������360
Respiratory Irritants and Toxic Chemicals��������������������������������������������������������������������������361
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PRELIMINARY
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2011 - Answers
1(c) 2(c) 3(d) 4(b) 5(b) 6(b) 7(b) 8(b) 9(d) 10(d)
11(b) 12(a) 13(a) 14(c) 15(d) 16(b) 17(d) 18(c) 19(a) 20(a)
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1. Which of the following can be threats to the biodiver- 5. Consider the following:
sity of a geographical area? 1. Black-necked crane
1. Global warming 2. Cheetah
2. Fragmentation of habitat 3. Flying squirrel
3. Invasion of alien species 4. Snow leopard
4. Promotion of vegetarianism Which of the above are naturally found in India?
Select the correct answer using the codes given below. a. 1,2 and 3 only b. 1,3 and 4 only
a. 1, 2 and 3 only b. 2 and 3 only
c. 2 and 4 only d. 1,2,3 and 4
c. 1 and 4 only d. 1, 2, and 4
6. Consider the following kinds of organisms
2. In which one among the following categories of pro-
1. Bat
tected areas in India are local people not allowed to
collect and use the biomass? 2. Bee
a. Biosphere Reserves 3. Bird
b. National Parks Which of the above is/are pollinating agent / agents?
c. Wetlands declared under Ramsar Convention a. 1 and 2 only b. 2 only
d. Wildlife Sanctuaries c. 1 and 3 only d. 1, 2 and 3
3. Consider the following protected areas 7. Which one of the following groups of animals be-
1. Bandipur longs to the category of endangered species?
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2012 - Answers
1 (a) 2 (b) 3 (b) 4 (a) 5 (b) 6 (d) 7 (a) 8 (a) 9 (a) 10 (b)
11 (d) 12 (d) 13 (a) 14 (a) 15 (c) 16 (a) 17 (a)
(Q.no. 7 is disputed)
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1. Consider the following statements: 6. Mycorrhizal biotechnology has been used in reha-
Which one among the following industries is the bilitating degraded sites because mycorrhiza enables
maximum consumer of water in India? the plants to
(a) Engineering (b) Paper and pulp 1. Resist drought and increase absorptive area
(c) Textiles (d) Thermal power 2. Tolerate extremes of pH
2. Fruits stored in a cold chamber exhibit longer stor- 3. Resist disease infestation
age life because Select the correct answer using the code given below
(a) Exposure to sunlight is prevented (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(b) Concentration of carbon dioxide in the environment (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
is increased
(c) Rate of respiration is decreased 7. With reference to the food chains in ecosystems,
which of the following kinds of organism is/are
(d) There is an increase in humidity
known as decomposer organism/organisms?
3. Consider the following fauna of India: 1. Virus 2. Fungi
1. Gharial 3. Bacteria
2. Leatherback turtle
Select the correct answer using the code given below
3. Swamp deer
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
Which of the above is/are endangered?
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None 8. Which of the following is/are unique characteristic/
characteristics of equatorial forests?
4. Many transplanted seedling do not grow because
1. Presence of tall, closely set trees with crowns form-
(a) the new soil does not contain favourable minerals ing a continuous canopy.
(b) most of the root hairs grip the new soil too hard 2. Coexistence of a large number of species.
(c) most of the root hair are lost during transplantation 3. Presence of numerous varieties of epiphytes.
(d) leaves get damaged during transplantation Select the correct answer using the code given below
5. Which of the following leaf modification occurs/ (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
occur in desert areas to inhibit water loss? (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
1. Hard and waxy leaves
9. Consider the following crops:
2. Tiny leaves or no leaves
1. Cotton 2. Groundnut
3. Thorns instead of leaves
3. Rice 4. Wheat
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: Which of these are Kharif crops?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (a) 1 and 4 (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 1 2, and 3 (d) 2, 3 and 4
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13. Due to improper / indiscriminate disposal of old and 17. Consider the following organisms:
used computers or their parts, which of the follow- 1. Agaricus 2. Nostoc
ing are released into the environment as e-waste?
3. Spirogyra
1. Beryllium 5. Mercury
2. Cadmium 6. Lead Which of the above is/are used as biofertilizer/
3. Chromium 7. Plutonium biofertilizers?
4. Heptachlor (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only
Select the correct answer using the codes given below. (c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 only
(a) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only 18. Which of the following adds/add nitrogen to the soil?
(b) 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 only
1. Execretion of urea by animals
(c) 2, 4, 5 and 7 only
2. Burning of coal by man
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7
3. Death of vegetation
14. Acid rain is caused by the pollution of environment
by Select the correct answer using the codes given
(a) carbon dioxide and nitrogen below.
(b) carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) ozone and carbon dioxide (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) nitrous oxide and sulphur dioxide
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2013 - Answers
1(d) 2(c) 3(d) 4(c) 5(d) 6(d) 7(b) 8(d) 9(c) 10(b)
11(d) 12(c) 13(b) 14(d) 15{a (or) (d) doubt} 16(d) 17(b) 18(c) 19(a) 20(b)
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3. There is some concern regarding the nanoparticles 7. The most important strategy for the conservation of
of some chemical elements that are used by the in- biodiversity together with traditional human life is
dustry in the manufacture of various products. the establishment of
Why? (a) biosphere reserves
1. They can accumulate in the environment, and con- (b) botanical gardens
taminate water and soil. (c) national parks
2. They can enter the food chains. (d) wildlife sanctuaries
3. They can trigger the production of free radicals. 8. The scientific view is that the increase in global tem-
Select the correct answer using the code given below. perature should not exceed 2°C above pre-industrial
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only level. If the global temperature increases beyond 3°C
above the pre-industrial level, what can be its pos-
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 sible impact/impacts on the world?
4. Which of the following have coral reefs? 1. Terrestrial biosphere tends toward a net carbon
1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands source
2. Gulf of Kachchh 2. Widespread coral mortality will occur
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Select the correct answer using the code given below: 1. Seed cost is very low in this compared to the con-
ventional method of cultivation.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
2. Drip irrigation can be practiced very effectively in
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
this.
19. Among the following organisms, which one does not 3. There is no application of chemical/inorganic ferti-
belong to the class of other three? lizers at all in this.
(a) Crab (b) Mite 4. The scope for inter cropping is more in this com-
(c) Scorpion (d) Spider pared to the conventional method of cultivation.
20. Consider the following international agreements: Select the correct answer using the code given below.
1. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only
for Food and Agriculture. (c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
2. The United Nations Convention to Combat Deserti-
24. If a wetland of international importance is brought
fication.
under the ‘Montreux Record’, what does it imply?
3. The World Heritage Convention.
(a) Changes in ecological character have occurred, are
Which of the above has/have a bearing on the occurring or are likely to occur in the wetland as a
biodiversity? result of human interference.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (b) The country in which the wetland is located should
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 enact a law to prohibit any human activity within
five kilometers from the edge of the wetland.
21. Consider the following statements regarding ‘Earth
Hour’ (c) The survival of the wetland depends on the cultural
practices and traditions of certain communities liv-
1. It is an initiative of UNEP and UNESCO.
ing in its vicinity and therefore the cultural diver-
2. It is a movement in which the participants switch sity therein should not be destroyed.
off the lights for one hour on a certain day every
(d) It is given the status of ‘World Heritage Site’.
year.
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2014 - Answers
1(d) 2(b) 3(d) 4(a) 5(b) 6(a) 7(a) 8(b) 9(c) 10(b) 11(a) 12(d) 13(b) 14(d) 15(b) 16(c) 17(b)
18(c) 19(a) 20(d) 21(c) 22(a) 23(b) 24(a) 25(c) 26(a) 27(c) 28(b) 29(c) 30(c) 31(c) 32(c) 33(c) 34(b)
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1. Which one of the following National Parks has a 5. In India, in which one of the following types of for-
climate that varies from tropical to subtropical, tem- ests is teak a dominant tree species?
perate and arctic?
a) Tropical moist deciduous forest
a) Khangchendzonga National park
b) Tropical rain forest
b) Nandadevi National Park
c) Tropical thorn scrub forest
c) Neora Valley National Park
d) Temperate forest with grasslands
d) Namdapha National park
2. ‘BioCarbon Fund Initiative for Sustainable Forest 6. Which one of the following is the best description of
Landscapes’ is managed by the the term “ecosystem”?
(a) Asian Development Bank a) A community of organisms interacting with one
(b) International Monetary Fund another
(c) United Nations Environment Programme b) That part of the Earth which is inhabited by living
(d) World Bank organisms
c) A community of organisms together with the envi-
3. The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee is
ronment in which they live.
constituted under the
(a) Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 d) The flora and fauna of a geographical area.
(b) Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration 7. H1N1 virus is sometimes mentioned in the news with
and Protection) Act, 1999 reference to which one of the following diseases?
(c) Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (a) AIDS (b) Bird flu
(d) Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (c) Dengue (d) swine flu
4. With reference to ‘Forest Carbon Partnership Facil- 8. Which of the following National Parks is unique in
ity’, which of the following statements is/are cor-
being a swamp with floating vegetation that sup-
rect?
ports a rich biodiversity?
1. It is global partnership of governments, businesses,
a) Bhitarkanika National Park
civil society and indigenous peoples
b) Keibul Lamjao National Park
2. It provides financial aid to universities, individual
scientists and institutions involved in scientific for- c) Keoladeo Ghana National park
estry research to develop eco-friendly and climate d) Sultanpur National park
adaptation technologies for sustainable forest man-
9. With reference to the International Union for Con-
agement
servation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
3. It assists the countries in their ‘REDD+ (Reducing and the Convention on International Trade in En-
Emission from Deforestation and Forest Degrada- dangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES),
tion+)’ efforts by providing them with financial and which of the following statements is/are correct?
technical assistance. 1. IUCN is an organ of the United Nations and CITES
Select the correct answer using the code given is an international agreement between govern-
below ments
a) 1 only b) 2 and 3 only 2. IUCN runs thousands of field projects around the
c) 1 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3 world to better manage natural environments.
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2015 - Answers
1(d) 2(d) 3(c) 4(c) 5(a) 6(c) 7(d) 8(b) 9(b) 10(a) 11(c) 12(c) 13(d) 14(b) 15(a) 16(a)
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1. The FAO accords the status of ‘Globally Important Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Agricultural Heritage System (GIAHS)’ to traditional (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
agricultural systems. What is the overall goal of this
initiative? (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
1. To provide modern technology, training in modern 4. Recently, our scientists have discovered a new and
farming methods and financial support to local distinct species of banana plant which attains a
communities of identified GIAHS so as to greatly height of about 11 metres and has orange-coloured
enhance their agricultural productivity fruit pulp. In which part of India has it been discov-
2. To identify and safeguard eco-friendly traditional ered?
farm practices and their associated landscapers,
(a) Andaman Islands
agricultural biodiversity and knowledge systems of
the local communities (b) Anaimalai Forests
3. To provide Geographical Indication status to all the (c) Maikala Hills
varieties of agricultural produce in such identified (d) Tropical rain forests of northeast
GIAHS
Select the correct answer using the code given below. 5. What is/are unique about ‘Kharai Camel’, a breed
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only found in India?
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 1. It is capable of swimming up to three kilometres in
seawater.
2. Consider the following pairs:
2. It survives by grazing on mangroves.
Terms sometimes Their origin seen in the news
3. It lives in the wild and cannot be domesticated.
1. Annex—I Countries : Cartagena Protocol
2. Certified Emissions Reductions: Nagoya Protocol Select the correct answer using the code given below.
3. Clean Development Mechanism: Kyoto Protocol (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
matched?
6. With reference to an initiative called ‘The Economics
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)’, which of the
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 following statements is/are correct?
3. Which of the following best describes/ describe the 1. It is an initiative hosted by UNEP, IMF and World
aim of ‘Green India Mission’ of the Government of Economic Forum.
India?
2. It is a global initiative that focuses on drawing at-
1. Incorporating environmental benefits and costs into tention to the economic benefits of biodiversity.
the Union and State Budgets thereby implementing
the `green accounting’ 3. It presents an approach that can help decision-mak-
ers recognize, demonstrate and capture the value
2. Launching the second green revolution to enhance
agricultural output so as to ensure food security to of ecosystems and biodiversity.
one and all in the future Select the correct answer using the code given below.
3. Restoring and enhancing forest cover and respond- (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
ing to climate change by a combination of adapta-
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
tion and mitigation measures
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2016 - Answers
1(b) 2(c) 3(c) 4(a) 5(a) 6(c) 7(a) 8(d) 9(a) 10(a) 11(d)
12(d) 13(d) 14(a) 15(b) 16(b) 17(b) 18(b) 19(c) 20(d) 21(a)
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1. From the ecological point of view, which one of the 5. According to the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972,
following assumes importance in being a good link which of the following animals cannot be hunted by
between the Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats? any person except under some provisions provided
(a) Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve by law?
(b) Nallamala Forest 1. Gharial
(c) Nagarhole National Park 2. Indian wild ass
(d) Seshachalam Biosphere Reserve 3. Wild buffalo
2. Consider the following statements in respect of Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Trade Related Analysis of Fauna and Flora in (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
Commerce (TRAFFIC) :
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
1. TR AFFIC is a bureau under United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP). 6. With reference to ‘Global Climate Change
Alliance’, which of the following statements
2. The mission of TRAFFIC is to ensure that trade in
wild plants and animals is not a threat to the is/are correct?
conservation of nature. 1. It is an initiative of the European Union.
Which of the above statements is/are correct ? 2. It provides technical and financial support to
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only targeted developing countries to integrate climate
change into their development policies and budgets.
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
3. It is coordinated by World Resources Institute
3. Due to some reasons, if there is a huge fall in the
(WRI) and World Business Council for sustainable
population of species of butterflies, what could be
Development (WBCSD).
its likely consequence/consequences ?
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
1. Pollination of some plants could be adversely
affected. (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
2. There could be a drastic increase in the fungal (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
infections of some cultivated plants. 7. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a standard cri-
3. it could lead to a fall in the population of some terion for
species of wasps, spiders and birds.
(a) Measuring oxygen levels in blood
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(b) Computing oxygen levels in forest ecosystems
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) Pollution assay in aquatic ecosystems
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) Assessing oxygen levels in high altitude regions
4. In the context of mitigating the impending global
warming due to anthropogenic emissions of carbon 8. Consider the following statements :
dioxide, which of the following can be the potential 1. Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) to Reduce
sites for carbon sequestration ? Short Lived Climate Pollutants is a unique initiative
1. Abandoned and uneconomic coal seams of G20 group of countries.
2. Depleted oil and gas reservoirs 2. The CCAC focuses on methane, black carbon and
3. Subterranean deep saline formations hydrofluorocarbons.
Select the correct answer using the code given below: Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
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2017 - Answers
1(a) 2(b) 3(c) 4(d) 5(d) 6(a) 7(c) 8(b) 9(b) 10(a) 11(b)
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1. How is the National Green Tribunal (NGT) different 4. Which of the following is/are the possible
from the Central Pollution Control Board ( CPCB) ? consequence/s of heavy sand mining in riverbeds?
1. The NGT has been established by an Act whereas 1. Decreased salinity in the river
the CPCB has been created by an executive order of 2. Pollution of groundwater
the Government. 3. Lowering of the water-table
2. The NGT provides environmental justice and helps Select the correct answer using the code given below:
reduce the burden of litigation in the higher courts (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
whereas the CPCB promotes cleanliness of streams
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
and wells, and aims to improve the quality of air in
the country. 5. With reference to agricultural soils, consider the
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? following statements
(a) 1 only 1. A high content of organic matter in soil drastically
reduces its water holding capacity.
(b) 2 only
2. Soil does not play any role in the sulphur cycle.
(c) Both 1 and 2
3. Irrigation over a period of time can contribute to
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 the salinization of some agricultural lands.
2. With reference to the ‘Global Alliance for Climate- Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Smart Agriculture (GACSA)’, which of the following (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
statements is/are correct ? (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
1. GACSA is an outcome of the Climate Summit held
6. The Partnership for Action on Green Economy
in Paris in 2015. (PAGE), a UN mechanism to assist countries transi-
2. Membership of GACSA does not create any binding tion towards greener and more inclusive economies,
obligations. emerged at
3. India was instrumental in the creation of GACSA. (a) The Earth Summit on Sustainable Development
Select the correct answer using the code given below: 2002, Johannesburg
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) T he United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Development 2012, Rio de Janeiro
(b) 2 only
(c) The United Nations Framework Convention on
(c) 2 and 3 only Climate Change 2015, Paris
(d) 1, 2 and 3 (d) The World Sustainable Development Summit 2016,
3. Which of the following statements best describes New Delhi
“carbon fertilization” ? 7. Consider the following statements:
(a) Increased plant growth due to increased concentra- 1. Most of the world’s coral reefs are in tropical
tion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere waters.
(b) Increased temperature of Earth due to increased 2. More than one-third of the world’s coral reefs are
concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere located in the territories of Australia, Indonesia and
Philippines.
(c) Increased acidity of oceans as a result of increased
concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere 3. Coral reefs host far more number of animal phyla
than those hosted by tropical rainforests.
(d) Adaptation of all living beings on Earth to the cli-
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
mate change brought about by the increased con-
centration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
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2018 - Answers
1(b) 2(b) 3(a) 4(b) 5(b) 6(b) 7(d) 8(c) 9(a) 10(a)
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PART - I
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V- CHAPTER -1 w
ECOLOGY
icology Oikos meaning home or place to live in and The environment is defined as the sum total of living,
pH logos meaning study. Literally it is the study of the non-living components; influences and events, surrounding
I I home of nature. an organism.
Ecology is defined as a scientific study of the relationship All organisms (from virus to man) are obligatorily depend ¬
of the living organisms with each other and with their ent on the other organism and environment for food, en ¬
environment. ergy, water, oxygen, shelter and for other needs.
It deals with the ways in which organisms are moulded by The relationship and interaction between organism and
their environment, how they make use of environmental environment are highly complex. It comprises both living
resources including energy flow and mineral cycling. (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components.
The environment is not static. Both biotic and abiotic fac ¬
1.1. HISTORY OF ECOLOGY tors are in a flux and keeps changing continuously.
The roots of ecology lie in Natural History, which is as old
as human civilization itself. Since early history, man has Components of Environment
indulged in ecology in a practical sort of way, knowingly Abiotic Biotic
and unknowingly. In primitive societies every individual Energy Green plants
was required to have an intimate knowledge of his envi¬ Radiation Non-green plants
ronment for their survival, i.e., about the forces of nature Temperature & heat flow Decomposers
and of plants and animals around him/ her. Water Parasites
Our ancient Indian texts have references to ecological prin ¬ Atmospheric gases and wind Symbionts
ciples. The classical texts of the Vedic period such as the Fire Animals
Vedas, the Samhitas, the Brahmanas and the Aranyakas- Gravity Man
Upanishads contain many references to ecological concepts. Topography
The Indian treatise on medicine, the Charaka-Samhita and Soil
the surgical text Sushruta-Samhita, show that people during Geologic substratum
this period had a good understanding of plant and animal For instance: Let s take the environment of a fish in the
ecology. pond.
These texts contain classification of animals on the basis
of habit and habitat, land in terms of nature of soil, climate External environment of fish
and vegetation; and description of plants typical to various • Its environment consists of abiotic components such as
localities. Charaka- Samhita contains information that air, light, temperature, including the water in which nutri ¬
land, water and seasons were indispensable for life and ents, oxygen, other gases and organic matter are dis ¬
1.2. ENVIRONMENT AND ITS COMPONENT isms called plankton which it assume as well as aquatic
Everything that surrounds or affects an organism during plants, animals and decomposers.
its life time is collectively known as its environment.
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1.3.3. Community
pared to the external environment.
If we look around ourself, we will notice that population
• However, it is not absolutely constant. Injury, illness or
of plants and animals seldom occur by themselves. The
excessive stress upsets the internal environment.
reason for this is quite obvious. In order to survive, indi ¬
• For example, if a marine fish is transferred to a fresh viduals of any one species depend on individuals of dif ¬
water environment, it will not be able to survive. ferent species with which they actively interact in several
ways.
1.3 LEVELS OF ORGANISATIONS IN
For eg: Animals require plants for food and trees for shel¬
ECOLOGY
ter. Plants require animals for pollination, seed dispersal,
The main levels of organisation of ecology are six and are and soil microorganism to facilitate nutrient supply.
as follows.
Communities in most instances are named after the dom ¬
m
«w» ph«r# inant plant form (species).
For example: A grassland community is dominated by
grasses, though it may contain herbs, shrubs, and trees,
along with associated animals of different species.
A community is not fixed or rigid ; communities may be
Ecosystem large or small.
V ' N
Community ' Do you know?
The skies over North India are seasonally filled with
'
M a thick soup of aerosol particles all along the southern
Individual edge of the Himalayas, Bangladesh and the Bay of
Bengal.- NASA research findings.
Ecological Organisation V s
Types of Community
1.3.1. Individual
On the basis of size and degree of relative independence
Organism is an individual living being that has the ability communities may be divided into two types:
to act or function independently. It may be plant, animal,
bacterium, fungi, etc. It is a body made up of organs, or ¬ (a) Major Community
ganelles, or other parts that work together to carry out on These are large-sized, well organized and relatively inde ¬
the various processes of life. pendent. They depend only on the suns energy from out ¬
The main factors that make population increase are birth pletely independent units as far as energy and nutrient
and immigration. The main factors that make population dynamics are concerned, e.g: A mat of lichen on a cow
decrease are death and emigration. dung pad.
The main limiting factors for the growth of a population
are abiotic and biotic components.
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• They depend on organic food derived from plants, ani ¬ cies structure and functional processes. This capacity
mals or both. of ecosystem of self regulation is known as
homeostasis.
• Consumers can be divided into two broad groups
namely micro and macro consumers. Goods and Services provided by ecosystems
(i) Macro consumers include:
• They feed on plants or animals or both and are catego ¬ • Provision of food, fuel and fibre
rised on the basis of their food sources. • Provision of shelter and building materials
• Flerbivores are primary consumers which feed mainly • Purification of air and water
on plants e.g. cow, rabbit. • Detoxification and decomposition of wastes
• Secondary consumers feed on primary consumers e.g. • Stabilization and moderation of the Earth s climate
wolves.
• Moderation of floods, droughts, temperature extremes
• Carnivores which feed on secondary consumers are and the forces of wind.
called tertiary consumers e.g. lions which can eat
wolves.
• Generation and renewal of soil fertility, including nutri ¬
ent cycling.
• Omnivores are organisms which consume both plants
• Pollination of plants, including many crops Control of
and animals e.g. man, monkey. pests and diseases
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varieties and livestock breeds, medicines, and other vive, stay healthy and reproduce.
products A niche is unique for a species, which means no two species
• Cultural and aesthetic benefits have exact identical niches. Niche plays an important role
Ecotone in conservation of organisms.
Ecotone is a zone of junction between two or more diverse If we have to conserve species in its native habitat we
ecosystems. For e.g. the mangrove forests represent an should have knowledge about the niche requirements of
ecotone between marine and terrestrial ecosystem. Other the species and should ensure that all requirements of its
examples are - grassland, estuary and river bank niche are fulfilled.
Types of Niche
1. Habitat niche - where it lives
r \
Land
ecosystem
Aquatic
ecosystem
Do you know?
Two Schemes namely Nagar VanaUdyanYojana and
Ecotone School Nursery Yojana have been launched. Nagar
Eoowstam i
(nNMh ind bcotyawn 11
VanaUdyanYojana aims to create at least one city for¬
Ecotone est in each city with a minimum area of 25 ha. The
scheme aims at creation of a City Forest in forest areas
Characteristics of Ecotone within their jurisdiction up to a maximum of 100 ha
• It may be very narrow or quite wide. and minimum area of 20 ha. The objective of the Yo ¬
• It has the conditions intermediate to the adjacent eco¬ jana is to create 200 City Forests in the country. The
systems. Hence it is a zone of tension. School Nursery Yojana aims to build a lasting bond of
students with nature.
• It is linear as it shows progressive increase in species " J
composition of one in coming community and a simul ¬
joining community.
1.3.5 . Biome
• A well developed ecotones contain some organisms
which are entirely different from that of the adjoining
communities.
• Sometimes the number of species and the population
density of some of the species is much greater in this \
zone than either community. This is called edge effect.
\
The organisms which occur primarily or most abundantly
in this zone are known as edge species. In the terrestrial
ecosystems edge effect is especially applicable to birds.
For example the density of birds is greater in the mixed
habitat of the ecotone between the forest and the desert.
Niche
BIOME Distribution based on Temperature
A niche is the unique functional role or place of a species and Precipitation
in an ecosystem. It is a description of all the biological ,
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1 Tundra Northern and Southern most Devoid of trees except stunted shrubs in the southern
region of world adjoining the part of tundra biome, ground flora includes lichen,
ice bound poles mosses and sedges.
The typical animals are reindeer, arctic fox, polar
bear, snowy owl, lemming, arctic hare, ptarmigan.
Reptiles and amphibians are almost absent.
2 Taiga Northern Europe, Asia and The dominating vegetation is coniferous evergreen
North America. Moderate mostly spruce, with some pine and firs.
temperature than tundra. Also The fauna consists of birds, hawks, fur bearing
known as boreal forest. carnivores, little mink, elks, puma, Siberian tiger,
wolverine, wolves etc.
3 Temperate Extends over Central and The flora includes trees like beech, oak, maple and
Deciduous Southern Europe, Eastern cherry.
Forest North America, Western Most animals are the familiar vertebrates and
China, Japan, New Zealand etc. invertebrates.
Moderate average temperature These are generally the most productive agricultural
and abundant rainfall. areas of the earth
4 Tropical rain forest Tropical areas in the equatorial Tropical rainforest covers about 7% of the earth s
regions, which is abound with surface & 40% of the world s plant and animal
life. Temperature and rainfall species. Multiple storey of broad-leafed evergreen
high. tree species are in abundance. Most animals and
epiphytic plants are concentrated in the canopy or
tree top zones.
5 Savannah Tropical region: Savannah is Grasses with scattered trees and fire resisting thorny
most extensive in Africa. shrubs.
The fauna include a great diversity of grazers and
browsers such as antelopes, buffaloes, zebras,
elephants and rhinoceros; the carnivores include lion,
cheetah, hyena; and mongoose, and many rodents.
6 Grassland North America, Ukraine, etc. Grasses dominate the vegetation. The fauna include
Temperate conditions with low large herbivores like bison, antelope, cattle, rodents,
rainfall. prairie dog, wolves, and a rich and diverse array of
ground nesting bird.
7 Desert Continental interiors with very The flora is drought resistance such as cactus,
low and sporadic rainfall with euphorbias, sagebrush. Fauna: Reptiles, Small
low humidity. The days are Mammals and birds.
very hot but nights are cold.
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re come from air, water and soil. The same chemicals are
ho
p he
sp
m
At
re
Hydrosphere
Do you know?
Environmental Information System (ENVIS), a Cen-
tral Sector Scheme of the Ministry has been imple-
Biosphere mented since 1982. The purpose of the scheme is to
integrate country-wide efforts in environmental in-
formation collection, collation, storage, retrieval and
It is a narrow layer around the surface of the earth. If we dissemination through ENVIS websites, which are
visualise the earth to be the size of an apple the biosphere dedicated to different interesting themes.
would be as thick as its skin.
Life in the biosphere is abundant between 200 metres (660
feet) below the surface of the ocean and about 6,000 me-
tres (20,000 feet) above sea level.
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CHAPTER - 2
FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
T
•
he function of an ecosystem is a broad, vast and
complete dynamic system. It can be studied under
the following three heads.
Energy flow
at each trophic level so that energy level decreases from
the first trophic level upwards.
As a result there are usually four or five trophic levels and
seldom more than six as beyond that very little energy is
• Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles) left to support any organism. Trophic levels are numbered
according to the steps an organism is away from the source
• Ecological succession or ecosystem development
of food or energy, that is the producer.
2.1 ENERGY FLOW The trophic level interaction involves three concepts
namely:-
Energy is the basic force responsible for all metabolic ac-
tivities. The flow of energy from producer to top consum- 1. Food Chain
ers is called energy flow which is unidirectional. 2. Food Web
The study of Trophic level interaction in an ecosystem gives 3. Ecological Pyramids
an idea about the energy flow through the ecosystem.
2.2. FOOD CHAIN
2.1.1. Trophic level interaction Organisms in the ecosystem are related to each other
Trophic level interaction deals with how the members of through feeding mechanism or trophic levels, i.e. one or-
an ecosystem are connected based on nutritional needs. ganism becomes food for the other. A sequence of organ-
isms that feed on one another, form a food chain. A food
Trophic levels (Trophe = nourishment) chain starts with producers and ends with top carnivores.
I Autotrophs Green plants (producers)
II Heterotrophs Herbivore Do you know?
(primary consumers) Bear hibernation is different than most hibernating
III Heterotrophs Carnivores animals. True hibernation (like we see in ground squir-
(secondary consumers) rels) involves a drastic drop in body temperature but
IV Heterotrophs Carnivore the hibernating animal will awaken occasionally to eat
(tertiary consumers) and defecate before resuming hibernation. When a bear
V Heterotrophs Top carnivores ‘hibernates’ it is really in a deep sleep. It’s body tem-
(Quarternary consumers) perature drops but not drastically and it does not wake
up. The one exception is that a mother bear will wake
Energy flows through the trophic levels: from producers up to give birth in January or February. Since food is
to subsequent trophic levels. This energy always flows from scarce in the winter bears figure that if you can’t eat
lower (producer) to higher (herbivore, carnivore etc.) you might as well sleep. Bears like the Asiatic Bear live
trophic level. It never flows in the reverse direction that is in warmer climates where food is readily available all
from carnivores to herbivores to producers. year long and there is no need to hibernate.
There is a loss of some energy in the form of unusable heat
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Do you know?
Dolphins, Porpoises and whales are called cetaceans.
A cetacean is a creature belonging to a group of water
living mammals that have no hind limbs and a blow-
hole for breathing. They are not fish!
2.4. ECOLOGICAL PYR AMIDS • The grasses occupy the lowest trophic level (base) be-
cause of their abundance.
The steps of trophic levels expressed in a diagrammatic
way are referred as ecological pyramids. The food producer • The next higher trophic level is primary consumer -
forms the base of the pyramid and the top carnivore forms herbivore (example – grasshopper).
the tip. Other consumer trophic levels are in between. • The individual number of grasshopper is less than that
The pyramid consists of a number of horizontal bars de- of grass. The next energy level is primary carnivore
picting specific trophic levels which are arranged sequen- (example – rat).
tially from primary producer level through herbivore, • The number of rats are less than grasshopper, because,
carnivore onwards. The length of each bar represents the they feed on grasshopper. The next higher trophic level
total number of individuals at each trophic level in an eco- is secondary carnivore (example – snakes). They feed
system. on rats.
The number, biomass and energy of organisms gradually • The next higher trophic level is the top carnivore. (Ex.
decrease with each step from the producer level to the Hawk).
consumer level and the diagrammatic representation as- • With each higher trophic level, the number of individual
sumes a pyramid shape. decreases.
The ecological pyramids are of three categories. (b) Pyramid of numbers - inverted
1. Pyramid of numbers,
2. Pyramid of biomass, and
3. Pyramid of energy or productivity.
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Do you know?
All snakes smell with their tongues. When a snake sticks out its tongue it smells its surroundings. The moist tongue
collects scents and small organisms from whatever it touches and from the air around it. When the tongue goes back
into the mouth the forks touch a special sensory spot called the Jacobson’s organ on the roof of the mouth and tells
the snake what it smells. Snakes have a small notch in their lips that they can stick their tongues through so they
don’t need to open their mouths. Some snakes can smell with their noses.
utilised by green plants, out of which the plant uses up We are concerned about these phenomena because, to-
some for respiration and of the 1000 calories, therefore gether they enable even small concentrations of chemicals
only 100 calories are stored as energy rich materials. in the environment to find their way into organisms in
high enough dosages to cause problems.
Movement of these pollutants involves two main processes:
i) Bioaccumulation
ii) Biomagnification.
2.5.1. Bioaccumulation
• It refers to how pollutants enter a food chain.
• In bioaccumulation there is an increase in concentration
of a pollutant from the environment to the first organ-
ism in a food chain.
2.5.2. Biomagnification
Pyramid of energy
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2.7.1. Nutrient Cycling • Gaseous Cycle – where the reservoir is the atmosphere
or the hydrosphere, and
The nutrient cycle is a concept that describes how nutrients
move from the physical environment to the living organ-
• Sedimentary Cycle – where the reservoir is the earth’s
crust.
isms, and subsequently recycled back to the physical envi-
ronment.
Do you know?
This movement of nutrients from the environment into
plants and animals and again back to the environment is Spiders can’t chew or swallow inject their prey with
essential for life and it is the vital function of the ecology poison using their fangs. The poison turns the insides
of any region. In any particular environment, to maintain of insect to a watery goop and the spider just sucks
its organism in a sustained manner, the nutrient cycle must it up.
be kept balanced and stable.
Nutrient cycling is typically studied in terms of specific
nutrients, with each nutrient in an environment having 2.7.2. Gaseous Cycles
its own particular pattern of cycling. Among the most Let us first study some of the most important gaseous
important nutrient cycles are the carbon nutrient cycle cycles; namely – water, carbon and nitrogen.
and the nitrogen nutrient cycle. Both of these cycles make (a) Water Cycle (Hydrologic)
up an essential part of the overall soil nutrient cycle. There
are many other nutrient cycles that are important in ecol-
Water as an important ecological factor de-
ogy, including a large number of trace mineral nutrient
termines the structure and function of the
cycles.
ecosystem. Cycling of all other nutrients is
also dependent upon water as it provides
their transportation during the various steps.
It acts as a solvent medium for their uptake
of nutrients by organisms.
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Nitrogen Cycle
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CHAPTER - 3
TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS
These differences are reflected in both the material and 3.2. FOREST ECOSYSTEM
biotic diversities. Altitudinal and latitudinal variations The forest ecosystem includes a complex assemblage of
cause shifts and differences in the climatic patterns. Due
different kinds of biotic communities. Optimum conditions
to varied climate, the plant and animal life existing in dif-
such as temperature and ground moisture are responsible
ferent terrestrial areas vary which result in differentiation
for the establishment of forest communities.
of ecosystem as segments within the large biosphere. The
most important limiting factors of the terrestrial ecosys- The nature of soil, climate and local topography determine
tems are moisture and temperature. the distribution of trees and their abundance in the forest
vegetation. Forests may be evergreen or deciduous. They
3.1. TUNDR A are distinguished on the basis of leaf into broad-leafed or
Tundra means a “barren land” since they are found where needle leafed coniferous forests in the case of temperate
environmental conditions are very severe. There are two areas.
types of tundra- arctic and alpine. The forest ecosystems have been classified into three major
• Distribution: Arctic tundra extends as a continuous belt categories: coniferous forest, temperate forest and tropical
below the polar ice cap and above the tree line in the forest. All these forest biomes are generally arranged on a
northern hemisphere. It occupies the northern fringe of gradient from north to south latitude or from high to lower
Canada, Alaska, European Russia, Siberia and island altitude.
group of Arctic Ocean. On the south pole, tundra is very
small since most of it is covered by ocean .
Do you know?
Alpine tundra occurs at high mountains above the with
respect to Arctic mountains are found at all latitudes there- Dart Frogs got their name because hunters would tip
fore alpine tundra shows day and night temperature vari- their arrows in the frog’s poisons. Sadly, because peo-
ations. ple are cutting down rainforests for farming and
ranching, Poison Dart Frogs are at risk. The Blue Poi-
• Flora and fauna: Typical vegetation of arctic tundra is son Dart Frog is the most endangered due to the pet-
cotton grass, sedges, dwarf heath, willows, birches and shop market.
lichens. Animals of tundra are reindeer, musk ox, arctic
hare, caribous, lemmings and squirrel.
Most of them have long life e.g. arctic willow has a life span 3.2.1. Coniferous forest (boreal forest):
of 150 to 300 years. They are protected from chillness by
the presence of thick cuticle and epidermal hair. Mammals • Cold regions with high rainfall, strong seasonal cli-
of the tundra region have large body size, small tail and mates with long winters and short summers are char-
small ear to avoid the loss of heat from the surface. The acterised by boreal coniferous forest
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2) development project
• Due to deforestation, this natural reuse cycle is broken
and water is lost through rapid run off.
• The human population have increased considerably, so • Much of the mining activity in India is being carried out
with their requirements. in forest regions. The obvious result is deforestation and
soil erosion.
Do you know? • Underground mining has also significantly denuded
Reptiles are cold-blooded animals that raise their body forests, as timber is used for supporting the roofs of
temperature by lying in the sun or lower it by crawling mine galleries.
into the shade. Their body temperature changes to the • A large number of abandoned mines are lying in bad
temperature of its surroundings. shape and are under extensive gully erosion leading to
degradation of the habitat.
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CHAPTER - 4
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
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Process of Eutrophication
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WETLAND
INLAND COASTAL
WETLAND WETLAND
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Pneumatophores
Mangrove tree
• Most mangrove vegetation has lenticellated bank which
facilitates more water loss, produces coppices. Leaves
are thick and contain salt secreting glands.
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Stilt Roots
Do you know?
The word amphibian means two-lives. Amphibians
spend their lives in the water and on land. All amphib-
ians begin their life in water with gills and tails. As Indian Mangrove Profile
they grow, they develop lungs and legs for their life on
land. Members of this animal class are frogs, toads, • On the west coast of India, mangroves, mostly scrubby
salamanders, newts, and caecilians or blindworms. and degraded occur along the intertidal region of estu-
Amphibians shed their skin as they grow. Usually the aries and creeks in Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka.
shed skin is eaten.
• The mangrove vegetation in the coastal zone of Kerala
is very sparse and thin.
4.7.2. Mangrove profile in India • In Gujarat (north-west coast) mangroves Avicennia ma-
• The mangroves of Sundarbans are the largest single rine, Avicennia officinalis and Rhizophora mucronata
block of tidal holophytic mangroves of the world. The are found mainly in Gulf of Kachchh and the Kori
major species of this dense mangrove forest include creek.
Herritiera fames, Rhizophora spp., Bruguiera spp., Ce- • Mangroves are of scrubby type with stunted growth,
riops decandra, Sonneratia spp. and Avicennia spp., forming narrow, discontinuous patches on soft clayey
Nypa fruticans are found along the creeks. This man- mud.
grove forest is famous for the Royal Bengal Tiger and
crocodiles. Mangrove areas are being cleared for agri- • The condition of the mangroves is improving especially
in the Kori creek region, which is a paleodelta of the
cultural use.
Indus river.
• The mangroves of Bhitarkanika (Orissa), which is the
second largest in the Indian sub continent, harbour high • In size, mangroves range from bushy stands of dwarf
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Do you know?
All spiders produce silk but not all spiders spin webs.
Silk is used for climbing, to create webs, to build
smooth walls in burrows, build egg sacs, and wrap
prey.
Solar Irradiance
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CHAPTER - 5
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
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• Burning such fuels produces large amount of smoke and • Mainly from carpets, particle boards, and insulation
other air pollutants in the confined space of the home, foam. It causes irritation to the eyes and nose and al-
resulting in high exposure. Women and children are the lergies.
groups most vulnerable as they spend more time in- v) Radon
doors and are exposed to the smoke. • It is a gas that is emitted naturally by the soil. Due to
• Although many hundreds of separate chemical agents modern houses having poor ventilation, it is confined
have been identified in the smoke from biofuels, the four inside the house and causes lung cancers.
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• Trees are an important part of our world. They provide wood for building and pulp for making paper. They pro-
vide habitats (homes) for all sorts of insects, birds and other animals. Many types of fruits and nuts come from
trees -- including apples, oranges, walnuts, pears and peaches. Even the sap of trees is useful as food for insects
and for making maple syrup -- yum!
• Trees also help to keep our air clean and our ecosystems healthy. We breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon
dioxide. Trees breathe in carbon dioxide and breathe out oxygen. We’re perfect partners!
• Trees do lots for us, our environment and other plants and animals in nature but we don’t just love trees for
practical reasons.
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6) Marine pollution:
• Presence of organic and inorganic wastes in water
decreases the dissolved Oxygen (DO) content of
• Oceans are the ultimate sink of all natural and man- the water. Water having DO content below 8.0 mg
made pollutants. Rivers discharge their pollutants into L-1 may be considered as contaminated. Water
the sea. The sewerage and garbage of coastal cities are having DO content below. 4.0 mg L-1 is considered
also dumped into the sea. The other sources of oceanic to be highly polluted. DO content of water is im-
pollution are navigational discharge of oil, grease, de- portant for the survival of aquatic organisms. A
tergents, sewage, garbage and radioactive wastes, off number of factors like surface turbulence, photo-
shore oil mining, oil spills. synthetic activity, O2 consumption by organisms
and decomposition of organic matter are the fac-
Oil Spills tors which determine the amount of DO present
in water.
• Oil spills is one of the most dangerous of all water
pollutants. • The higher amounts of waste increases the rates of
decomposition and O2 consumption, thereby de-
• Oil spills from tankers at sea or leaks from under- creases the DO content of water. The demand for
ground storage tanks on land are very difficult to O2 is directly related to increasing input of organic
control as oil tends to spread very fast, affecting a wastes and is empressed as biological oxygen de-
large area in a very short time. mand (BOD) of water.
• On land crude is transported through pipelines or • Water pollution by organic wastes is measured in
tankers which can get damaged and spew out terms of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). BOD
crude oil over the land, thereby contaminating it. is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by bac-
• Since crude oil is lighter than water, it floats on the teria in decomposing the organic wastes present in
surface and poses the threat of swift-spreading fire. water. It is expressed in milligrams of oxygen per
• Oil spills at sea decrease the oxygen level in the litre of water.
water and cause harm to the organisms. • The higher value of BOD indicates low DO content
• Oil spills are also a source of air and groundwater of water. Since BOD is limited to biodegradable
pollution. materials only. Therefore, it is not a reliable method
of measuring pollution load in water.
• Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a slightly better
5.3.2. Effects of Water Pollution mode used to measure pollution load in water. It is
1. Effects on aquatic ecosystem: the measure of oxygen equivalent of the require-
ment of oxidation of total organic matter (i.e. bio-
i) Polluted water reduces Dissolved Oxygen (DO) content,
degradable and non-biodegradable) present in
thereby, eliminates sensitive organisms like plankton,
water.
molluscs and fish etc.
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iii. Over exploitation of ground water may lead to leach-
The Environmental Performance Index, is conducted ing of arsenic from soil and rock sources and con-
and written by environmental research centers at Yale taminate ground water. Chronic exposure to arsenic
and Columbia universities with assistance from out- causes black foot disease. It also causes diarrhoea,
side scientists. peripheral neuritis, hyperkerotosis and also lung and
Different parts of the tree grow at different times of skin cancer.
the year. A typical pattern is for most of the foliage
growth to occur in the spring, followed by trunk
growth in the summer and root growth in the fall and • Arsenic contamination is a serious problem (in
winter. Not all the trees follow the same pattern. tube well dug areas) in the Ganges Delta, west ben-
gal causing serious arsenic poisoning to large num-
bers of people. A 2007 study found that over 137
• Mercury compounds in waste water are converted by million people in more than 70 countries are prob-
bacterial action into extremely toxic methyl mercury, ably affected by arsenic poisoning of drinking
which can cause numbness of limbs, lips and tongue, water.
deafness, blurring of vision and mental derangement.
4. Biological Magnification
A cripling deformity called Minamata disease due to 5. Eutrophicaiton
consumption of fish captured from mercury contam-
inated Minamata Bay in Japan was detected in 1952. 5.3.3. Control Measures
1) Riparian buffers
• Water contaminated with cadmium can cause itai itai 2) Treatment of sewage water and the industrial effluents
disease also called ouch-ouch disease (a painful disease should be done before releasing it into water bodies.
of bones and joints) and cancer of lungs and liver.
3) Hot water should be cooled before release from the
• The compounds of lead cause anaemia, headache, loss power plants
of muscle power and bluish line around the gum.
4) Domestic cleaning in tanks, streams and rivers, which
3. Hazards of ground water pollution: supply drinking water, should be prohibited.
i. Presence of excess nitrate in drinking water is danger- 5) Excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides should be
ous for human health and may be fatal for infants. avoided.
6) Organic farming and efficient use of animal residues
• Excess nitrate in drinking water reacts with as fertilizers.
hemoglobin to form non-functional methaemo- 7) Water hyacinth (an aquatic weed) can purify water by
globin, and impairs oxygen transport. This condi- taking some toxic materials and a number of heavy
tion is called methaemoglobinemia or blue baby metals from water.
syndrome.
8) Oil spills in water can be cleaned with the help of
ii. Excess fluoride in drinking water causes neuro-mus- bregoli – a by-product of paper industry resembling
cular disorders, gastro-intestinal problems, teeth de- saw dust, oil zapper, micro-organisms.
formity, hardening of bones and stiff and painful joints The steps taken by the Government to address the issues
(skeletal fluorosis). of water pollution include the following:-
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8. Toners Found in the plastic printer Inhalation is the primary exposure pathway,
cartridge containing black and color and acute exposure may lead to respiratory
toners. tract irritation. Carbon black has been
classified as a class 2B carcinogen, possibly
carcinogenic to humans. Reports indicate that
colour toners (cyan, magenta and yellow)
contain heavy metals.
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First
The bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans has been
used to de toxify toluene and ionic mercury which are • Pollution inventory and apportionment studies that as-
released from radioactive nuclear waste. sess relative contribution of different sources are looked
at in isolation and not within a coherent framework of
health protection.
Mycoremediation • What ultimately should drive policy is not just what
• is a form of bioremediation in which fungi are used to source is emitting more but which source is likely to lead
decontaminate the area. to a greater exposure to health damaging pollutants.
Mycofiltration • Globally, studies show vehicles contribute from a quar-
ter to close to half of the particulates in cities.
• is a similar process, using fungal mycelia to filter toxic
waste and microorganisms from water in soil. Second
Advantages of bioremediation • Our scientists do not say that people are exposed to
• Useful for the complete destruction of a wide variety of much higher health damaging pollutants than what
contaminants. occurs in ambient conditions.
• The complete destruction of target pollutants is possible. • With each breath we inhale three-four times more pol-
lutants than the ambient air concentration.
• Less expensive.
• Environment friendly • Exposure to vehicular fumes is highest on road and up
to 500 metres from there. The majority in our cities
Disadvantages of bioremediation lives in that zone.
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CHAPTER - 6
RENEWABLE ENERGY
Source
Primary source - renewable energy like solar, wind, geo-
and health problems being faced today. thermal
Therefore, alternative sources of energy have become very Secondary source - non-renewable energy generated
important and relevant. through the conversion of coal, oil, natural gas etc.
Renewable energy is energy that is generated from natural The Government has up-scaled the target of renewable
resources that are continuously replenished. This includes energy capacity to 175 GW by the year 2022 which includes
sunlight, geothermal heat, wind, tides, water, and various 100 GW from solar, 60 GW from wind, 10 GW from bio-
forms of biomass. This energy cannot be exhausted and is power and 5 GW from small hydro-power.
constantly renewed.
Installed power generation capacity in India
They are viable source of clean limitless energy, cause less
The total installed capacity in India from renewable energy
emission, and are available locally. The use of renewable
on April, 2016 is 42,800 MW. Majority of the total capacity
energy greatly reduces all sort of pollutions vis-a-vis non- is developed by the State sector accounting for about 39
renewable energy. Most of the renewable sources of energy per cent (app.) followed by Private sector for about 31 per
are fairly non-polluting and considered clean. But biomass cent (app.) and Centre hold about 29 per cent (app.) each.
though a renewable source, is a major contributor of indoor
pollution. 6.1 SOLAR ENERGY
India is one of the few countries naturally blessed with long
days and plenty of sunshine.
Renewable energy comprises of
There are two ways we can produce electricity from the
• Solar energy - energy generated from the sun sun light:
• Hydel energy - energy derived from water
• Biomass – energy from firewood, animal dung, bio- • Photovoltaic Electricity – uses photovoltaic cells that
absorb the direct sunlight to generate electricity
degradable waste and crop residues, when it is burnt.
• Geothermal energy- energy from hot dry rocks, • Solar-Thermal Electricity – uses a solar collector that
has a mirrored surface which reflects the sunlight onto
magma, hot water springs, natural geysers, etc.
a receiver that heats up a liquid. This heated up liquid
• Ocean thermal - energy from waves and also from is used to make steam that produces electricity.
tidal waves.
• Co-generation - producing two forms of energy 6.1.3 Photovoltaic Electricity
from one fuel. Solar panels are attached to an aluminium mounting sys-
• Fuel cells are also being used as cleaner energy tem. Photovoltaic (PV) cells are made up of at least 2 semi-
source. conductor layers - a positive charge, and a negative charge.
As a PV cell is exposed to sunlight, photons are reflected,
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CHAPTER - 7
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
7.1. I NDIAN HIMALAYAN REGION landscapes, but also for ensuring the ecological security of
(IHR) – ENVIRONMENTAL the entire Indian sub-continent.
CHALLENGES
(A) URBANIZATION IN THE HIMALAYAS – IS IT
The Indian Himalayan Region (IHR), which occupies a
SUSTAINABLE?
strategic position along the entire northern and north-
eastern boundary of the country and administratively cov- IMPACT - SOLID WASTE
ers 10 states in their entirety (Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal The continued expansion in urban settlements, influx of
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Naga- visitors, trekkers and mountaineers in the Himalayan re-
land, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya) and two gion has started to pose high biotic pressure and concom-
states partially (the hill districts of Assam and West Ben- itant indiscriminate solid waste dumping. As a result, the
gal), has wide ranging ecological and socio-economic sig- IHR is getting adversely affected.
nificance.
In the absence of proper management practices and inad-
IHR Services equate infrastructural facilities, human induced pollution,
such as solid waste, untreated sewage and local air pollution
• Besides innumerable goods, IHR generates a plethora of due to vehicles has been continuously increasing in the IHR.
services not only for Himalayan inhabitants but also
influences the lives of people living well beyond its IMPACT - TOWN PLANNING
boundaries. Rapid unplanned growth of hill towns, construction ac-
• Among other services, the region, with its large area tivities without a proper plan, general non-compliance with
under permanent snow cover and glaciers, forms a prescribed norms and guidelines, and indiscriminate use
unique water reservoir that feeds several important of land for commercial outfits/tourist resorts have severely
perennial rivers. and adversely affected the fragile ecosystem of the Hima-
• With its vast green cover, IHR also acts as a giant car- layas.
bon ‘sink’. Large scale land instabilities, drying up of natural water
• IHR also forms a considerably large part of identified sources, waste disposal problems and changing socio-
Himalayan Biodiversity global hotspot. cultural values are known impacts of unplanned construc-
tion activities.
Role in Indian climate. Deforestation activities - cutting in an area causes eco-
The region, however, is facing environmental problems on logical damage and slope instability in adjacent areas.
account of various factors including the stress caused by INITIATIVES
anthropogenic activities. Even geologically, the Himalayan
ecosystem falls under the most vulnerable category. There- Ban on Plastic in HP
fore the environmental issues being faced by the IHR are • State government enacted the Himachal Pradesh Non-
of critical importance. Biodegradable Garbage (Control) Act, 1995 in order to
Managing the Himalayan ecosystem sustainably is critical prevent throwing or depositing non- biodegradable gar-
not only for preserving its pristine beauty and spectacular bage in public drains, roads.
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CHAPTER - 8
Project Initiation
Present Status
(without project)
Adverse
Impact
Environment
With project
Time
Time
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• The site(s) selection can be an effective approach in • Ambient air, water and noise quality standards
minimising the requirement of mitigation measures. • Critically polluted areas
• Proposed project locations should be reviewed based • Natural disaster prone areas
upon regulatory and non-regulatory criteria. • Ecologically sensitive areas
• Project siting restrictions depend on the sensitivity of • Availability of water and other critical infrastruc-
the surrounding environment. Sensitivity should be tures like electricity, roads with adequate width and
assessed in relation to proximity of the project to the capacity
places/sites listed in the identified ecologically sensitive
zones (ESZ) notified by MOEF.
Do you know?
The siting criteria delineated by MoEF include:
Government of India has established the National
I. As far as possible prime agricultural land/forest land Adaptation Fund for Climate Change (NAFCC) with
may not be converted into an industrial site a budget provision of Rs 350 crore for 2015-16 and
II. Land acquired should be minimum but sufficient to 2016-17 to assist States and Union Territories to un-
provide for a green belt wherein the treated wastewa- dertake projects and actions for adaptation to climate
ter, if possible/suitable, could be utilised from waste- change.
water treatment systems
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PART - II
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CHAPTER - 9
BIODIVERSITY
Conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity is funda- • ‘Zero’ would be infinite diversity, and ‘one’ repre-
sents only one species present.
mental to ecologically sustainable development. Biodiver-
sity is part of our daily lives and livelihood, and constitutes (c) Ecosystem/ Community diversity:
resources upon which families, communities, nations and • This refers to the different types of habitats. A habi-
future generations depend. tat is the cumulative factor of the climate, vegetation
and geography of a region.
9.1.1. Levels of Biodiversity
• There are several kinds of habitats around the world.
Biodiversity is considered to exist at three levels: genetics, Corals, grasslands, wetland, desert, mangrove and
species, and ecosystems. tropical rain forests are examples of ecosystems.
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Do you know?
IUCN Categories
Two species of bear which have special feet are polar
bear and the giant panda. The polar bear has partially
webbed toes for swimming and walking on snow as
well as furry bottoms to keep its feet warm on the ice.
Giant pandas do not have a heel pad so they walk
more on their toes.
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CHAPTER - 10
Do you know?
The spider’s body has an oil on it to keep the spider
free from sticking to it’s own web.
Realm
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Gymnosperms (gymnos=naked, sperma=seed) are the 3) north-western Himalaya (about 800 species) and
naked-seeded plants. 4) Andaman & Nicobar Islands (about 250 species).
They have very simple flowers without accessory whorls
and stamens and carpels remain aggregated in cones. 10.3.3. Crop genetic diversity
Agriculture remains one of the dominant drivers and
Ovules are present on the surface of the carpels and are
mainstay of economic growth in India. The large mosaic
directly pollinated by the pollen grains.
of distinct agro-ecosystems, characterized by variations
There is nothing like ovary, style and stigma, and naturally in edaphic, climatic and geographic features, has contrib-
there is no fruit. uted to diverse cropping patterns and systems across the
e.g. Cycas, Pinus, Gnetum. country.
Pine is the largest family. Gnetum and Cycas are mostly India stands seventh in the world in terms of contribution
confined to North Eastern region, Eastern and Western of species to agriculture and animal husbandry.
Ghats, and Andaman & Nicobar Islands. The national gene bank at National Bureau Of Plant Genetic
Resources (NBPGR), Delhi is primarily responsible for con-
servation of unique accessions on long-term basis, as base
Do you know? collections for posterity, predominantly in the form of
Polar bears evolved relatively recently (about 200,000 seeds.
years to possibly as long as 500,000 years ago) from
grizzly bears somewhere off eastern Russia or the 10.3.4. Livestock genetic diversity
Alaskan Panhandle. They depend on sea ice for their
India has vast resources of livestock and poultry, which
primary habitat for their food (mainly ringed seals
and bearded seals). As the world’s oceans have never play a vital role in rural livelihood security. In terms of
been frozen from the north to the south, polar bears population, India ranks first in buffaloes, second in cattle
simply didn’t have the possibility to reach the Ant- and goats, third in sheep, fourth in ducks, fifth in chicken
arctic, although it would have been a perfect home and sixth in camels in the world.
for them.
Do you know?
8. Angiosperms: The name ‘white rhinoceros’ is taken from the Afri-
Angiosperms (angeion=a case) are the closed-seeded kaans word describing its mouth: “weit”, meaning
plants. “wide”. Early English settlers in South Africa misin-
terpreted the “weit” for “white”.
These are the most highly developed plants which bear
White rhinos are also sometimes called ‘the square-
flowers having conspicuous accessory and essential whorls.
lipped rhinoceros’. Their upper lip lacks the prehensile
Carpels have the ovary, style and stigma. ‘hook’ of some of the other rhino species. The white
With the stimulus of fertilization the ovary usually devel- rhino is the largest species of land mammal after the
ops into the fruit and the ovules into seeds. Thus the seeds elephant.
remain within the fruits.
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CHAPTER - 11
11.1. SCHEDULE LIST-WPA, 1972 • Examples of animals listed in schedule 3 are hyaena,
Wildlife Protection Act (WPA), 1972 consists of 6 schedule hogdeer, nilgai, goral, sponges, barking deer, etc.
lists, which give varying degrees of protection. • Examples of animals listed in schedule 4 are man-
Poaching, smuggling and illegal trade of animals listed gooses, vultures, etc.
Schedule 1 to schedule 4 are prohibited.
• Animals listed in schedule 1 and part II of schedule 2 • Animals listed in schedule 5 are called “vermin” which
have absolute protection - offences under these are pre- can be hunted.
scribed the highest penalties.
• Mice, rat, common crow and flying fox (fruit eating
• Examples of animals listed in schedule 1 are lion tailed bats) are the list of animals (only 4 nos) in schedule 5
macaque, rhinoceros, great indian bustard, narcondam
[i.e. vermin].
hornbill, nicobar megapode, black buck, etc.
• Examples of animals listed in schedule 2 are rhesus
macaque, dhole, Bengal porcupine, king cobra, flying Schedule 6
squirrel, himalyan brown bear, etc. • Cultivation, Collection, extraction, trade, etc. of Plants
and its derivatives listed in schedule 6 are prohibited.
Schedule 3 and schedule 4
• Red Vanda, blue Vanda, kuth, pitcher plant, beddomes
• Animals listed in schedule 3 and schedule 4 are also
cycad and ladies slipper orchid are the list of plants
protected, but the penalties are lower compared to
listed in schedule 6 (Refer page - 154, 157).
schedule 1 and part 2 of schedule 2.
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S. No. Common Name Category Range Description Habitat & Ecology Major threat
1. Andaman Wild Least Andaman Temperate to Habitat destruction
Pig Concern Tropical Habitat and hunting
pressure.
2. Bharal Least Bhutan, China, Open grass slopes Competition with
Concern Northern India, in high mountain livestock, habitat
Northern Myanmar, from 2500 - 5500 destruction due to
Nepal, North Pakistan. m avoid entering livestock.
forest area
Blue Sheep - North
Himalaya & Trans
Himalaya - along the
border of Arunachal
Pradesh.
Ladak, Himachal
Pradesh, U.P., Sikkim
and Eastern
Arunachal Pradesh &
recently conformed in
Western Arunachal
Pradesh
3. Binturong Vulnerable India - Sikkim, Arboreal animal, Habitat loss and
Bangladesh, Bhutan feed on fruits, degradation.
Myanmar, China insects, birds.
4. Brown antlered Endangered South & South East Open, Grass Hunting, Medicinal
Deer Asia, Manipur dominated habitat. Product, Habitat loss.
(Southern end of
“Hydroelectric Power
loktak lake) region of
Project - loktak lake
N.E. India through
Myanmar.
5. Brown Beer Critically India (Jammu and Temperate rain Man - animal
Endangered Kashmir, Himachal forest. (Northern conflict
Pradesh, Uttarkhant), India, Western
Nepal, Pakistan, China China)
6. Capped Langur Vulnerable Bangladesh, Bhutan Diurnal, arboreal, Habitat destruction,
(N.E. India - A.P., broadleaf, jhum cultivation,
Assam, Manipur, deciduous monoculture, timber
Meghalaya, Mizoram, and firewood
& bamboo forest
Nagaland, Tripura) harvest. Traded for
meat purpose.
Brahmaputra (Karbi
Anglong, Khasi, Garo,
Naga & Jaintia hills) &
Myanmar
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7. Caracal desert Least Africa, Central Asia, Semi - desert to Habitat, destruction,
lynx Concern South West Asia into open tropical hunting
India grassland
9. Chinese Pangolin Endangered Occur in Himalayan Primary & Habitat loss, hunting
foot hills in Eastern Secondary tropical for local use trade
Nepal, Bhutan, forest, lime stone skin, scales & meat
Northern India, North forest, bamboo
East Bangladesh (India forest, grassland &
- Sikkim) agricultural field.
Nocturnal animal
10. Indian Gazelle Least Western & Central Inhabits arid area, Habitat loss through
(Chinkara) Concern India through Sand deserts, Flat overgrazing,
Pakistan, South-West plains & hills, dry conversion to
Afghan. (Thar desert scrub & light agriculture &
remains strong hold) forest. industrial
development
11. Clouded Leopard Vulnerable Himalayan foot hill in Arboreal, forest Habitat destruction.
Nepal through habitat (Primary Hunted for skin,
mainland South East every green tropical bones for medicine,
Asia - China rainforest, also in captive animal
dry deciduous forest
Himalaya - 2500 m.
13. Sand Cat Near Only found in true Specialist of Habitat degradation
threatened desert. Northern sand desert, major threat - by
Africa, Southwest & localized around human settlement
Central Asia spare regetation and livestock grazing
which can
support small
rodent prey.
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14. Dugong Dugong Vulnerable Coastal Island Coastal water, Habitat &
water belt East wide shallow degradation loss
(Sea Cow)
Africa & Vanuate belt mangroove &
Indigenous use &
latitude 27° N - South sizeable sea grass
hunting, pollution
of Eq (India - bed.
Andaman & Nicobar,
Laccadives)
16. Fishing Cat Endangered Asia - Pakistan - Indus Wetland (Swamp Wetland destruction
Valley India - Nagpur, and marshy), 45% of wetland
Himalayan foothill & Oxbow lake, reed 94% of globally
Eastern India. beds, mangroves. significant wetland
(Keoladeo National - threatened.
Evergreen &
Park)
tropical dry forest. eg: Human
settlement,
agricultural
pollution, hunting &
Wood cutting.
17. Four horned Vulnerable 2008 - Widely Found in well- Habitat destruction
antelope distributed but wooded undulating through the
in scattered (or) hilly area and clearance of scrub &
population over never far from forest for agriculture.
most of India - From water, they are
Himalaya foothills solitary & browse
to Peninsular & graze.
India.
(Nepal. India)
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24. Himalayan Thar Near Himalaya China Steep rocky Uncontrolled hunting
threatened (Southern Tibet), mountain side & deforestation,
North India (J.K. to (3000-4000). habitat lose due to
Sikkim) & Nepal Grass, herb & livestock grazing.
(Uttarkhand, H.P.). fruit.
25. Hispid Hare Endangered From Uttar Pradesh Tall grassland Habitat loss, agri,
through Nepal, West (Elephant Grass) logging, flood control
Bengal to Assam and HD
(W.B., Assam,
Bihar, U.P.)
26. Hog budger Near Central to South east Diurnal, forested Hunting by Dogs &
threatened Asia. Mongolia, India area (tuberroot, Man.
(Sikkim, Terai, Assam, earthworm,
A.P.), China, Indonesia, insects).
LaoPDR, Myanmar
1) grass land -
India Terai
(Evergreen Forest)
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55. Chiru Endangered China, India (J & K) High altitude Hunted for fur
plain, hill plateau (Shahtosh)
& Montane valley
Quality - making
“shawls”
56. Tibetan Fox Least Tibetan Plateau, Ladak Upland plains, No Major threat
Concern area of India, China, hills - mostly spare
Nepal grassland devoid
of trees & shrub
57. Tibetan Gazelle Near Qinghai - Tibet High altitude Habitat loss.
threatened Plateau, India (ladak, plains, hills also
Sikkim). grasses in wetland
margin.
58. Kiang (Wild Ass) Least Tibetan Plateau, Open terrain, Hunting, disease
Concern China, Northern Pak, plains, alphine transmission from
India, Nepal) Ladak & meadows - where domestic livestock.
Sikkim grasses & sedges
abundant.
59. Tiger Endangered Southwest Asia, Forest of tropical Poaching, Man
Central Asia, (Java & Asia animal conflict,
Bali) - disappeared. (bore anti-
inflammatory
Asian Countries -
property)
Bang, Bhutan,
Cambodia, China,
India, Indonesia, Laos,
Malaysia, Myanmar,
Nepal, Russia,
Thailand & Vietnam
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CHAPTER - 12
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12.2.5. Dugong
• (Dugong dugon) also called as sea cow.
Do you know? • Status - vulnerable. Threat - hunting (meat and oil),
Sharks have the most powerful jaws on the planet. habitat degradation, and fishing-related fatalities.
Both the upper and lower jaws move. It tosses its head
back and forth to tear loose a piece of meat which it 12.2.6. Manatees
swallows whole. • Habitat / distribution - Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico,
the Amazon Basin, and West Africa
• Threat - coastal development, red tide, hunting.
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CHAPTER - 13
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• Each year of the tree’s life, a new ring is added so it is • Essential nutrients are carried up through the pith.
referred as the annual rings. • It’s placement right in the center means it is the most
protected from damage by insects, the wind or animals.
• It is used to calculate Dendro-Chronology (Age of a tree)
and Paleo-Climatology.
13.7.4. Root types
• The age of a tree can be determined by the number of
• Taproot - Primary descending root formed by the direct
growth rings. The size of the growth ring is determined
prolongation of the radicle of the embryo.
in part by environmental conditions - temperature,
water availability. • Lateral Root - Roots that arise from the tap root and
spread laterally to support the tree.
Bark:
• Adventitious Roots - Roots that are produced from the
• The outside layer of the trunk, branches and twigs of parts of the plant other than the radicle or its subdivi-
trees. sion. The following kinds of Adventitious Roots are
• The bark serves as a protective layer of the tree. commonly found in trees.
• Trees actually have inner bark and outer bark. The • Buttresses - They are out - growths formed usually ver-
inner layer of bark is made up of living cells and the tically above the lateral roots and thus connect the base
outer layer is made of dead cells, sort of like our finger- of the stem with roots. They are formed in the basal
nails. portion of the stem.
• The scientific name for the inner layer of bark is Phloem. • Ex: Silk cotton tree.
The main job of this inner layer is to carry sap full of • Prop - Roots - Adventitious Roots - produced from the
sugar from the leaves to the rest of the tree. branches of the tree which remain suspended in the air
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CHAPTER - 14
MARINE ORGANISMS
14.1 PLANKTON • Their total biomass is many times greater than that of
the total plants on land and they serve as the “pasture
• The term ‘plankton’ refers to the group of organisms grounds” in the aquatic environment.
which float in the surface waters of the rivers, lakes and
oceans.
• Includes both microscopic plants like algae (phytoplank- Do you know?
ton) and animals like crustaceans and protozoans (zoo- Sea Kraits are one of the few sea snakes that go to land
plankton) found in all aquatic ecosystems, except to lay their eggs while most others, like the Olive sea
certain swift moving waters. snake will give birth in the water.
• The locomotory power of the planktons is limited so
that their distribution is controlled, largely, by currents 14.2.1. Factors Affecting Phytoplanktons
in the aquatic ecosystems. Biodiversity
• The growth rate, productivity and species diversity Light
of plankton in tropical waters especially in mangrove
waters are high. • Phytoplanktons are limited to the uppermost layers of
the ocean where light intensity is sufficient for photo-
14.2 PHYTOPLANKTON synthesis to take place.
• Derived from the Greek words phyto (plant) and plank- • The photosynthetic rate varies with light intensity.
ton (made to wander or drift), phytoplankton are mi- Nutrients
croscopic plant organisms that live in aquatic
environments, both salty and fresh.
• The major inorganic nutrients required by phytoplank-
ton for growth and reproduction are nitrogen and
• Some phytoplankton are bacteria, some are protists, and phosphorus.
most are single-celled plants. Among the common kinds
are cyanobacteria, silica-encased diatoms, dinoflagel-
• Diatoms and silicoflagellates also require silicate (SiO2)
in significant amounts.
lates, green algae, and chalk-coated coccolithophores.
• Some phytoplankton can fix nitrogen and can grow in
• Phytoplankton produce more than 60% of oxygen pro- areas where nitrate concentrations are low.
duced from all plants.
• They also require trace amounts of iron which limits
• Like land plants, all phytoplankton have chlorophyll to phytoplankton growth in large areas of the ocean be-
capture sunlight, and they use photosynthesis to turn cause iron concentrations are very low.
it into chemical energy. They consume carbon dioxide,
and release oxygen. All phytoplankton photosynthesize, Temperature
but some get additional energy by consuming other • Temperature acts along with other factors in influenc-
organisms. ing the variation of photosynthetic production.
• These micro‐algae are present throughout the lighted • Generally, the rate of photosynthesis increases with an
regions of all the seas and oceans including the Polar increase in temperature, but diminishes sharply after
Regions. a point is reached.
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• Besides light and temperature, salinity also is known to • Worldwide, this “biological carbon pump” transfers
influence primary production. about 10 gigatonnes of carbon from the atmosphere to
the deep ocean each year. Even small changes in the
Grazing by Zooplankton growth of phytoplankton may affect atmospheric car-
• The grazing rate of zooplankton is one of the major bon dioxide concentrations, which would feed back to
factors influencing the size of the standing crop of phy- global surface temperatures.
toplankton, and thereby the rate of production.
Distribution Do you know?
• Marine phytoplankton are not uniformly distributed 1. Sharks have a sensory organ called the “ampullae
throughout the oceans of the world. The highest con- of Lorenzini” which they use to “feel” the electrical
centrations are found at high latitudes, with the excep- field coming from its prey.
tion of upwelling areas on the continental shelves, while
2. Silverfish is an insect that can be found in old un-
the tropics and subtropics have 10 to 100 times lower
used books
concentrations.
• In addition to nutrients, temperature, salinity and light
availability; the high levels of exposure to solar UV-B 14.3. ZOOPLANKTON
radiation that normally occur within the tropics and sub- • Zooplankton play vital role in food web of the food
tropics may play a role in phytoplankton distributions. chain, nutrient recycling, and in transfer of organic
• Phytoplankton productivity is limited to the euphotic matter from primary producers to secondary consum-
zone, the upper layer of the water column in which ers like fishes.
there is sufficient sunlight to support net productivity. • They are more abundant within mangrove water‐ways
• The position of the organisms in the euphotic zone is than in adjacent coastal waters, and a large proportion
influenced by the action of wind and waves. of the juvenile fish of mangrove habitat are zooplank-
tivorous.
14.2.2. Importance of phytoplankton • The zooplankton determine the quantum of fish stock.
The food web Hence, zooplankton communities, based on their qual-
ity and species diversity, are used for assessing the pro-
• Phytoplanktons are the foundation of the aquatic food ductivity vis-à‐ vis fishery resource, fertility and health
web, the primary producers, it feeds everything from
microscopic animal-like zooplankton to whales. Small status of the ecosystem.
fish and invertebrates graze on the phytoplanktons, and • Tiny flagellates, giant jellyfish (>50 μm).
then those smaller animals are eaten by bigger ones.
14.4. SEA-GR ASS
Do you know?
• Sea grasses are (angiosperms) marine flowering plants
that resemble grass in appearance.
sea snakes are usually found in shallow waters of the • They produce flowers; have strap-like or oval leaves and
Indian Ocean, and warmer areas of the Pacific Ocean. a root system.
They eat fish, fish eggs and eels.
• They grow in shallow coastal waters with sandy or
muddy bottoms & require comparatively calm areas.
14.2.3. Phytoplankton - the Carbon Cycle and • They are the only group of higher plants adapted to life
climate change in the salt water.
• Phytoplankton are responsible for most of the transfer • Major Sea grass meadows in India occur along the south
of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to the ocean. east coast of Tamil Nadu and in the lagoons of a few
Carbon dioxide is consumed during photosynthesis, and Lakshadweep Islands. There are few grass beds around
the carbon is incorporated in the phytoplankton, just as Andaman and Nicobar islands also.
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Do you know?
• Food for marine organism,
• habitat for fish breeding grounds,
The five species of turtle that nest on Indian coast are
Leatherback sea turtle, Green turtle, the Olive Ridley, the
• Source of sediment.
Hawksbill, and the Loggerhead turtle. 14.5.2. Uses of seaweeds
• Seaweeds are important as food for humans, feed for
animals, and fertilizer for plants.
• IUCN has accorded high priority for the conserva- • Seaweeds are used as a drug for goiter treatment, in-
tion of sea grass. testinal and stomach disorders.
• Out of 58 species found in the world, Fourteen spe- • Products like agar-agar and alginates, iodine which are
cies of seagrasses have been recorded from Indian of commercial value, are extracted from seaweeds.
coast. • By the biodegradation of seaweeds methane like eco-
nomically important gases can be produced in large
• They are commonly distributed from inter-tidal to
quantities.
sub-tidal region down to 8 m depth.
• Extracts of some seaweed species show antibacterial
• Dugong, a mammal dependent on sea grass for activity.
food, is also on the verge of extinction.
• Seaweeds are also used as the potential indicators of
pollution in coastal ecosystem, particularly heavy metal
pollution due to their ability to bind and accumulate
14.4.2. Threats to sea grass beds
metals strongly.
• Eutrophication, siltation, trawling, coastal engineering
constructions and over exploitation for commercial pur- 14.5.3. Harmful effects of seaweeds
poses are the major threats for sea grass beds. • Rotting seaweed is a potent source of hydrogen sulfide,
a highly toxic gas, and has been implicated in some
14.4.4. Management incidents of apparent hydrogen-sulphide poisoning. It
• The major seagrass beds should be mapped and areas can cause vomiting and diarrhoea.
has to be identified for preservation.
14.5.4. Threats to seaweeds
• Dredging should be carried out far away from seagrass
beds as siltation /turbidity destroys seagrass beds. • Threats are similar to that of sea grass.
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CHAPTER - 15
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Do you know?
• The declaration of such an area is aimed at improving
the socio-economic conditions of the people living in
The extinct rhinos were also more widespread, occur- such areas as well as conserving wildlife. The Reserve
ring in North America and Europe in addition to Af- is managed through a Community Reserve Manage-
rica and Asia. In the past, rhinos were not confined to ment Committee
the tropics but extended into temperate and even arc-
tic regions.
• The State Government may, where the community or
an individual has volunteered to conserve wildlife and
its habitat, declare the area by notification as commu-
nity reserve.
15.3. C
ONSERVATION RESERVE AND
COMMUNITY RESERVES • No change in land use pattern shall be made within the
Community Reserve, except in accordance with a reso-
• Conservation Reserve and Community Reserves are the lution passed by the Management Committee and ap-
outcome of Amendments to the Wild life protection act proval of the same by the State Government
in 2003.
• It provided for a mechanism to provide recognition and 15.4. COASTAL PROTECTED AREAS
legal backing to the community initiated efforts in wild- • It aims to protect and conserve the natural marine eco-
life protection. systems in their pristine condition.
• It provides for a flexible system wherein the wildlife • Marine Protected Area (MPA) as “any area of intertidal
conservation is achieved without compromising the or sub tidal terrain, together with its overlaying water
community needs. and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural fea-
tures, which has been reserved by law or other effective
15.3.1. Conservation Reserves means to protect part or all of the enclosed environ-
• The Amendment Act of 2003 provided for the creation ment” - IUCN.
of a new type of protected area called a Conservation
Reserve.
• Marine productivity in India is concentrated in small
areas of coral reefs, lagoons, mangroves, estuaries and
• It is an area owned by the State Government adjacent seagrass beds around the coast, which provides rich feed-
to National Parks and sanctuaries for protecting the ing and breeding ground for fish and other marine life.
landscape, seascape and habitat of fauna and flora. It is
managed through a Conservation Reserve Management
• MPA protects the vital life support processes of the sea
and also ensures sustainable productivity and fish pro-
Committee duction.
• The State Government may, after having consultations
• The MPAs in marine environment in India are primar-
with the local communities, declare any area owned by ily classified into following three categories:
the Government as conservation reserve.
• Category-I: This covers National Parks and Sanctuaries
• Tiruppadaimarathur conservation reserve in and having entire areas in intertidal/sub-tidal or man-
Tirunelveli, tamil nadu is the first conservation reserve groves, coral reefs, creeks, seagrass beds, algal beds,
established in the Country. It is an effort of the village estuaries, lagoons.
community to protect the birds nesting in their village
and acted for declaration of conservation reserve. • Category-II: This includes Islands, which have major
parts in marine ecosystem and some part in terrestrial
15.3.2. Community Reserve ecosystem.
• The Amendment Act of 2003 provided for the creation • Category-IIIA: This includes sandy beaches beyond in-
of a new type of protected area called a Community tertidal line but occasionally interacting with the sea-
Reserve. water.
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• Nesting sites of an amphibious snake is reported from • Aloe vera is also called as fountain of youth
the shores of North Andaman Islands.
• During periods of increased or decreased tempera-
ture, cracks may develop in the tree trunk -- re-
• Traditional Wetland agriculture (locally known as ferred to as frost cracks and sun cracks. Both can
pokkali in Kerala and Gazhani in Karnataka) lead to decay.
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CHAPTER - 16
CONSERVATION EFFORTS
16.1. PROJECT TIGER • Initially 9 tiger reserves were covered under the project,
A potential example of conservation of a highly en- and has currently increased to 42, falling in 17 States
dangered species is the Indian Tiger (Panthera ti- (tiger reserve States).
gris). The fall and rise in the number of Tiger • The State Government shall, on recommendation of the
population in India is an index of the extent and nature of National Tiger Conservation Authority, notify an area
conservation efforts. as a tiger reserve.
It is estimated that India had about 40 000 tigers in 1900, • A Tiger reserve includes:
and the number declined to a mere about 1800 in 1972. a) Core zone
Hence, Project Tiger centrally sponsored scheme was
launched in 1973 with the following objectives:
• Critical tiger habitat areas established, on the basis of
scientific and objective criteria.
• To ensure maintenance of available population of Tigers • These areas are required to be kept as inviolate for the
in India for scientific, economic, aesthetic, cultural and purposes of tiger conservation, without affecting the
ecological value rights of the Scheduled Tribes or such other forest
• To preserve, for all times, the areas of such biological dwellers.
importance as a national heritage for the benefit, educa-
tion and enjoyment of the people
• These areas are notified by the State Government in
consultation with an Expert Committee (constituted for
Aim that purpose)
(i) Conservation of the endangered species and b) Buffer zone
(ii) Harmonizing the rights of tribal people living in and • Peripheral area to critical tiger habitat or core area,
around tiger reserves where a lesser degree of habitat protection is required
to ensure the integrity of the critical tiger habitat with
Do you know? adequate dispersal for tiger species.
The scientific name for the tiger is Panthera tigris • It aims at promoting co-existence between wildlife and
There are eight subspecies of tiger: among the eight, human activity with due recognition of the livelihood,
at present five subspecies are present in the wild. They developmental, social and cultural rights of the local
are - Bengal, South China, Indochinese, Sumatran, people.
and Siberian. Three subspecies of tiger—Caspian, Bali, • The limits of such areas are determined on the basis of
and Javan—are extinct. scientific and objective criteria in consultation with the
concerned Gram Sabha and an Expert Committee con-
stituted for the purpose.
16.1.1. Tiger Reserve • No alteration in the boundaries of a tiger reserve shall
• Tiger reserves are areas that are notified for the protec- be made except on a recommendation of the National
tion of the tiger and its prey, and are governed by Pro- Tiger Conservation Authority and the approval of the
ject Tiger which was launched in the country in 1973. National Board for Wild Life.
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• The primary threat is the Habitat loss leading to frag- • To provide information needed for elephant range States
mentation and destruction caused by developmental to make appropriate management and enforcement de-
activities like construction of buildings,roeds, railways, cisions, and to build institutional capacity within the
holiday resorts and the fixing solar energized electric range States for the long-term management of their
fencing, etc. elephant populations
• Coal mining and iron ore mining is the two “single big- Main objectives
gest threats” to elephant corridors in central India. 1. to measure levels and trends in the illegal hunting of
• Orissa, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh, are mineral-rich elephants;
states, but also have the highest number of elephant 2. to determine changes in these trends over time; and
corridors in the country, which makes them known for 3. to determine the factors causing or associated with
elephant-man conflicts. such changes, and to try and assess in particular to
• There is also a serious poaching problem, as elephant what extent observed trends are a result of any deci-
ivory from the tusks is extremely valuable. sions taken by the Conference of the Parties to CITES
• Elephants need extensive grazing grounds and most • Under the programme data are being collected from all
reserves cannot accommodate them. If protected areas sites on monthly basis in specified MIKE patrol form
are not large enough, elephants may search for food and submited to Sub Regional Support Office for South
elsewhere. This often results in conflicts with humans, Asia Programme located in Delhi who are assisting
due to elephants raiding or destroying crops. Ministry in the implementation of the progremme.
Do you know?
Do you know?
White tigers are not a separate sub-species, but are
white in color due to an expression of recessive genes Paraceratherium, the largest land mammal that ever
lived, which resembles a very big, muscular giraffe.
16.2.3. Mitigation
• Fusion of the corridors with nearby protected areas 16.2.5. Haathi Mere Saathi
wherever feasible; in other cases, declaration as Eco- • Haathi Mere Saathi is a campaign launched by the Min-
logically Sensitive Areas or conservation reserves to istry of environment and forest (MoEF) in partnership
grant protection. with the wildlife trust of India (WTI).
• During the process of securing a corridor, monitoring • To improve conservation and welfare prospects of the
for animal movement have to be carried out; depend- elephant - India’s National Heritage Animal.
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• NSAIDs are associated with adverse kidney (renal) fail- • Movement of Feral dogs into carcass dumps increasing
ure which is caused due to the reduction in synthesis of the spread of diseases such as rabies, anthrax.
renal prostaglandins. • Traditional custom of the Parsis of placing their dead in
the ‘Towers of Silence’ for vultures to feed upon will be
• Vultures which were unable to break down the chemical
diclofenac, suffer from kidney failure when they eat the affected.
carcass of animals which have been administered with • Life will be much harder for local hide and bone-collec-
the drug - Diclofenac tors, who rely on cleaned carcasses in order to earn a
living.
• Visceral gout, an accumulation of uric acid within tis-
sues and on the surfaces of internal organs, was ob-
served in 85% of dead vultures found. Death caused by Do you know?
renal failure, which is known to occur as a result of Although all snakes can swim, sea snakes live mostly
metabolic failure or toxic disease. in the water. They do need to come up for air but can
• “Neck drooping” - vulture exhibit this behaviour for stay under water for up to an hour!.
protracted periods over several weeks before collapsing
and falling out of trees or just prior to death. It is the
only obvious behavioural indication that birds are ill. 16.3.6. Vulture Safety Zones
Neck drooping is also reported in healthy birds under • The concept of a VSZ is unique for the Asian continent
hot conditions. but similar VSZ are in operation in both Europe and
Africa.
16.3.2. Meloxicam - An Alternative • Aim of developing VSZs is to establish targeted aware-
• Meloxicam is a second generation NSAID and rated bet- ness activities surrounding 150 km radius of vultures’
ter than Diclofenac for the treatment of livestock, with colonies so that no diclofenac or the veterinary toxic
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PART - III
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CHAPTER - 17
CLIMATE CHANGE
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Green House
Do you know?
• Tree rings provide precise information about envi-
ronmental events, including volcanic eruptions.
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Do you know? • The poor and low-lying countries will find it difficult to
cope with the damages caused by changing climate and
Shola forest, Temperate forest is an evergreen ecosys- rise in sea level
tem found at the high altitude regions. It is distributed
in Nilgris and Palani hills of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and 17.6.2. Chain of events
Karnataka. Sholas are found at sites where adjacent
slope converges. These are interrupted by grasslands Combustion of fossil fuels due to
ecosystem with stunted evergreen woods and confined Human Activities
to sheltered valleys, gleeves, hallows and depressions.
The main role of shola forest is conservation of water
in that region. It needs well drained soils and avoids Increase of Green House Gases
swampy soils.
Global Warming
17.6. R
ECEDING GLACIERS-A SYMPTOM
OF GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE
• 150 years ago there were 147 glaciers in Glacier National Climatic Changes
park, but today only 37 glaciers remain, and scientists
predict that they are likely to melt by the year 2030.
Similarly, glaciers all across the Himalayas and Alps are
retreating and disappearing every year. There are al- Melting of Glaciers
most 160,000 glaciers found in Polar Regions and high
mountain environments. Therefore, researchers are
increasingly using satellite remote sensors to routinely Flooding / Rise in sea level
survey our world’s glaciers in a fraction of the time.
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CHAPTER - 18
OCEAN ACIDIFICATION
18.1. OCEAN ACIDIFICATION
Oceans are an important reservoir for CO2, absorbing a Forms of calcium carbonate
significant quantity of it (one-third) produced by anthro- Calcite and aragonite are two different forms of cal-
pogenic activities and effectively buffering climate change. cium carbonate.
Ocean acidification is the change in ocean chemistry - low- 1. Calcite is the mineral form found in the shells of
ering of ocean pH (i.e. increase in concentration of hydro- planktonic algae, amoeboid protists, some corals,
gen ions) driven by the uptake of carbon compounds by the echinoderms, and some molluscs (e.g. oysters); it
ocean from the atmosphere. is relatively less soluble.
As the uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide by the ocean 2. Aragonite is a more soluble form of calcium car-
increases, the concentration of hydrogen ions in the ocean bonate; it is found in most corals, most mollusks
(small planktonic snails), as well as some species
increases, the concentration of carbonate ions decreases,
of algae.
the pH of the oceans decreases and the oceans become less
alkaline – this process is know as ocean acidification.
i. Acid rain
Acid rain can have a pH between 1 and 6 and has impact
The uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide is occurring at on surface ocean chemistry. It has major effect on ocean
a rate exceeding the natural buffering capacity of the acidification locally and regionally but very small globally.
ocean. ii. Eutrophication
The pH of the ocean surface waters has decreased by about Coastal waters are also affected by excess nutrient inputs,
0.1 pH unit (i.e. 26% increase in ocean hydrogen ion con- mostly nitrogen, from agriculture, fertilizers and sewage.
centration) since the beginning of the industrial revolution. The resulting eutrophication leads to large plankton
The ocean currently has a pH around 8.0 and is therefore blooms, and when these blooms collapse and sink to the
‘basic’ and it is nearly impossible, chemically, for all of it to sea bed the subsequent respiration of bacteria decomposing
actually become a pH less than 7.0. Why do we therefore the algae leads to a decrease in sea water oxygen and an
refer to ‘ocean acidification’? increase in CO2 (a decline in pH).
That is because acidification is the direction of travel, the
How it reacts?
trend, regardless of the starting point. Acidification refers
to lowering pH from any starting point to any end point The term ‘ocean acidification’ summarizes several pro-
on the pH scale. cesses that occur when CO2 reacts with sea water.
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CHAPTER - 19
OZONE DEPLETION
The UV rays cause direct damage to the genetic mate- • It implies that there is a significant decrease in the con-
centration of ozone in a particular region of the atmos-
rial or DNA of animal and plant cells. Exposure of
phere, hence the name ‘Ozone Depletion’.
mammals to UV light has been shown to act on the
immune system, thereby making the body more sus- • The best example of such an Ozone Depletion is the
ceptible to diseases. atmosphere over the Antarctic which has only about 50
percent of the ozone that originally occurred there. The
actual realization of ozone-depletion came only in 1985.
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• In susceptible (light-skin coloured) populations, UV-B • These potential changes would contribute to bio-sphere
radiations is the key risk factor for development of non- atmosphere feedbacks that reinforce the atmospheric
melanoma skin cancer (NMSC). build-up of these gases.
• In forests and grasslands, this is likely to result in • Increased tropospheric reactivity could also lead to
changes in the composition of species; therefore there increased production of particulates such as cloud
are implications for the biodiversity in different eco- condensation nuclei, from the oxidation and subse-
systems. quent nucleation of sulphur, of both antropogenic and
natural origin (e.g. carbonyl sulphide and dimethyl-
• Indirect changes caused by UV-B such as changes in
plant form, biomass allocation to parts of the plant, sulphide.
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CHAPTER - 20
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• As a result, availability of water is bound to reach crit- • Satellite observations available since the early 1990s
show that since 1993, sea level has been rising at a rate
ical levels sooner or later. During the past four decades,
per year, significantly higher than the average during
there has been a phenomenal increase in the growth of
the previous half-century.
groundwater abstraction structures.
• IPCC predicts that sea levels could rise rapidly with ac-
• Growing demand of water in agriculture, industrial and celerated ice sheet disintegration.
domestic sectors, has brought problems of overexploita-
tion of the groundwater resource to the fore. • Global temperature increases of 3–4°C could result in
330 million people being permanently or temporarily
• The falling groundwater levels in various parts of the displaced through flooding.
country have threatened the sustainability of the
groundwater resources.
• Warming seas will also fuel more intense tropical
storms.
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• Goa will be the worst hit, losing a large percentage of • This is expected to negatively affect shell forming or-
its total land area, including many of its famous beaches ganisms, corals and their dependent ecosystems.
and tourist infrastructure.
• Mumbai’s northern suburbs like Versova beach and Do you know?
other populated areas along tidal mud flats and creeks
are also vulnerable to land loss and increased flooding Grizzled giant squirrel is distributed in the patches of
riparian forest along the Kaveri River and in the hill
due to sea level rise.
forests in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala states of south-
• Flooding will displace a large number of people from ern India. IUCN Status - near threatened
the coasts putting a greater pressure on the civic amen-
ities and rapid urbanisation.
• Sea water percolation due to inundations can diminish 20.5. IMPACTS ON INDIA’S BIODIVERSITY
freshwater supplies making water scarcer.
• India is a land of mega-biodiversity, encompassing fea-
• The states along the coasts like Orissa will experience tures from glaciers to deserts. However, climate change
worse cyclones. Many species living along the coastline is posing grave threat to its ecosystems.
are also threatened.
• Mountain ecosystems are hot spots of biodiversity. How-
• The coral reefs that India has in its biosphere reserves ever, temperature increases and human activities are
are also saline sensitive and thus the rising sea level causing fragmentation and degradation of mountain
threatens their existence too, not only the coral reefs biodiversity.
but the phytoplankton, the fish stocks and the human
• The Himalayan Ecosystem is considered as the lifeline
lives that are dependent on it are also in grave danger. not only to India but also to our neighbouring countries
• People living in the Ganges Delta share the flood risks such as China, Pakistan, Nepal, owing to the perennial
associated with rising sea levels. rivers that arise out of the melting glaciers.
20.4. ECOSYSTEMS AND BIO-DIVERSITY • It is home to the largest amount of glaciers after the
North and the South Poles. However, climate change is
• Climate Change has the potential to cause immense threatening this life giver drastically.
biodiversity loss, affecting both individual species and
their ecosystems that support economic growth and
• It is also predicted that there will be an increase in the
phenomenon of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs)
human well being.
in the eastern and the central Himalayas, causing cata-
• The projected extinctions of flora and fauna in the fu- strophic flooding downstream, with serious damage to
ture will be human driven i.e. due to adverse impact of ‘life, property, forests, farms, and infrastructure’.
human activities.
• The melting glaciers of the Himalayas have a serious
• According to International World Wildlife Fund (WWF) impact given the fact that they give rise to the perennial
species from the tropics to the poles are at risk. rivers that further flourishes the agriculture.
• Many species may be unable to move to new areas • The Himalayan rivers are closely interlinked with the
quickly enough to survive changes that rising tempera- Indo-Gangetic Ecosystem, which is primarily an agri-
tures will bring to their historic habitats. cultural ecosystem, nearly 65-70% of Indians having
• WWF asserted that one-fifth of the world’s most vulner- agriculture as their primary occupation.
able natural areas may be facing a “catastrophic” loss • The National Environment Policy, 2006 states that the
of species. Indian Desert Ecosystems (arid and semi-arid region)
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• Recent studies have shown that deserts have shown • Climate change has a direct impact on human health.
signs of expansion, thus leading to a process called de- • For example, the warmer the climate the likelihood of
sertification. its impact on human health becomes worse.
• The climate patterns have altered the natural attributes • It is anticipated that there will be an increase in the
of a desert region; for example the floods in the desert number of deaths due to greater frequency and severity
district of Barmer in Rajasthan in 2006. of heat waves and other extreme weather events.
• Coastal and Marine Ecosystem is one of the assets of • Climate change and the resulting higher global tem-
India. peratures are causing increasing frequency of floods
• The mangrove forests (wetlands) of the rivers and the and droughts leading to the risk of disease infections.
coasts acts as carbon sink as well as a habitat for a • Lack of freshwater during droughts and contamination
unique and diverse species of plants and animals. of freshwater supplies during floods compromise hy-
• The wetlands act as a natural barrier to flooding (that giene, thus increasing rates of diarrhoeal disease.
may be caused by the rising sea levels) and cyclones. • Endemic morbidity and mortality due to diarrhoeal dis-
• The most explicit event in the perspective of climate ease primarily associated with floods and droughts are
change affecting the marine ecosystem is the example expected to rise in East, South and South-East Asia due
of coral bleaching. to projected changes in hydrological cycle.
• In the Peninsular India, even the rivers of the Peninsula • Flooding also creates opportunities for breeding of dis-
are dependent on the monsoons, thus the Peninsular ease carrying insects such as mosquitoes.
Ecosystem is basically a monsoon dependent ecosystem. • Areas affected by frequent floods and drought condi-
• India is heavily dependent on the monsoon to meet its tions also witness large scale migration of populations
agricultural and water needs, and also for protecting to relatively stable regions leading to overcrowding and
and propagating its rich biodiversity. Climate change is unhygienic conditions resulting in transmission of dis-
linked with the changing patterns observed in the mon- eases like Japanese encephalitis and malaria.
soons of India. • Climate change is a major factor in the spread of infec-
tious diseases. Diseases, confined to one specific geo-
graphic region spread to other areas.
Do you know?
• The World Health Organization (WHO) in their studies
Narcotic substances that are used for smoking pur- have indicated that due to rising temperatures, malaria
poses are called “fumitories,” and those that are used
cases are now being reported for the first time from
for chewing purposes are called “masticatories.”
countries like Nepal and Bhutan.
• It has also been predicted that an additional 220-400
20.6. CLIMATE CHANGE AND HEALTH million people could be exposed to malaria- a disease
that claims around 1 million lives annually.
• Climate change poses a host of threats to the survival
of mankind. • Dengue fever is already in evidence at higher levels of
elevation in Latin America and parts of East Asia.
• Each year, about 800,000 people die from causes at-
tributable to air pollution, 1.8 million from diarrhoea • Studies suggest that climate change may swell the pop-
resulting from lack of access to clean water supply, ulation at risk of malaria in Africa by 90 million by
sanitation, and poor hygiene, 3.5 million from malnutri- 2030, and the global population at risk of dengue by 2
tion and approximately 60,000 in natural disasters. billion by 2080s.
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CHAPTER - 21
MITIGATION STRATEGIES
21.1. CARBON SEQUESTR ATION: • Ocean Sequestration: Carbon stored in oceans through
• Carbon capture and storage, also known as CCS or car- direct injection or fertilization.
bon sequestration, describes the technologies designed • Geologic Sequestration: Natural pore spaces in geologic
to tackle global warming by capturing CO2 at power formations serve as reservoirs for long-term carbon
stations, industrial sites or even directly from the air dioxide storage.
and permanently storing it underground.
• Terrestrial Sequestration: A large amount of carbon is
• Carbon sequestration describes long-term storage of stored in soils and vegetation, which are our natural
carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to either miti- carbon sinks. Increasing carbon fixation through pho-
gate or defer global warming. tosynthesis, slowing down or reducing decomposition
• It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric of organic matter, and changing land use practices can
and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases, which enhance carbon uptake in these natural sinks.
are released by burning fossil fuels.
• Geologic Sequestration is thought to have the largest
Sinks potential for near-term application.
• Carbon sequestration may be carried out by pumping Geologic Sequestration Trapping Mechanisms
carbon into ‘carbon sinks’— an area that absorbs carbon.
• Natural sinks - Oceans, forests, soil etc. • Hydrodynamic Trapping: Carbon dioxide can be trapped
as a gas under low-permeability cap rock (much like
• Artificial sinks - Depleted oil reserves, unmineable natural gas is stored in gas reservoirs).
mines, etc.
• Solubility Trapping: Carbon dioxide can be dissolved
• Carbon capture has actually been in use for years. The into a liquid, such as water or oil.
oil and gas industries have used carbon capture for
decades as a way to enhance oil and gas recovery. Only • Mineral Carbonation: Carbon dioxide can react with the
recently have we started thinking about capturing car- minerals, fluids, and organic matter in a geologic forma-
bon for environmental reasons. tion to form stable compounds/minerals; largely cal-
cium, iron, and magnesium carbonates.
There are three main steps to carbon capture and
storage (CCS) – • Carbon dioxide can be effectively stored in the earth’s
subsurface by hydrodynamic trapping and solubility trap-
• trapping and separating the CO2 from other gases, ping - usually a combination of the two is most effective.
• transporting this captured CO2 to a storage location,
and
Do you know?
• storing that CO2 far away from the atmosphere (under-
ground or deep in the ocean). Asian golden cat prefer forest habitats interspersed
with rocky areas, and are found in dry deciduous,
Types of Sequestration:
subtropical evergreen and tropical rainforests. In
• There are number of technologies under investigation India it is distribution in assam& arunachal Pradesh.
for sequestering carbon from the atmosphere. These IUCN Status – near threatened.
can be discussed under three main categories:
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CHAPTER - 22
• Industrial processes and product use contributed 8%; 22.2.1. Surface Temperature
agriculture and waste sectors contributed 18% and 3%
respectively to the national GHG inventory. • At the national level, increase of — 0.4° C has been ob-
served in surface air temperatures over the past cen-
• About 12% of emissions were offset by carbon sink ac- tury. A warming trend has been observed along the
tion of forests and croplands, considering which the west coast, in central India, the interior peninsula, and
national GHG emissions are arrived at a total of 1,884.31 north-eastern India. However, cooling trends have been
million tonnes of CO2 equivalent. observed in north-west India and parts of south India.
• India’s per capita GHG emission in 2010 was 1.56 tCO2
equivalent, which is less than one- third of the world’s 22.2.2. Rainfall
per capita emissions and far below than many devel- • While the observed monsoon rainfall at the all-India
oped and developing countries. level does not show any significant trend, regional mon-
• A reduction of emission intensity of GDP by about 12% soon variations have been recorded.
between 2005 and 2010 has been achieved against our • A trend of increasing monsoon seasonal rainfall has
voluntary pledge to reduce the emission intensity of its been found along the west coast, northern Andhra
GDP by 20–25 per cent by 2020, compared with the Pradesh, and north-western India (+10% to +12% of the
2005 level. normal over the last 100 years) while a trend of decreas-
• India will continue to be a low-carbon economy (World ing monsoon seasonal rainfall has been observed over
Bank study). eastern Madhya Pradesh, north-eastern India, and some
parts of Gujarat and Kerala (-6% to —8% of the normal
• India’s primary focus is on “adaptation”, with specific over the last 100 years).
focus for “mitigation”.
• India has already unveiled a comprehensive National 22.2.3. Extreme Weather Events
Action Plan on Climate Change whose activities are in • Instrument records over the past 130 years do not indi-
the public domain. cate any marked long-term trend in the frequencies of
• India advocates collaborative research in future low- large-scale droughts and floods. Trends are however
carbon technology and access to intellectual property observed in multi-decadal periods of more frequent
rights (IPRs) as global public goods. droughts, followed by less severe droughts.
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Do you know?
In Kaziranga, which has the highest concentration of
the one-horned rhinoceros, the figure has gone up
from 2,048 in 2009 to 2,990 now, despite the death of
roughly 120 rhinos between 2009 and 2011. The rhino
census, also registered 100 rhinos in Orang National
Park and 93 in Pobitora wildlife sanctuary, besides 22
that have been translocated to Manas National Park
over the past four years.
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• Eight of these 34 criteria are mandatory, four are partly • It is also important to separate the role of different par-
mandatory, while the rest are optional. Each criterion ticipants in ensuring that the building consumes mini-
has a number of points assigned to it. mal resources over its entire life cycle and leaves behind
• It means that a project intending to meet the criterion a minimal environmental footprint.
would qualify for the points. Different levels of certifica-
tion (one star to five stars) are awarded based on the
Do you know?
number of points earned. The minimum points required
for certification is 50. Amrita Devi Bishnoi Wildlife Protection Award is
given for significant contribution in the field of wild-
life protection, which is recognised as having shown
Do you know? exemplary courage or having done exemplary work
Medini Puraskar Yojana - This award is given to In- for the protection of wildlife.
dian authors each year to encourage original works in
Hindi on environment and its related subjects such as
wildlife, water resources and conservation 22.11. E NERGY AUDITS OF LARGE
INDUSTRIAL CONSUMERS
The benefits • In March 2007 the conduct of energy audits was made
mandatory in large energy-consuming units in nine
• On a broader scale, this system, along with the activities
and processes that lead up to it, will benefit the com- industrial sectors. These units, notified as “des¬ignated
munity at large with the improvement in the environ- consumers” are also required to employ “certified en-
ment by reducing GHG (greenhouse gas) emissions, ergy managers”, and report energy con¬sumption and
reducing energy consumption and the stress on natural energy conservation data annually.
resources.
• Reduced energy consumption without sacrificing the 22.12. MASS TR ANSPORT
comfort levels • The National Urban Transport Policy emphasizes exten-
• Reduced destruction of natural areas, habitats, and sive public transport facilities and non-motor¬ized
biodiversity, and reduced soil loss from erosion etc. modes over personal vehicles. The expansion of the
• Reduced air and water pollution (with direct health Metro Rail Transportation System in Delhi and other
benefits) cities (Chennai, Bangalore, Jaipur, etc) and other mass
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• In urban areas, one of the major sources of air pollution • Canara Bank and Syndicate Bank, along with their eight
associate Regional Rural Banks, partnered with UNEP
is emissions from transport vehicles.
to establish and run a Loan Programme through their
• Steps taken to reduce such pollution include branch offices across Karnataka State and part of the
(i) introduction of compressed natural gas (CNG) in neighbouring Kerala State.
Delhi and other cities; • In addition to providing financial support in the form
(ii) Retiring old, polluting vehicles; and of interest rate subsidies for borrowers, UNEP provides
assistance with technical issues, vendor qualification
(iii) Strengthening of mass transportation. and other activities to develop the institutional capacity
• Some state governments provide subsidies for purchase for this type of finance.
and use of electric vehicles. For thermal power plants,
the installation of electrostatic precipitators is manda- 22.17. N
ATIONAL INITIATIVE ON CLIMATE
tory. In many cities, polluting industrial units have ei- RESILIENT AGRICULTURE (NICRA)
ther been closed or shifted from residential areas. • The ICAR has launched National Initiative on Climate
Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) during 2010-11 with an
22.14. P
ROMOTION OF ENERGY SAVING outlay of Rs.350 crores for the XI Plan.
DEVICES • This initiative will primarily enhance the resilience
• The Bureau of Energy efficiency has introduced “The of Indian Agriculture covering crops, livestock and
Bachat Lamp Yojana”, a programme under which house- fisheries.
holds may exchange incandescent lamps for CFLs (com-
22.17.1. Objective
pact fluorescent lamps) using clean devel¬opment
mechanism (CDM) credits to equate pur¬chase price. • To enhance the resilience of Indian agriculture cover-
ing crops, livestock and fisheries to climatic variability
• Some states have made mandatory the installation of and climate change through development and applica-
solar water heaters in hospitals, hotels and large gov- tion of improved production and risk management
ernment and commercial buildings. Subsidy is provided technologies
for installation of solar water heaters in residential
Project Components
buildings.
• The project is comprised of four components.
22.15. PROMOTION OF BIOFUELS 1) Strategic research on adaptation and mitigation
• The Biodiesel Purchase Policy mandates biodiesel pro- 2) Technology demonstration on farmers’ fields to cope
curement by the petroleum industry. A mandate on with current climate variability
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CHAPTER - 23
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• Governments resolved to strengthen measures to close • The CTCN is ready to respond to requests from develop-
the “ambition gap” – the gap between what has been ing countries on issues related to the development and
pledged to date and what is required to keep the world transfer of technology.
below a maximum average 2 degrees Celsius tempera-
ture rise - before the new agreement enters into force 23.9 LIMA OUTCOMES,COP 20, 2014
in 2020. • The Lima Climate Conference achieved”firsts” in the
history of the international climate process.
• Additionally, governments urge the voluntary cancella-
tion of Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) under the • Pledges were made by both developed and developing
Kyoto Protocol’s Clean Development Mechanism. countries prior to and during the COP that took the
capitalization of the new Green Climate Fund (GCF)
Strengthening efforts to mobilize USD 100 billion by past an initial $10 billion target.
2020
• Levels of transparency and confidence-building reached
• To mobilize USD 100 billion annually by 2020 to support new heights as several industrialized countries submit-
developing countries in their climate change actions, ted themselves to questioning about their emissions
developed countries agreed to make their efforts on a targets under a new process called a Multilateral As-
biennial basis from 2014 to 2020. sessment.
• The Green Climate Fund is open for business and will • The Lima Ministerial Declaration on Education and
begin its initial resource mobilization process in the Awareness-raising calls on governments to put climate
middle of 2014. change into school curricula and climate awareness into
Cutting emissions from deforestation – “the Warsaw national development plans.
Framework for REDD+”
Steps Forward on Adaptation
• Governments agreed on a set of decisions on ways to
reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degra- • Progress was made in Lima on elevating adaptation
dation. onto the same level as the curbing and cutting of curb-
ing greenhouse gas emissions. This will be done
• Global deforestation accounts for some 20 percent of the through National Adaptation Plans (NAPs).
world’s CO2 emissions. The set of decisions bolsters
forest preservation and sustainable use of forests with • NAPs will now be made more visible via the UNFCCC
direct benefits for people who live in and around forests. website which should improve the opportunity for re-
ceiving backing.
• It establishes the means for results-based payments if
developing countries can demonstrate the protection of • A NAP Global Network was launched involving Peru,
forests. the US, Germany, the Philippines, Togo, the UK, Ja-
maica, and Japan.
Progress on driving adaptation
• The Lima Adaptation Knowledge initiative--a pilot pro-
• Developed countries met the target capitalization of ject in the Andes under the Nairobi Work Programme--
USD 100 million for the Adaptation Fund, which can has underlined that establishing the adaptive needs of
now continue funding priority projects. communities can be successfully captured.
Progress towards accountability • Countries supported the idea of replicating this in Least
• The framework for measuring, reporting and verifying Developed Countries, Small Island Developing States
mitigation efforts, including by developing countries, is and Africa.
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• At COP 17 Parties welcomed the fast-start finance • REDD+ approach incorporates important benefits of
provided by developed countries as part of their livelihoods improvement, biodiversity conservation
collective commitment to provide new and addi- and food security services.
tional resources approaching USD 30 billion for the Will India Benefit from REDD+?
period 2010–2012, and noted the information pro-
India’s sustained efforts for conserving and expanding its
vided by developed country Parties on the fast-start
forest and tree resources have the possibility of being re-
finance they have provided and urged them to con-
warded for providing carbon service to the international
tinue to enhance the transparency of their report-
community in addition to providing traditional goods and
ing on the fulfillment of their fast-start finance
services to the local communities.
commitments.
• The “Funds Managed by the GEF Module” is a • The incentives so received from REDD+ would be
passed to the local communities involved in protection
joint effort between the secretariat of the UNFCCC
and management of the forests. This will ensure sus-
and the secretariat of the Global Environment Fa-
cility (GEF). This module presents information on tained protection of our forests against deforestation.
financial flows that have been channelled, mobi- • It is estimated that a REDD+ programme for India could
lized and leveraged by the GEF in its role as an provide capture of more than 1 billion tonnes of addi-
operating entity of the Financial Mechanism of the tional CO2 over the next 3 decades and provide more
UNFCCC. than USD 3 billion as carbon service incentives under
REDD+.
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PART - IV
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CHAPTER - 24
AGRICULTURE
“A man without food
For three days will quarrel,
For a week will fight and
For a month or so will die”
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Pulses or Grain Legumes • Tubers and tops are used as a fodder for cattle feed
• Pulses are major source of protein in Indian diet and Starch Crops or Tuber Crops
providing most of the essential amino acids to a certain 1. Potato
degree. Economically, pulses are cheapest source of pro- 2. Tapioca or cassava
tein.
3. Sweet potato
• It is cultivated to enrich the soil, to utilize the residual
moisture and to give revenue in a shorter period. Fibre Crops
Red gram • Epidermal hairs of seed coats is the economic portion
Black gram • Lint (cappas – seed) has industrial value (fibre)
Green gram • Stalk is of fuel nature, garment purpose, seed for cattle
feed and Oil is edible
Cowpea
Bengalgram Cotton
Horsegram • Karunganni
Dewgram • Uppam cotton
Soyabean • American cotton or Cambodium cotton
Peas or gardenpea • Egyptian cotton or Sea island cotton
Garden bean
Stem Fibres
Oil Seed Crops a) Jute
• These crops are cultivated for the production of oil. b) Mesta
Either for edible on industrial or medicinal purpose.
c) Sun hemp
They contain more of fat.
d) Sisal hemp
Groundnut or peanut
Sesamum or gingelly Narcotics
Sunflower • Stimulates Nervous System
Castor i) Tobacco
Linseed or flax ii) Betelvine
Niger iii) A recanut
Safflower
Rapeseed & Mustard
• 45 – 50% oil content is present in these seeds. Do you know?
Special measures are being initiated in the keoladeo
Sugar Crops
National Park (NP) to eradicate the African catfish
Juice extracted from known locally as the Mangur, this invasive species has
1. Sugar stem used for jaggery or sugar rapidly come to dominate the park’s water bodies and
• Number of by products like Molasses, bagasse, is threatening aquatic and avian fauna here.
pressmud
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• Preparatory tillage: This refers to tillage operations • Sub soiling: To break the hard pan beneath the plough
layer special tillage operations (chiselling) are per-
that are done to prepare the field for raising crops. It
formed to reduce compaction. Sub soiling is essential
consists of deep opening and loosening of the soil to
once in four to five years where heavy machineries are
bring about a desirable tilth as well as to incorporate or
used for field operations, seeding, harvesting, trans-
uproot weeds and crop stubble when the soil is in a
porting etc.
workable condition.
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Do you know?
• It promotes organic agriculture, which does not use
pesticides.
The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) India, and
Ricoh India, a global technology company recently
• It aims to maximize symbiotic and synergistic relation-
ships between site components.
signed the ‘Project Nature Watch’ partnership to sup-
port conservation activities in India. The project aims • It’s design is site specific, client specific, and culture
at providing need-based infrastructure support to specific
frontline and field staff working in the forest and ma-
rine areas, for monitoring species such as the Red 24.9 INTEGR ATED FARMING SYSTEM
panda, Snow leopard, tiger, elephant, rhino. Olive rid- • Integration of farm enterprises such as cropping sys-
ley turtle and other threatened fish diversity, coral tems, animal husbandry, fisheries, forestry etc. for op-
reefs, cetaceans and marine mammals. timal utilisation of resources bringing prosperity to the
farmer. According to the availability of land, type of
land, water, capital, resources, technical skill of the
24.8 PERMACULTURE farmer, market facilities etc., and the components of
farming system are to be chosen and adopted for better
• Bill Mollison, an Australian ecologist, and one of his results.
students, David Holmgren, coined the word “permacul-
ture” in 1978. It is a contraction of “permanent agricul- Benefits of Integrated Farming System
ture” or “permanent culture.” • Steady income other than income from regular crop-
• It is defined as a design system for creating sustainable ping
human environments. It uses ecology as the basis for • Risk coverage due to subsidiary allocation in the event
designing integrated systems of food production, hous- of unexpected crop failures
ing, appropriate technology, and community develop-
ment.
• Employment opportunity
• Permaculture is built upon an ethic of caring for the
• Higher productivity
earth and interacting with the environment in mutually • Augmented returns and recycling of organics
beneficial ways. • Easily adopted by marginal and submarginal farmers
• A central theme in Permaculture is the design of eco- • General uplift of farm activities
logical landscapes that produce food. Emphasis is placed • Better utilisation of land, labour, time and available
on multi-use plants, cultural practices such as sheet manures in the farm.
mulching and trellising, and the integration of animals
to recycle nutrients and graze weeds. 24.10 E LEMENTS REQUIRED IN PLANT
Characteristics GROWTH
• It is one of the most holistic, integrated systems analy- 1. Macronutrients:
sis and design methodologies found in the world. • Based on the relative abundance in plants, viz., Nitro-
• It can be applied to create productive ecosystems from gen (N); Phosphorous (P), Potassium (K), Sulfur (S),
the human- use standpoint or to help degraded ecosys- Calcium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg)
tems recover health and wildness.
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Soil Components
Clay: very find particles. Compacts easily. Forms large,
dense clumps when wet. Low permeability to water; there- Soil Profile
fore, upper layers become waterlogged.
Gravel: Coarse particles. Consists of rock fragments. • The 5 master horizons are represented by the letters:
Loam: About equal mixtures of clay, sand, slit, and humus. O, A, E, B, and C.
Rich in nutrients. Holds water but does not become water- • O: The O horizon is a surface horizon that is comprised
logged. of organic material at various stages of decomposition.
Sand: Sedimentary material coarser than slit. Water flows It is most prominent in forested areas where there is
through too quickly for most crops. Good for crops and the accumulation of debris fallen from trees.
plants requiring low amounts of water. • A: The A horizon is a surface horizon that largely con-
Slit: Sedimentary material consisting of very fine particles sists of minerals (sand, silt, and clay) and with appreci-
between the size of sand and clay. Easily transported by able amounts of organic matter. This horizon is
water. predominantly the surface layer of many soils in grass-
• Soil is a natural body of mineral and organic constitu- lands and agricultural lands.
ents differentiated into horizons usually unconsolidated, • E: The E horizon is a subsurface horizon that has been
of variable depth which differs among themselves as heavily leached. Leaching is the process in which soluble
well as from the underlying parent material in morphol- nutrients are lost from the soil due to precipitation or
ogy, physical makeup, chemical properties and compo- irrigation. The horizon is typically light in color. It is
sition and biological characteristics. generally found beneath the O horizon.
• Soil profile: The vertical section of the soil showing the • B: The B horizon is a subsurface horizon that has ac-
various layers from the surface to the unaffected parent cumulated from the layer(s) above. It is a site of deposi-
material is known as a soil profile. The various layers tion of certain minerals that have leached from the
are known as horizons. layer(s) above.
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PART - V
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CHAPTER - 25
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The following items have been prohibited for import: Duties of Service providers and Contractors
a. Waste edible fats and oil of animals, or vegetable • The service providers shall prepare a comprehensive
waste management plan for waste generated within
origin;
their jurisdiction, within six months from the date of
b. Household waste; notification of these rules,
c. Critical Care Medical equipment; • Shall remove all construction and demolition waste in
d. Tyres for direct re-use purpose; consultation with the concerned local authority on their
own or through any agency.
e. Solid Plastic wastes including Pet bottles;
Timeframe for implementation
f. Waste electrical and electronic assemblies scrap;
g. Other chemical wastes especially in solvent form.
• Million plus cities (based on 2011 census of India), shall
commission the processing and disposal facility within
xiv. State Government is authorized to prepare integrated one-and-a-half years from date of final notification of
plan for effective implementation of these provisions, these rules
and have to submit annual report to Ministry of Envi- • 0.5 to 1 million cities, shall commission the processing
ronment, Forest and Climate Change. and disposal facility within two years from date of final
xv. State Pollution Control Board is mandated to prepare notification of these rules
an annual inventory of the waste generated; waste • for other cities (< 0.5 million populations), shall com-
recycled, recovered, utilised including co-processed; mission the processing and disposal facility within
waste re-exported and waste disposed and submit to three years from date of final notification of these rules
the Central Pollution Control Board by the 30th day of Local Authority shall be responsible for proper manage-
September every year. ment of construction and demolition waste within its ju-
risdiction including placing appropriate containers for
25.12 C
ONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION collection of waste, removal at regular intervals, transpor-
WASTE MANAGEMENT RULES, 2016 tation to appropriate sites for processing and disposal.
Procurement of materials made from construction and
The salient features are: demolition waste shall be made mandatory to a certain
Applies to everyone who generates construction and dem- percentage (say 10-20%) in municipal and Government
olition waste. contracts subject to strict quality control.
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CHAPTER - 26
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• To generate employment opportunities for skilled and > 70 critically detailed investigations and
unskilled persons, especially unemployed youths. polluted appropriate remedial action
60 – 70 severely surveillance and
Strategy of the Mission polluted implementation of pollution
control
• Adopt a coordinated approach covering production and
marketing to assure appropriate returns to growers/ < 60 normal
producers.
• Promote Research and Development (R&D) of geneti- • The Central and state Pollution Control Board, in col-
cally superior clones of suitable species and technologies laboration with IIT, Delhi has applied the CEPI for en-
vironmental assessment of 88 Industrial Clusters across
for enhanced production.
the country. 43 such industrial clusters having CEPI
• Enhance acreage (in forest and non-forest areas) and greater than 70, on a scale of 0 to 100, have been iden-
productivity of bamboo through species change and tified as critically polluted.
improved cultural practices.
• The effective implementation of the remedial action
• Promote partnership, convergence and synergy among plan will help in pollution abatement and to restore the
R&D and marketing agencies in public as well as private environmental quality of respective industrial clusters
sectors, at all levels. and its sustainable use.
• Promote where appropriate, cooperatives and self- • The polluted industrial clusters/areas shall be further
help groups to ensure support and adequate return to explored in order to define the spatial boundaries as
farmers. well as the extent of eco-geological damages.
• Facilitate capacity-building and Human Resource De- • There are still some aspects that need to be improved
velopment. include, consistency in pollution monitoring data, selec-
• Set up National, State and sub-State level structures, to tion of sampling locations for the environmental moni-
ensure adequate returns for the produce of the farmers toring, and collection of data on adverse impact on
and eliminate middlemen, to the extent possible. human population and other geo-ecological features due
to industrial pollution.
26.7 C
OMPREHENSIVE ENVIRON-
MENTAL POLLUTION INDEX (CEPI) 26.8 LIGHTING A BILLION LIVES (LABL)
• Comprehensive Environmental Pollution Index (CEPI) • LaBL is a campaign by TERI that promotes the use of
solar lanterns specially designed and manufactured on
is a rational number to characterize the environmental
a decentralized basis.
quality at a given location following the algorithm of
source, pathway, receptor and various parameters like • LaBL has been able to engage with government inter-
pollutant concentration, impact on human health and ventions under Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, Madhya Pradesh
level of exposure have been taken into consideration for Rural Livelihood Project, Rasthriya Gramin Vikas Nidhi,
the calculation of pollution indices for air, water and and has facilitated the spread of mobile telephony with
support from Department of Telecommunications, Gov-
land.
ernment of India.
• The present CEPI is intended to act as an early warn-
ing tool. It can help in categorizing the industrial clus- • LaBL has successfully engaged the private sector and
leveraged Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR).
ters in terms of priority of planning needs for
interventions. • This initiative has the potential to contribute towards
the realization of the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) by improving energy access for the rural poor.
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26.9 ECO MARK • The project intends to expand to other globally signifi-
cant sites in the country to strengthen linkages between
• a government scheme of labeling of environment conservation and improving livelihoods of local com-
friendly products to provide accreditation and labelling munities that live in the neighborhood of biodiversity
for household and other consumer products which meet rich areas-as well as to enhance the local and national
certain environmental criteria along with quality re-
economy.
quirements of the Bureau of Indian Standards for that
product. • The Project would be implemented as a Centrally Spon-
sored Scheme with five financiers (IDA loan, GEF grant,
• Objective - to recognize good environmental perfor- contributions from Government of India, State Govern-
mance as well as improvements in performance of the
ments and beneficiaries), amounting to around Rs.
unit
137.35 crores, spread over six years.
• Any product, which is made, used or disposed of in a
way that significantly reduces the harm to environ- 26.12 NATIONAL CLEAN ENERGY FUND
ment, could be considered as ‘Environment Friendly
• ‘National Clean Energy Fund’ (NCEF) was constituted
Product’. in the public account of India in the Finance Bill 2010-11.
• The project would help in capacity building by conduct- • Objective - to invest in entrepreneurial ventures and
ing training, workshops, seminars, conference etc. on research & innovative projects in the field of clean en-
the issues pertaining to the industry and environment ergy technology.
interface. This would facilitate the change in attitude of
the stakeholders and the industry on the need to sup-
• The Central Board of Excise and Customs consequently
notified the Clean Energy Cess Rules 2010 under which
port the proactive industry. producers of specified goods namely raw coal, raw lig-
nite and raw peat were made liable to pay Clean Energy
26.10 U
RBAN SERVICES ENVIRON- Cess.
MENTAL R ATING SYSTEM (USERS)
• Any project with innovative methods to adopt to clean
• Project funded by UNDP executed by Ministry of Envi- energy technology and research & development shall be
ronment and Forests and implemented by TERI. eligible for funding under the NCEF.
• Aim - to develop an analytical tool to measure the per- • Government assistance under the NCEF shall in no case
formance, with respect to delivery of basic services in exceed 40% of the total project cost.
local bodies of Delhi and Kanpur. (identified as pilot • Indo-French Project to Study Effects of Climate Change
cities). on Farming
• Performance measurement (PM) tool was developed • The Indo-French Centre for the Promotion of Advanced
through a set of performance measurement indicators Research (CEFIPRA) launched a multi-disciplinary
that are benchmarked against set targets using the Indo-French research project titled ‘Adaptation of Irri-
inputs-outputs efficiency outcomes framework. gated Agriculture to Climate Change (AICHA).’
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CHAPTER - 27
ORGANIZATIONS
27.1 T HE ANIMAL WELFARE BOARD maintenance of slaughter houses or in connection with
OF INDIA slaughter of animals so that unnecessary pain or suf-
fering, whether physical or mental, is eliminated in the
• The Animal Welfare Board of India is a statutory advi- pre- slaughter stages as far as possible, and animals are
sory body on Animal Welfare Laws and promotes ani-
mal welfare in the country. killed, wherever necessary, in as humane a manner as
possible.
• The Animal Welfare Board of India, the first of its kind
to be established by any Government in the world, was • To take all such steps as the Board may think fit to
set up in 1962, in accordance with Section 4 of the Pre- ensure that unwanted animals are destroyed by local
vention of Cruelty to Animals Acts 1960. authorities, whenever it is necessary to do so, either
instantaneously or after being rendered insensible to
• Shrimati Rukmini Devi Arundale pioneered the setting
pain or suffering.
up of the Board, with its Headquaters at Chennai. She
guided the activities of the Board for nearly twenty • To encourage by the grant of financial assistance or
years till her demise in 1986. otherwise, the formation or establishment of Pinjara-
poles, rescue homes, animals shelters, sanctuaries and
Functions the like, where animals and birds may find a shelter
when they have become old and useless or when they
• To keep the law in force in India for the Prevention of need protection.
Cruelty to Animals under constant study and to advise
the government on the amendments to be undertaken • To co-operate with, and co-ordinate the work of asso-
in any such law from time to time. ciations or bodies established for the purpose of pre-
venting unnecessary pain or suffering to animals or for
• To advise the Central Government on the making of
the protection of animals and birds.
rules under the Act with a view to preventing unneces-
sary pain or suffering to animals generally, and more • To give financial assistance and other assistance to
particularly when they are being transported from one Animal Welfare Organisations, functioning in any local
place to another or when they are used as performing area or to encourage the formation of Animal Welfare
animals or when they are kept in captivity or confine- Organisations in any local area which shall work under
ment. the general supervision and guidance of the Board.
• To advise the Government or any local authority or • To advise the Government on matters relating to the
other person on improvements in the design of vehicles medical care and attention which may be provided in
so as to lessen the burden on draught animals. animal hospitals, and to give financial and other as-
• To take all such steps as the Board may think fit for sistance to animal hospitals whenever the Board think
amelioration of animals by encouraging, or providing it is necessary to do so.
for the construction of sheds, water troughs and the like • To impart education in relation to the humane treat-
and by providing for veterinary assistance to animals. ment of animals and to encourage the formation of pub-
• To advise the Government or any local authority or lic opinion against the infliction of unnecessary pain or
other person in the design of slaughter houses or the suffering to animals and for the promotion of animal
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• NGRBA was constituted on February 2009 under the • Monitoring and review of the implementation of various
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. programmes or activities taken up for prevention, con-
trol and abatement of pollution in the river Ganga;
• The NGRBA is a planning, financing, monitoring and
coordinating body of the centre and the states. • Issue directions under section 5 of the Environment
• The objective of the NGRBA is to ensure effective abate- (Protection) Act, 1986 for the purpose of exercising and
ment of pollution and conservation of the river Ganga performing these functions and for achievement of its
by adopting a river basin approach for comprehensive objectives.
planning and management.
• The Authority has both regulatory and developmental 27.7 WILDLIFE TRUST OF INDIA
functions. The Authority will take measures for effective • NGO founded: 1998
abatement of pollution and conservation of the river
Ganga in keeping with sustainable development needs. • Aim: To conserve nature, especially endangered species
and threatened habitats, in partnership with communi-
These include ties and governments.
• Development of a river basin management plan; • The Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) is committed to the
protection of India’s wildlife; it achieves this by working
• Regulation of activities aimed at prevention, control and
abatement of pollution in Ganga to maintain its water in partnership with local communities and govern-
quality, and to take measures relevant to river ecology ments on a range of projects, from species rehabilitation
and management in the Ganga basin states; to the prevention of the illegal wildlife trade.
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CHAPTER - 28
INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS
28.1 M AJOR ENVIRONMENT 18. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS Change (UNFCCC)
Nature conservation 19. Kyoto Protocol
1. United Nations Conference On Environment And De- 1. United Nations Conference On Environment
velopment (UNCED) And Development (UNCED)
2. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Also known as the Rio Summit, Rio Conference, Earth
3. Ramsar Convention on Wetlands Summit held in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992.
4. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Spe- The issues addressed included:
cies of Fauna and Flora (CITES) • Systematic scrutiny of patterns of production — par-
5. The Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network (TRAFFIC) ticularly the production of toxic components, such as
6. Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species lead in gasoline, or poisonous waste including radioac-
(CMS) tive chemicals
7. Coalition Against Wildlife Trafficking (CAWT) • Alternative sources of energy to replace the use of fossil
fuels which are linked to global climate change
8. International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTC)
9. United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF) • New reliance on public transportation systems in order
to reduce vehicle emissions, congestion in cities and the
10. International Union for Conservation of Nature and health problems caused by polluted air and smog
Natural Resources (IUCN)
11. Global Tiger Forum (GTF)
• The growing scarcity of water
The Earth Summit resulted in the following
Hazardous material documents:
12. Stockholm Convention • Rio Declaration on Environment and Development
13. Basel Convention • Agenda 21
14. Rotterdam Convention • Forest Principles
Land Moreover, two important legally binding
agreements
15. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
(UNCCD) 1. Convention on Biological Diversity
2. Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
Marine environment The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development,
16. International Whaling Commission (IWC) often shortened to Rio Declaration, was a short document
produced at the 1992 United Nations “Conference on Envi-
Atmosphere ronment and Development” (UNCED), informally known
17. Vienna convention and Montreal Protocol as the Earth Summit. The Rio Declaration consisted of
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• Includes species that although currently not threatened • TRAFFIC is an international network, consisting of
with extinction, may become so without trade controls. TRAFFIC International, based in Cambridge, UK with
It also includes species that resemble other listed species offices on five continents.
and need to be regulated in order to effectively control • Since its founding, TRAFFIC has grown to become the
the trade in those other listed species. world’s largest wildlife trade monitoring programme,
and a global expert on wildlife trade issues.
Appendix III:
• This non-governmental organization undertakes its ac-
• Includes species for which a range country has asked tivities in close collaboration with governments and the
other Parties to help in controlling international trade. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Spe-
Examples include map turtles, walruses and Cape stag cies of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Secretariat.
beetles.
Goal
• Until CoP13, these meeting were held every two years;
since then, CoPs are held every three years. • To ensure that trade in wild plants and animals is not
a threat to the conservation of nature.
• CoP16 is scheduled to occur from March 3-14, 2013 in
Bangkok, Thailand. Vision
CITES Role in Conservation • Is of a world in which trade in wild animals and plants
will be managed at sustainable levels without damaging
• Over the last several decades, CITES has helped ensure the integrity of ecological systems and in such a manner
global conservation of species.
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• To set up a participative fund of an appropriate size to • become widely distributed throughout the environment
engender awareness in all places where people consume as a result of natural processes involving soil, water
tiger derivatives for eliminating such consumption of and, most notably, air;
tiger products, and identifying substitutes, in the inter- • accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms in-
ests of conservation. cluding humans, and are found at higher concentrations
Global Tiger Initiative at higher levels in the food chain; and
An alliance of governments, international agencies, civil • are toxic to both humans and wildlife.
society, and the private sector united to save wild tigers In addition, POPs concentrate in living organisms through
from extinction another process called bioaccumulation. Though not solu-
Goals of GTI ble in water, POPs are readily absorbed in fatty tissue,
• To support capacity-building in governments for re- where concentrations can become magnified by up to
sponding effectively to the transnational challenge of 70,000 times the background levels.
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CHAPTER - 29
29.1 TOXICOLOGY EFFECTS Neuromuscular effects - collectively called lead palsy, and
Eco-toxicology is “a study of the effects of released pol- impairment of muscle metabolism resulting into re-
lutants on the environment and on the biota that in- sidual paralysis and muscular atrophy.
habit it. Central nervous system effects - CNS syndrome - a pano-
ply of nervous system disorders, they may lead to de-
Rem lirium, convulsions coma and death.
It gives an indication of biological damage. It is an estimate
of the amount of radiation of any type which produces the Mercury
same biological injury in man as that resulting from the This is the most common and most toxic in water bodies.
absorption of a given amount of X-ray radiation or gamma It occurs in water as monomethyl mercury. Most industrial
radiation. effluents have mercury. Methyl mercury vapours cause
fatal poisoning.
Iodine - 131 High levels of mercury in fish stocks have been found,
Iodine - 131 produced by nuclear tests is passed to vegeta- mainly in coastal areas. Mumbai, Kolkata, Karwar (in Kar-
tion and then appears in milk of the cattle that consume nataka) and North Koel (in Bihar) are some of the severely
the contaminated vegetation and is passed to humans. affected areas.
Iodine-131 causes serious damage to thyroid gland, espe- The recent popularity of energy efficient compact to fluo-
cially among children. rescent lamps or CFLs has added another dimension to the
About 99% of long-term radioactivity from either stron- controversy.
tium or radium taken into the human body is found in the Toxicity of mercury is much greater than any other sub-
bones. stance, about 1000 times more potent than colchicines.
Lead Fluorine
Lead is highly toxic to plants and animals including man. It occurs in nature as fluoride, in air, soil and water. Fluor-
Lead generally affects children more severely than adults. isis is a common problem in several states of the country
Lead poisoning causes a variety of symptoms. These in- due to intake of high fluoride content water. Fluorides cause
clude liver and kidney damage, reduction in hemoglobin dental fluorisis, stiffness of joints (particularly spinal cord)
formulation, mental retardation and abnormality in fertil- causing humped back. Pain in bones and joint and outward
ity and pregnancy. Symptoms of chronic lead-poisoning bending of legs from the knees is called Knock-Knee syn-
are of three general types. drome. In cattle, fluoride intake causes staining, mottling
Gastrointestinal troubles - most common in industrial and abrasion of teeth, lameness and decrease in milk pro-
workers includes intestinal stress. duction.
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GLOSSARY
• Warm-blooded is a term to describe animal species • Agroforestry Is an integrated approach of using the
which have a relatively higher blood temperature, and interactive benefits from combining trees and shrubs
maintain thermal homeostasis primarily through inter- with crops and livestock. It combines agricultural and
nal metabolic processes. Examples: Mammals and birds. forestry technologies to create more diverse, productive,
• Cold-blooded is a term often used to refer to animals profitable, healthy and sustainable land-use systems.
that do not use their metabolism to maintain body tem- • Habitat fragmentation is the emergence of disconti-
perature. Examples: reptiles, insects, arachnids, am- nuities (fragmentation) in an organism’s preferred en-
phibians and fish vironment (habitat), causing population fragmentation.
• Aestivation is a state of animal dormancy, character- • Habitat destruction - The process in which natural
ized by inactivity and a lowered metabolic rate that is habitat is rendered functionally unable to support the
entered in response to high temperatures and arid con- species present. In this process, the organisms which
ditions. It takes place during times of heat and dryness, previously used the site are displaced or destroyed, re-
the hot dry season, which is often but not necessarily ducing biodiversity
the summer months. Invertebrate and vertebrate ani- • Habitat conservation is a land management practice
mals are known to enter this state to avoid damage from that seeks to conserve, protect and restore, habitat areas
high temperatures and the risk of desiccation. Both ter- for wild plants and animals, especially conservation
restrial and aquatic animals undergo aestivation. reliant species, and prevent their extinction, fragmenta-
• Hibernation is a state of inactivity and metabolic de- tion or reduction in range
pression in animals, characterized by lower body tem- • Oligotrophic Lake is a lake with low primary produc-
perature, slower breathing, and lower metabolic rate. tivity, the result of low nutrient content. These lakes
Hibernating animals conserve food, especially during have low algal production, and consequently, often have
winter when food supplies are limited, tapping energy very clear waters, with high drinking-water quality
reserves, body fat, at a slow rate. It is the animal’s
slowed metabolic rate which leads to a reduction in body • Eutrophic lake is a lake has high primary productivity
due to excessive nutrients and is subject to algal blooms
temperature and not the other way around.
resulting in poor water quality. The bottom waters of
• Reforestation Is the restocking of existing forests and such bodies are commonly deficient in oxygen, ranging
woodlands which have been depleted from hypoxic to anoxic.
• Afforestation is the establishment of a forest or stand • Mesotrophic lakes is a lake with an intermediate level
of trees in an area where there was no forest of productivity, greater than oligotrophic lakes, but less
• Deforestation Is the removal of a forest or stand of than eutrophic lakes. These lakes are commonly clear
trees where the land is thereafter converted to a non water lakes and ponds with beds of submerged aquatic
forest use. plants and medium levels of nutrients
• Forest cover is the presence of trees on lands more • Mull soil is one characterised by large soil animals
than one hectare in area with a tree canopy of more (especially plentiful earthworms), incorporation of or-
than 10 percent, irrespective of ownership and legal ganic matter through the topsoil and active bacterial
status. decomposition.
• Tree cover comprises the tree patches outside forest • Mor soil is on the other hand characterised by smaller
area and exclusive of forest cover that has less than a soil animals, the buildup of a litter layer on top and
minimum map-able area of one hectare. decomposition mainly led by fungi
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APPENDIX
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Sl.No. State Local term for Sacred Groves No. of sacred groves
1 Andhra Pradesh Pavithravana 580
2 Arunachal Pradesh Gumpa Forests (attached to Buddhist monestries) 101
3 Goa Deorai, Pann 55
4 Jharkhand Sarana 29
5 Karnataka Devara Kadu 1531
6 Kerala Kavu, Sara Kavu 299
7 Maharashtra Devrai, Devrahati, Devgudi 2820
8 Manipur Gamkhap, Mauhak ( sacred bamboo reserves) 166
9 Meghalaya Ki Law Lyngdoh, Ki Law Kyntang, Ki Law Niam 101
10 Orissa Jahera, Thakuramma 169
11 Puducherry Kovil Kadu 108
12 Rajasthan Orans, Kenkris, Jogmaya 560
13 Tamil Nadu Swami shola, Koilkadu 752
14 UttaraKhand Deo Bhumi, Bugyal (sacred alpine meadows) 22
15 West Bengal Garamthan, Harithan, Jahera, Sabitrithan, Santalburithan 39
Similarly several water bodies are declared sacred by people. This indirectly leads to protection of aquatic flora and
fauna. (E.g. khecheoprai lake in Sikkim)
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Note:
• TSPM – Total Suspended Particulate Matter
• RPM – Respirable Particulate Matter
• VOCs – Volatile Organic Compounds
• HCN Vapours – Hydrogen Cyanide
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