Environmental Aspects in Textile Industry: Ecological Hazards and

Remedial Measures
Dr Subrata Das
Professor (Fashion Technology)
B.I.T., Sathyamangalam

ABSTRACT

Among many pollution-creating industries, textile has a larger share in terms of its impact
with regard to noise, air and effluent. It is, therefore, felt worthwhile to study the ecological
hazards associated with various operations of textiles. In this paper, pollution arising out of
noise and air is discussed. Areas of concern and their appropriate rectifying procedures are
also taken into account. Ecological degradation happens in natural fibre right from
cultivation to finishing of ultimate product. Prominent parameters and possible package of
corrective measures are highlighted. Synthetic fibre industry is not an exception to
environmental pollution and therefore various pollution-creating activities are pointed out.
Management of various textile wastes is also mentioned in this paper.

Keywords: Waste, Textile industry, Pollution, Health hazards, Effluents

1 Introduction

Indian textile industry is a unique combination of growth, development and export

performance. This identity is now been checked and challenged. Where is the problem? The
concern is because of the anthropogenic sources of pollution. Green parties today insisting
upon the manufacturing, processing and disposal of textile products as per environmental
norms. Commercial decision in global business now depends on how much conscious we are
in protecting our environment. So, there is a wake up call for the textile industry.
What we are doing to harm our environment? Which are the areas causing destruction to our
biosphere? What should we do to remain in the competition? Will our business exist? These
are the questions to be investigated and the motivating factor for this study.

2 Eco Degradation in Textile Industry

Textile industry contributes 30% of India’s export. It produces over 400 million meters of
cloth and around 1000 million kg of yarn per annum. Textile sector is labour intensive and
nearly a million of workers are associated in various unit operations of about 700 mills. There
exist a number of important environmental benchmarks, associated with the key
environmental issues. Because of the nature of the industry many of these are directed
towards wet processing which tends to be the most obviously polluting sub-sector. Textile
wet processing activity contributes about 70% of pollution in textile industry. It is estimated
that there are around 12,500 textile processing units wherein the requirement of water ranges
from 10 litres with an average of 100 litres per kg [1]. Right from cotton cultivation and
manufacture of fibres, spinning, weaving, processing and finishing, more than 14,000 dyes
and chemicals are used and a significant quantity of these goes in the solid, liquid and air
wastes, thereby impart pollution of air, land and surface water.
Towards the end of 20th century, world has become more ecology conscious and thus green
textile concept is emerged to facilitate eco-management in textile arena. Different unit
operations, which contribute to eco degradation, are described and analysed in this chapter.

2.1 Noise Pollution

Noise is one of the most pervasive environmental problems. There is no doubt that it has
adverse effect on human beings, and their surroundings.
The ISO defines noise intensity level [2] as:

L = 20 log10 (P / P0) = 10 log10 (I / I0) (1)

where P and P0 are the sound pressures of the noise present at a place and the reference sound
pressure at 1000 Hz at the threshold of hearing which is given by 20 micro Pascals. I is the
sound intensity level being measured and I0 is the reference sound intensity at 1000 Hz at the
threshold of hearing and is given by 10-12 w/m2.
The relationship between sound pressure, sound intensity and intensity level (dB) is given in
the literature [3]. In industry, increased mechanization results in increased noise levels.
Operation of textile machines carries a high risk of hearing loss. The evaluation of textile
worker’s noise induced hearing loss was reported elsewhere in the literature [4].

2.1.1 NOISE LEVELS IN TEXTILE MACHINERIES

2.1.1.1 Yarn Production
Because of high spindle speeds reached on new machines (ring spindles up to 20000 rpm,
rotor up to 110000 rpm) spinning mills can generally be assumed to generate a great deal of
noise. Noise levels of 70 to 100 dB are commonly recorded in workrooms.

2.1.1.2 Weaving and Knitting

Although considerable progress has been made in the weaving sector over the last 20 years,
the whole area of noise nuisance and, closely associated with it, vibration coming from
looms, cause major problems.
Noise levels of 100 to 120 dB must be expected in weaving rooms, according to the design,
type, fitting, erection and number of looms used, fabric structure, building type and size etc.
The vibration transmitted from the running looms to the building can, under certain
circumstances, cause a nuisance to the local population and damage to nearby buildings, and
to avoid this special vibration absorbers are now provided.
However, permissible limit set up at 90 dB by Federal Standards of USA for maximum
exposure duration of 8 hours per day. Typical values of noise level in textile machines are
shown in Table I.

2.1.2 REMEDIAL MEASURES

Noise level can be lowered by the use of noise control enclosures, absorbers, silencers and
baffles and by the use of personal protective equipment (PPE), such as earmuffs. Where
technical methods are insufficient, noise exposure may be reduced by the use of hearing
protection and by administrative controls such as limiting the time spent in noisy
environment and scheduling noisy operation outside normal shifts or at distant location. Even
though noise-reducing measures may have been incorporated in the design of the machinery,

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greater output may generate higher noise levels. For instance, every doubling of the speed of
rotary machines the noise emission rises by about 7 dB, warp knitting machines by 12 dB and
in fans by around 18 to 24 dB.
Noise pollution is a problem that has unsatisfactorily been tackled so far. Though noise-
absorbing sheets are used to cover the inner walls of loom shed, still more appropriate means
need to be devised. In modern shuttle less looms because of better engineering designs of the
machines the noise level is lesser. But those shuttle-less looms are costly.

Table I. Noise level in Textile Industry (Texturizing, Spinning and Weaving)

Process Noise level (dB)
Texturizing Plant:
Filament take-up section 93.20
Texturizing section 94.80
Compressor house 99.50
Spinning:
Ring spinning 80
Schubert Salzer Spincomet Rotor
spinning (Individual) 84
Schlafhorst Autocoro Rotor 85
spinning (Individual)
Rieter M2/1 Rotor spinning 86
(Individual)
20 Open End Rotor spinning i.e.
3840 rotors in operation 100
Two for one twister 100 -110
Weaving 100 -120

2.2 Air Pollution

All textile-manufacturing processes generate environmental pollution. Workers are exposed
to the risk of breathing air polluted with dust and fly and contracting respiratory ailments,
byssinosis (lung disease), chronic bronchitis etc.

2.2.1 AIR POLLUTION CREATED BY TEXTILE MACHINERIES

2.2.1.1 Spinning Plant
In spinning mill, the extent of cotton dust contamination varies from section to section, as it is
worst in the blow room and minimum at the cone winding section. The workers are exposed
to such working environment and inhale fibrous particles and dust whole day. Generally, air
suction system exists nearly in all departments to maintain certain humidity and to remove air
contaminants, however, at some places it works effectively but at certain areas air exchange
is not proper resulting into suffocation and inconvenience for the workers.

2.2.1.2 Weaving Shed

In weaving mill, fibrous particles are present in the working environment though not much
but still these are generally inhaled by most of the workers. These small fibrous particles are
generated during weaving activities and dispersed in occupational air.

2.2.2 REMEDIAL MEASURES

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To minimize the effect of these floating fibres or impurities, the humidified air which is
circulated in the spinning and weaving department is filtered so as to separate these floating
impurities from the air.

Table II: Concentration limits of dust in the air stream

Process Limit (mg/m3)
Blowroom to Speed frame 0.5
Spinning 0.2
Twisting 0.2
Winding 0.2
Warping 0.2
Sizing 0.75
Weaving 0.75
Nonwoven 0.5
Table III: Frequency of re-circulation of air in a typical textile mill
Process Frequency of air
changes/hour
Blowroom 15
Carding 20
Combing 15
Drawing 15
Roving 15
Spinning 45
Winding 30
Twisting 20
Warping 20
Sizing 20
Weaving 20
In order to minimize the risk of industrial diseases among the workers, Occupational Safety
and Health Authority (OSHA) of U.S.A has specified concentration limits of dust in the air
streams of production rooms for compliance by the concerned industries is given in Table II.
Air circulation per hour is optimized to keep the air streams clean and hygienic to prevent any
risk to the health of the workers and depicted in Table III.

2.3 Pollution in Cotton Cultivation

In cultivation of cotton, huge quantities of pesticides, fertilizer and water are used. About
18% of world production of pesticides is used for cotton cultivation. It prevents the growth of
undesirable organisms and thereby improves the crop yield. Most of the pesticides are
harmful and cause environmental degradation.

2.3.1 ORGANIC COTTON

Organic cultivation of natural fibres is now practiced in different parts of the globe with a
view to reduce the adverse impact on the environment due to the indiscriminate use of
fertilizers and pesticides. For cultivation of organic cotton, chemical fertilizers and pesticides
cannot be used at all. Further, in order to remove the residual fertilizers and pesticides that

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may be present in the soil, crops are to be cultivated for three seasons without the use of
chemical fertilizers or pesticides [5].

2.3.2 BT COTTON
Bt cotton, genetically engineered (transgenic) cotton, was heralded for its environmental and
human health benefits and as a step towards sustainable agriculture since, farmers could
significantly reduce insecticide use. To create cotton with built-in protection against insects,
genetic engineers spliced a Bt toxin gene into cotton. The new gene that enabled the
transgenic cotton to produce insecticidal toxin throughout the plant was obtained from a soil
bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), an organism well known to many organic and
sustainable growers who have used Bt in sprays to control insects.

2.4 Chemical Pollution

Analysis of water consumption and pollution in effluent of textile chemical processing of
cotton goods has been adapted from literature [6] and is presented in Table IV.

2.4.1 SIZING
Starch is applied to cotton yarn in sizing operation to increase its strength and abrasion
resistance to withstand the stresses and strains of weaving.
Certain preservatives like pentachlorophenol are added to the starch paste in order to protect
it from the attack of microorganisms. They have toxic effect on human skin and the effluent
generated from this process is due to spills and floor washing. Use of synthetic starches
reduce the use of such preservatives and thereby reduce the health hazards.

2.4.2 GREY INSPECTION

During weaving operation, oil stains are produced if proper precautions are not taken. Stain
removers like carbon tetrachloride are used prior to chemical processing. In fact, carbon
tetrachloride has 10% more ozone depletion capacity than Freon gas.

2.4.3 DESIZING
This process removes size ingredients such as starch, softeners, preservatives etc used in
sizing. Enzymes are used to break the starch into water-soluble dextrin. Bacteria can easily
attack the water-soluble dextrin and these are degradable and have high BOD.

2.4.4 SCOURING
The scouring process is meant to remove impurities in fibre such as oils, fats, waxes, seed
particles, spinning oils applied and the residual size ingredients still remaining after desizing.
All these increase the BOD of effluent.

2.4.5 BLEACHING
The process destroys the natural colour of the fibre and makes it white. Sodium hypochlorite
is a common bleaching agent. But due to its highly toxic nature, many countries have banned
their use. Hydrogen Peroxide bleaching is preferred over other bleaching agents due to
negligible toxic effect. Stabilizer is commonly used in peroxide bleaching. Silicate and
phosphate based stabilizers have been found to be non-biodegradable and hence their use has
been banned by number of countries.
2.4.6 MERCERIZATION

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In this process, cotton fabric is treated with a strong caustic soda solution at room
temperature and washing it off with water. It improves the strength, elasticity, luster, dye
uptake and dimensional stability of the fabric. Large volume of dilute caustic soda solution
generated in the process, if allowed to discharge down the drain, will cause water pollution.
However, this wash liquor can be re-used in scouring, dyeing with vat dyes and
mercerization.

2.4.7 DYEING
It is not because of environmental consciousness alone, but due to aesthetic grounds,
realizations of colour values are being felt and therefore dye fixation levels have attracted
attention of the potential dyers. Proper selection of dyes helps to minimize effluent losses.
Typical dye fixation levels for most of the dye classes are shown in Table V. It is
corroborated from the above Table that fixation varies considerably depending on the fibre
and the nature of the dye. However, there is depth of shade also to be taken into
consideration.

Table IV: Pollution loads in Cotton Processing

Process Water consumption BOD of Pollution load
of total (%) total (%) of total (%)
Desizing 5 22 >50
Scouring 1 54 10-25
Bleaching 46 5 3
Mercerizing 2 2 <4
Dyeing 8 5 10-20
Printing 7 6 10-20
Finishing 1 7 15

Table V: Dye fixation levels of different dyes

Dye Class Fibre Type Degree Effluent Benchmark
of Fixation (%) Loss (%) Fixation (%)
Basic Acrylic 95-100 0-5 97
Disperse Polyester 90-100 0-10 95
Metal-complex Wool 90-98 2-10 94
Reactive Cellulosic 50-90 10-50 70

Dyes, which form carcinogenic amines on reduction, contribute substantially for increased
BOD/COD need to be avoided for use in dyeing. Dyes, which contain heavy metal such as
chromium, cobalt, and copper, are detrimental for the environment. Major pollutants in
dyeing include unfixed dye, fixing agents, reducing agents, alkali, organic acids, oxidizing
agents, salts, metals, carriers etc. Advances in methods for reduction of vat and sulphur dyes
using mediator technique claims technical, ecological and economic benefits, with shorter
and more reliable dyeing processes, improved reproducibility, lower effluent costs and better
quality [7-9]. Dyeing in the atmosphere of supercritical carbon dioxide completely eliminates
the water and air pollution. However, there is increasing awareness in recent years towards
the use of number of natural dyes, which are eco-friendly and have no impact on the
environmental pollution.
2.4.8 PRINTING

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Colours selected should be non-toxic and not based on forbidden amines. Dyes with high
fixation properties and modified printing process needing less wash out are recommended to
be used in printing. Printing gums with low BOD and free from pentachlorophenol are
preferred. Use of urea is to be minimized, citric acid in disperse prints should be replaced;
phenol used in nylon fabric printing is to be substituted by diethylene glycol. One of the main
ecological advantages of pigments as compared to dyes is that no after wash is required,
leading to saving in water requirement [10]. However, use of kerosene in pigment printing
should be completely eliminated and replaced with synthetic thickeners. Major pollutants in
textile printing are: suspended solids, urea, solvents, colour, metals, and vapours during
drying and curing, screen cleaning solvents. One area showing promise is the laser technique
visible in the printing area. Good sharp quality prints are visible with the laser technique,
which is totally non-aqueous and useful for all kinds of textile substrates.

2.4.9 FINISHING
Formaldehyde based cross-linking agents applied to cellulosic textiles for crease resistance
and dimensional stability are the highly toxic chemicals. Reactive softeners, certain flame-
retardants, water repellent and rot proofing finishes, are the other pollutants.
In the replacement of formaldehyde based finishing agent, polycarboxylic acid like butane
tetra carboxylic acid, citric acid and copolymer of maleic acid met many requirement for
satisfactory performance in terms of the level, reactivity, durable press performance,
durability to laundering, fabric strength retention, low reagent volatility and absence of odour
[11,12].
In the manmade area, the trend is towards incorporating suitable additives in the spinning
dope to impart desirable properties such as fire repellency, hydrophilicity, antibacterials,
antistatic, UV protection etc. This will avoid the use of these harmful chemicals, which leads
to subsequent pollution.

2.5 Man-Made Fibre Industry

Major raw material for synthetic fibres is obtained from petrochemical feedstock and is
commonly known as monomer whereas cellulose is the major raw material for viscose and
acetate. The type and average consumption of major raw material for individual fibre is given
in Table VI.
A large number of various chemicals, besides pulp or monomer, as the case may be, are
required during the manufacture of each fibre. Ingredients include acetic acid, titanium
dioxide, spin finish, catalyst, methyl acrylate or vinyl acetate, sulphuric acid, sodium
hydroxide, carbon disulphide, Zinc, sodium sulphate, di-sodium sulphide, acetic anhydride,
thermal stabilizer, light stabilizer, antioxidants etc.

Table VI: Major Material Consumption for Man-Made Fibre (Kg/ton product)
Item Viscose Nylon Polyester Acrylic Polypropylene
Raw material Cellulose Caprolactum DMT& EG ACN Propylene
pulp
Average
1140 1100 1100 & 420 1000 1000
Consumption

ACN is toxic and as a consequence stringent measure in acrylic manufacturing plant is

necessary to ensure that it does not contaminate liquid discharge. One of the major pollutants
in viscose plant liquid effluent causing concern is the presence of zinc. The average

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consumption of zinc is in the range of 15 Kg/MT fibres. The zinc concentration in the
effluent is on an average 15-40 mg/l [13].

Table VII: Parameters of Waste Water Generated by Synthetic Fibre Industry

Parameter Nylon Polyester
Temperature (ºC) 30 32
pH 7.25 8.55
Total Suspended Solid (mg/l) 1388 1736
Total Dissolved Solid (mg/l) 1600 1542
BOD, 5 days, 20ºC, mg/l 619 580
Volatile Solids (mg/l) 384 632
COD, mg/l 1459 1680
Alkalinity (as CaCo3), mg/l 350 730

The average consumption and parameters for liquid effluent discharged by nylon and
polyester industries are given in Table VII. In India, for nylon and polyester, the wastewater
generated is on an average of 170 m3/MT and for viscose 1200 m3/MT, respectively.

3 Categorization of Textile Waste

Textile industry covers a wide range of manufacturing processes and technologies to design
the required shape of the final product. But during the course of various process flows, there
is obvious generation of wastes, which are classified into four categories namely, hard to treat
wastes, dispersible wastes, hazardous or toxic wastes and high volume wastes [14].

3.1 Hard to Treat Waste

These include colour, metals, phenols, certain surfactants, toxic organic compounds,
pesticides, as well as phosphates. Major sources are:
 Colour and metals - dyeing operation
 Phosphates - dyeing operation
 Surfactants - non-biodegradable organic materials

3.2 Dispersible Waste

Prominent source of dispersible wastes in textile wet processing are the following: Print
paste, lint, coating operation, solvent, waste stream from continuous dyeing, printing,
finishing etc.

3.3 High Volume Waste

High volume wastes are sometimes a problem for the textile processing units. These include
water from preparation and dyeing stages, alkaline wastes from preparation, salt, cutting
room waste, knitting oils and warp sizes. These wastes sometimes can be reduced by recycle
or reuse as well as by process and equipment modifications.

3.4 Hazardous or Toxic Wastes

The impact on the environment of such kind of wastes is significant. They include metal,
chlorinated solvents, non-degradable surfactants and other non-biodegradable or volatile
organic materials. These wastes originate often from non-process operations, such as machine
cleaning.

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3.5 Waste-Management
Textile industry encompasses a range of unit operation covering a variety of natural and
synthetic fibres to produce fabrics. Various parameters such as turbidity, acidity, alkalinity,
total dissolved solids, BOD, metal content, toxic substances etc. are benchmarked so as to
ensure that the effluent water before being released into city sewage, stream, river or sea is
not harmful to human, animal or plant life. With the concept to bring the parameters of
effluent water to acceptable standards, the effluent is treated. The appropriateness of their
choice and sequence is critical for the success of treatment plant.

3.6 Treatment of Textile Waste

Three types of process are normally used for treatment and recycle of effluent from the textile
industry. These are physico-chemical, biological and membrane process.

Alum Polymer Alum

Dye effluent Lamella Aeration Clarifier Clariflooculator

clarifier tank

Softener Activated Multigrade Storage Chlorine

carbon filter filter tank contact tank

RO Skid Permeate 65%

Cartridge High-pressure
filter pump recovery

Reject to
Solar pond

Figure 1. Flowchart of typical water recycle plant

Physico-chemical processes remove suspended and colloidal impurities, to coagulate and

flocculate reactive, disperse and vat dyes and to facilitate their removal by sedimentation.
The removal is a function of entrapment within a voluminous precipitate consisting primarily
of the coagulant itself. Result of addition of chemicals is net increase in the dissolved
constituents in the wastewater. Coagulants usually added include alum, lime etc. [15]. These
processes offer a good pre-treatment to the downstream biological and membrane processes.
Biological processes used to remove dissolved organics from effluent and thus to reduce
chemical and bio-chemical oxygen demands of the effluent. This is achieved biologically
wherein bacteria is used to convert the colloidal and dissolved carbonaceous organic matter
into various gases and into cell tissue. Because the cell tissue has a specific gravity slightly
greater than that of water, removal from the treated effluent is facilitated under gravity.
Biologically treated effluent contains dissolved salts and residual impurities that have passed
through the previous processes. These are removed in the membrane process such as reverse

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osmosis, which is suitable for removing high salt concentrations so that the treated effluent
can be re-used again in the processing. A typical flow chart of a water recycle plant for textile
industry is shown in Figure 1.

4 Conclusions

Consumer awareness on the environmental issue is on the rise. It is the need of the day to
substitute hazardous chemicals by environmentally benign methods. Buyers are eco
conscious on product, processes and disposal. Thus, textile industry cannot ignore the
environmental impact of its activities. The best approach is to manufacture eco-friendly
products and to modify certain areas of textile processing in such a way so as to avoid
toxicity as efficiently as possible. At the same time, we must not forget in using better-
engineered machines with less noise and following effective and improvised system of air
purification and circulation. Better handling of textile waste and their efficient disposal will
surely be an appropriate step to maintain ecological balance on earth.

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Chemical Processing of Textile, KCT Coimbatore, India, (2001).
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5. Subramanian, S. and Phalgumani, G. R., Proc. A Bilateral Symposium on Eco-
Friendly Textile processing, IIT Delhi, India, (1995).
6. Wagle, N. P., Proc. NCUTE Programme on Eco-Friendly Textile Wet Processing,
S.S.M. College of Engineering Komarapalayam, India, (2001).
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