Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 293 (2010) 248–254

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Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / p a l a e o

Lateglacial and early Holocene glaciation in the tropical Andes caused by

La Niña-like conditions
Jana Zech a,b,⁎, Roland Zech b, Jan-Hendrik May c, Peter W. Kubik d, Heinz Veit a
a
Institute of Geography, University of Bern, Hallerstr. 12, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
b
Department of Geological Sciences, Brown University, Providence RI 02912, USA
c
School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Wollongong, Northfields Ave, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
d
Laboratory of Ion Beam Physics, ETH Zurich, Schafmattstrasse 20, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The response of the tropics to North Atlantic cold events, such as Heinrich Event I (H-I, ∼ 17–15 ka) and the
Received 11 March 2010 Younger Dryas (YD, 12.7–11.5 ka), is still one of the most tantalizing, yet unresolved issues in
Received in revised form 18 May 2010 paleoclimatology. The advent of surface exposure dating has therefore instigated the establishment of
Accepted 23 May 2010
glacial chronologies in the tropical Andes to investigate potential climate teleconnections. Here, we present
Available online 1 June 2010
new exposure ages from the Cordillera Cochabamba (17°17′S), Bolivia, that reveal glacial advances during H-I
and YD, as well as during the Early Holocene. Our chronology correlates well with cold sea surface
Keywords:
Heinrich I
temperatures in the eastern tropical Pacific, which indicates that La Niña-like conditions, i.e. forcings
Younger Dryas intrinsic to the tropics, played a key role for moisture advection and glaciation in the tropical Andes.
Early Holocene © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Surface exposure dating
Andes
ENSO

1. Introduction timing of the Last Glacial Maximum remains highly controversial

The high sensitivity of tropical and subtropical mountain glaciers
to temperature and precipitation makes them an ostensive indicator
of present day and past climate change. By establishing robust and
precise glacial chronologies valuable information regarding the role of
the tropics for the global climate system and regarding teleconnec-
tions to high latitudes can be obtained. In the arid southern
subtropical Andes, for example, surface exposure dating has shown
that glaciers as far south as ∼ 30°S (Zech et al., 2008, 2009) advanced
in phase with the North Atlantic cold events H-I (Hemming, 2004)
and the YD (North Greenland Ice Core Project members et al., 2004;
Björck 2007). These advances were mainly a response to the
intensification of the South American Summer Monsoon (SASM)
(Cruz et al., 2005; Zhang and Delworth, 2005), which is corroborated
by glacier-climate modeling (Kull et al., 2008) and the synchronous
formation of the large paleolakes Tauca (18–14 ka) and Coipasa (13–
11 ka) on the Altiplano (Clapperton et al., 1997; Clayton and
Clapperton, 1997; Placzek et al., 2006) (Fig. 1).
For the tropical Andes, however, large systematic methodological
uncertainties and the often large scatter in exposure ages have yet
prevented the establishment of a similar framework. There, even the
⁎ Corresponding author. Institute of Geography, University of Bern, Hallerstr. 12,
3012 Bern, Switzerland. Tel.: +41 31 6318019; fax: +41 31 6318511.
E-mail address: jana.zech@giub.unibe.ch (J. Zech).
(Smith et al., 2005; Zech et al., 2008; Bromley et al., 2009).
In order to refine and supplement existing glacial chronologies in
the tropical Andes and to investigate possible teleconnections and
forcing mechanisms we mapped glacial extents and applied 10Be
surface exposure dating in the Wara Wara Valley (17°17′S, 66°06′W),
Cordillera Cochabamba, Bolivia (Fig. 1).
2. Geographical setting
No glaciers exist today in the Cordillera Cochabamba, but well
preserved glacial features document massive glaciation from peak
altitudes of ∼5300 m asl down to 3700 m asl (Kull et al., 2008). Mean
annual precipitation ranges from 780 to 910 mm and mean annual
temperatures are ∼ 7 °C at 3500 m asl. The climate is characterized by
a distinct precipitation maximum during austral summer (N80% of the
annual rainfall) related to the SASM (Zhou and Lau, 1998). During
austral summer northeast trade winds transport moisture from the
Atlantic over the Amazon basin. From there the South American Low
Level Jet (SALLJ, Fig. 1) flows southward along the Andean slope to the
Gran Chaco basin. There the Chaco Low develops in the lower
troposphere and the Bolivian High in the upper troposphere in
response to strong insolation and heating. Upper tropospheric
easterlies that intensify in concert with the Bolivian High ultimately
drag the moisture into the Cordilleras and onto the Altiplano

0031-0182/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.05.026
 J. Zech et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 293 (2010) 248–254
Fig. 1. Geographic setting and mean annual precipitation (MAP) in the tropical and southern subtropical Andes. The red star marks the location of the Wara Wara Valley. SASM: South
American Summer Monsoon, SALLJ: South American Low Level Jet, H: Bolivian High, L: Chaco Low, and UTE: Upper Tropospheric Easterlies.
(Garreaud et al., 2003; Vuille and Keimig, 2004) and cause the
observed precipitation maximum in austral summer.
Importantly, the seasonal and interannual precipitation variabil-
ities in the tropical Andes are also affected by the El Niño Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) (Garreaud et al., 2003; Vuille and Keimig, 2004).
During El Niño years sea surface temperatures (SST) in the eastern
equatorial Pacific rise and lead to convection. This weakens the upper
tropospheric easterlies (UTE) and causes anomalously dry conditions
in the Cordilleras and on the Altiplano. During La Niña years SST in the
eastern equatorial Pacific cools. This strengthens the subsidence and
leads to enhanced upper tropospheric easterlies, which drag more
moisture into the Cordilleras and onto the Altiplano.
3. Stratigraphy
The morphology of the Wara Wara Valley is characterized by four
prominent moraines with heights of ∼ 200 m (WW1 and 2) to ∼ 10 m
(WW3 and 4) above the valley floor (Figs. 2–4), and several small
moraines, less than 5 m above the valley floor. The sharp crested,
outer lateral moraine WW1 (∼ 4175 m asl) marks the most extensive
glaciation of the Wara Wara Valley. The inner lateral moraine WW2
(∼4156 m asl), almost reaching the same height and extent of the
outermost moraine, documents another glacial re-advance. Farther up
valley a succession of several terminal moraines, not more than a few
meters high, documents stillstands or minor re-advances. Only on two
terminal moraines WW3 (4140 m asl) and WW4 (4112 m asl) large
and stable boulders were available to obtain robust age control. WW5
(4330 m asl) describes the location of two boulders from high up in
the catchment, taken to infer final ice free conditions.
4. Material and methods
4.1. Surface exposure dating
Surface exposure dating (SED) is based on the accumulation of in-
situ produced cosmogenic nuclides within the upper few decimetres
249
of the Earth's surface (Gosse and Philipps, 2001; Gosse, 2007). The
most commonly used cosmogenic nuclide is 10Be with a half life of
∼1.39 Ma (Chmeleff et al., 2009; Korschinek et al., 2009). Provided
that the local production rate of the cosmogenic nuclide (P) is known,
the exposure age t can be calculated following the (very simplified)
equation
P  −λt

N= ⋅ 1−e ;
λ
where N is the amount of the accumulated cosmogenic nuclide and λ
the decay constant. The local production rate of cosmogenic nuclides
mainly depends on altitude and latitude (Gosse and Philipps, 2001).
To account for this dependence, scaling factors are used to calculate
the local production rate from a reference production rate defined at
sea level and high latitude. Several scaling models have been
developed over the last few years (for a detailed review see Balco
et al., 2008) with the newer ones correcting for second order effects,
such as persistent atmospheric pressure anomalies, the temporal
variability of the geomagnetic field, the altitude dependence of the
energy spectrum of the neutron flux, and solar modulation.
10
4.2. Be sampling and exposure age calculation
Fieldwork included documentation (photography, geographical
position using a handheld GPS, and shielding by surrounding
topography) and a thorough geomorphological investigation of the
Wara Wara Valley. Only sufficiently large and stable quartzite
boulders with no signs of rock surface erosion are suitable for
sampling in order to minimize the risk of too young exposure ages
due to post-depositional processes, such as denudation, boulder
exhumation, boulder toppling and rock surface erosion. Using
hammer and chisel we collected ∼ 0.5 kg from the top flat surface
of the two largest (3–0.6 m, Table 1), uneroded and most stable
boulders from the crest of the four most prominent moraines above
the valley floor (WW1-4, Fig. 2). Additionally, we collected two
250 J. Zech et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 293 (2010) 248–254

Fig. 2. Satellite image of the Wara Wara Valley. The sampled moraines are denoted as white, dashed lines (first digit = moraine number, second digit = sample number). Exposure
ages [ka] are calculated applying the scaling model of Lifton et al. (2005) including internal uncertainties.

samples from boulders in the catchment (WW5) not associated with
a moraine. All boulders were documented by photography (see
Supplementary material).
Standard laboratory procedures were applied to obtain clean
quartz, which was dissolved in HF after addition of a 9Be carrier. Anion
and cation exchange chromatography was performed to purify the
beryllium, which was then precipitated, oxidised and measured for its
10
Be/9Be ratio at the tandem AMS facility at the ETH Zurich.
We refer to exposure ages calculated by applying the most recently
developed scaling model of Lifton et al. (2005) using the CRONUS-
Earth calculator vs. 2.2 (http://hess.ess.washington.edu). Age calcula-
tions included a correction for sample thickness, while effects of snow
and vegetation cover, topographic shielding and erosion are negligible
(dry climate, sparse vegetation, relatively flat topography, and
weathering resistant quartzite). All sample data and exposure ages
are provided in Table 1.
For the interpretation of the exposure ages we follow the example
of many previous studies by applying the ‘oldest age model’ (Briner
et al., 2005), according to which the oldest boulder that is not a
statistical or stratigraphical outlier is the best estimate for the end of
moraine construction and the beginning ice retreat.
5. Results and discussion
5.1. Glacial chronology
The most extensive glaciation in the Wara Wara Valley is
documented by the sharp crested lateral moraine WW1 with exposure
 J. Zech et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 293 (2010) 248–254 251

Fig. 3. View west into the Wara Wara Valley. The white dashed lines mark the dated moraines WW1-4.

ages of 14.2 ± 1.0 ka (WW11) and 13.6± 0.6 ka (WW12) (Figs. 2 and 3).
The inner lateral moraine WW2 has two corresponding exposure ages of
11.8 ± 0.6 ka (WW21) and 11.7 ± 0.5 ka (WW22). The two terminal
moraines WW3 and WW4 yield exposure ages of 10.1 ± 0.3 (WW31),
10.1 ± 0.9 (WW32), 10.6 ± 0.5 (WW41) and 10.2 ± 0.6 ka (WW42).
The two exposure ages from high up in the catchment date to 8.6 ±
0.5 ka (WW51) and 7.3 ± 0.4 ka (WW52) (Fig. 4).
5.2. Geological and systematic methodological uncertainties
Our very consistent exposure ages for each moraine corroborate
that post-depositional processes, such as denudation and rock surface
erosion, did not significantly affect the sampled boulders. Likewise, it
indicates that no boulder experienced prior exposure (‘inheritance’),
which would yield too old exposure ages, but has been shown to be
unlikely in most glacial settings (b3%) (Putkonen and Swanson,
2003). In our case, calculating mean ages instead of applying the
‘oldest age model’ (Briner et al., 2005) would not change the
conclusions, but in cases where exposure ages are not as consistent,
we argue that calculating mean ages is not justified, because it likely
leads to an underestimation of the real deposition age due to post-
depositional processes.
Admittedly, a larger sample set would increase the robustness of
our conclusions, but the very consistent results prove the validity of
our sampling strategy limited to the most suitable boulders.
Apart from the above geological uncertainties, systematic meth-
odological uncertainties need to be addressed as well, before sound
paleoclimatic comparisons and conclusions can be made. No consen-
sus has yet emerged, as to which scaling model may be the most
accurate one. In Table 2 exposure age calculations based on alternative
scaling models are presented. Exposure ages calculated with the
scaling model of Lal (1991)/Stone (2000) are up to ∼ 23% older, with
the Lal/Stone timedependent (Balco et al., 2008) scaling model up to
∼19% older than exposure ages calculated with the scaling model of

Fig. 4. View north into the Wara Wara Valley. The white dashed lines mark the dated moraines WW3 and WW4. The white dot marks the sample location WW5.
252 J. Zech et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 293 (2010) 248–254

Table 1
10
Sample data, Be concentrations and surface exposure ages calculated applying the scaling scheme of Lifton et al. (2005) including internal uncertainties.

Sample Latitude [S] Longitude [W] Altitude [m] Boulder height [m] Sample thicknessa [cm] Shielding factor b 10
Be atoms/gc [1E + 4] 1σd [1E + 4] Liftone [ka]

ww11 17.31 66.13 4175 0.5 3 1 71.631 5.086 14.2 ± 1.0

ww12 17.31 66.13 4169 0.6 3 1 68.474 2.807 13.6 ± 0.6
ww21 17.31 66.13 4147 0.6 4 1 58.215 2.445 11.8 ± 0.6
ww22 17.31 66.13 4156 0.6 3 1 58.680 2.817 11.7 ± 0.5
ww31 17.30 66.13 4128 1.8 2 1 52.006 2.236 10.1 ± 0.3
ww32 17.29 66.13 4140 3 5 1 51.408 2.827 10.1 ± 0.9
ww41 17.30 66.13 4102 2 4 1 49.854 1.545 10.6 ± 0.5
ww42 17.30 66.13 4112 1.2 2 1 48.676 4.284 10.2 ± 0.6
ww51 17.28 66.11 4330 0.5 2 1 48.875 2.737 8.6 ± 0.5
ww52 17.28 66.11 4330 0.6 1 1 41.944 2.265 7.3 ± 0.4
a
Following Masarik and Reedy (1995), samples density 2.7 g/cm3.
b
Following Dunne et al. (1999).
c
A long term mean blank of 10Be/9Be = 0.048 × 10− 12 has been subtracted from the sample isotope ratios in order to account for the 10Be content of the 9Be carrier and other used
chemicals. Samples are normalized to the ETH AMS laboratory standard S2007 (Kubik and Christl, 2010). Samples were prepared by adding 450 µg 9Be carrier.
d
Propagated AMS measurement uncertainty.
e
Scaling followed the method of Lifton et al. (2005) using the CRONUS-Earth online calculator (vs. 2.2) including internal uncertainties.

Lifton et al. (2005). Exposure ages calculated with the scaling models combined with annual precipitation rates of about 1100 mm
of Dunai (2001), Desilets and Zreda (2001, 2003) and Lifton et al. (+570 mm/−280 mm, compared to ∼900 mm today) could explain
(2005) agree closely. the modeled glacial advance. The Lateglacial exposure ages for WW1
The best approach to minimize the model-dependent uncertain- and WW2, however, strongly suggest that increased precipitation
ties would be to use a local calibration site. The only such site is played in fact a much more pivotal role for triggering the respective
currently the ‘Breque’ moraine in Peru (Rodbell and Seltzer 2000; glacial advances and that the temperature reduction was overestimated.
Farber et al., 2005), but concerns regarding its validity have grown, This further corroborates the correlation of WW1 and WW2 with H-I
because it yields reference production rates that are substantially and the YD, because it has previously been shown that these North
lower than all other currently available calibration sites. A new site Atlantic cold events caused an intensification of the monsoon and the
has recently been established in New Zealand (Putnam et al., in press), formation of the paleolakes Tauca and Coipasa on the Altiplano (Placzek
which yields a reference production rate ∼ 7–8% lower than the global et al., 2006) (Fig. 5). Following this concept of precipitation-sensitive
mean. Interestingly, this is in very good agreement with results from a glacial mass balances in the (semi-)arid tropical/subtropical Andes,
preliminary calibration study in the Argentinian Andes (Zech et al., other Lateglacial moraines in the Bolivian Cordilleras (Zech et al., 2007;
2009). Provided that these findings can be further corroborated, the Zech et al., 2008) and in Peru (Farber et al., 2005; Smith et al., 2005;
exposure ages presented here may become ∼ 7–8% older. However, Bromley et al., 2009; Glasser et al., 2009; Hall et al., 2009) may be
this would not affect the major paleoclimatic conclusions. correlated with H-I and the YD as well.
Evidence for Early Holocene glaciation (deposition of moraines
6. Paleoclimatic interpretation and conclusion WW3 and 4) has not only been found in the Wara Wara Valley either.
Similar moraines have again been reported from several other valleys
The new glacial chronology from the Wara Wara Valley documents in Bolivia (Zech et al. 2007; Zech et al. 2008) and from the Peruvian
that the most extensive glaciation occurred in phase (within dating Andes (Glasser et al., 2009; Hall et al., 2009; Licciardi et al., 2009).
uncertainties) with H-I and subsequent ice retreat with the onset of Although the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) shifted back
the Bølling/Allerød interstadial (B/A) (Fig. 5). The paleoglacier northward and the SASM was weak during the Early Holocene (Haug
advanced again in phase with the YD and at the beginning of the et al., 2001; Cruz 2005), conditions remained relatively humid on the
Early Holocene. Altiplano. This requires a mechanism to increase moisture in the
Based on glacier-climate modeling in the Cordillera Cochabamba, tropical Andes independent from the position of the ITCZ and the
Kull et al. (2008) inferred regional temperature-precipitation scenarios strength of the monsoon.
for the maximum Late Pleistocene glaciation (WW1). They concluded In analogy to the interannual precipitation anomalies caused by
that a temperature reduction of about − 6.4 °C (+ 1.4/−1.3 °C), ENSO (Garreaud et al., 2003; Vuille and Keimig, 2004), we propose
that ENSO was also responsible for variable moisture advection into
the Cordilleras on longer timescales. Quantitative seasonal or annual
Table 2
10 SST reconstructions from the eastern tropical Pacific are not available
Be surface exposure ages calculated for the scaling schemes Lifton et al. (2005), Lal
(1991)/Stone (2000), Desilets and Zreda (2001), Dunai (2001) and Lal/Stone time yet, but we can test the above hypothesis against records of ENSO
dependent (Balco et al., 2008) including the external uncertainties using the CRONUS- variability and against ‘mean’ ENSO-like records that average the SSTs
Earth online calculator (vs. 2.2). over several decades or centuries. Marine sediments off-shore Peru
Samples Lifton Lal/Stone Desilets Dunai Lal/Stone time
document the onset of increased ENSO activity at ∼17 ka, contempo-
(Li) [ka] (St) [ka] (De) [ka] (Du) [ka] dependent raneous with the onset of H-I, and continuing activity lasting until the
(Lm) [ka] Early Holocene (Rein et al., 2005). Thus, provided that ENSO
WW11 14.2 ± 1.7 16.8 ± 1.9 14.3 ± 2.0 14.4 ± 2.0 16.1 ± 1.8 variability affects the moisture conditions in the tropical Andes,
WW12 13.6 ± 1.5 16.1 ± 1.6 13.7 ± 1.7 13.8 ± 1.7 15.5 ± 1.5 increased precipitation and glaciation could be well explained. We
WW21 11.8 ± 1.3 13.9 ± 1.4 11.8 ± 1.5 11.9 ± 1.5 13.5 ± 1.3 argue that ‘mean’ SSTs may actually be more relevant for moisture
WW22 11.7 ± 1.3 13.9 ± 1.4 11.8 ± 1.5 11.8 ± 1.5 13.5 ± 1.3
variability on longer timescales than ENSO variability, and, again,
WW31 10.1 ± 1.0 12.0 ± 1.1 10.1 ± 1.2 10.2 ± 1.2 11.6 ± 1.0
WW32 10.1 ± 1.3 11.9 ± 1.5 10.1 ± 1.5 10.1 ± 1.5 11.6 ± 1.4 relatively humid conditions during the Early Holocene can be well
WW41 10.6 ± 1.1 12.6 ± 1.2 10.6 ± 1.3 10.7 ± 1.3 12.2 ± 1.2 explained. Mean SSTs were low, and thus La Niña-like conditions
WW42 10.2 ± 1.2 12.1 ± 1.3 10.2 ± 1.3 10.3 ± 1.3 11.8 ± 1.2 prevailed, during the Early Holocene (Kienast et al., 2006) (Fig. 5).
WW51 8.6 ± 1.0 10.6 ± 1.1 8.7 ± 1.1 8.7 ± 1.1 10.2 ± 1.0 The proposed concept of La-Niña-like conditions enhancing
WW52 7.3 ± 0.8 9.0 ± 0.9 7.3 ± 0.9 7.3 ± 0.9 8.6 ± 0.9
moisture advection into the tropical Andes can be extended and
 J. Zech et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 293 (2010) 248–254 253

Fig. 5. Comparison of the Wara Wara Valley glacial chronology with other climate records: (A) Moraine sequence and exposure ages reported in this study (error bars indicate
measurement uncertainties). (B) Lake transgression phases on the Altiplano (Placzek et al., 2006). (C) Reconstructed SST from the eastern tropical Pacific off-shore Peru (Kienast et
al., 2006). (D) Temperature record from the Greenland NGRIP ice core (North Greenland Ice Core Project members et al., 2004).

also applied to the Lateglacial. SSTs were particularly low during H-I
and the YD (Kienast et al., 2006). This contributed most likely to the
very humid conditions recorded on the Altiplano (Placzek et al.,
2006). Future studies will have to separate and quantify the respective
roles of ENSO-like conditions and the intensification of the monsoonal
circulation system. In view of the steadily rising mean SSTs during the
Holocene, the ENSO mechanism alone is most likely not able to
explain, for example, the return to again more humid conditions in the
tropical Andes during the Late Holocene (Baker et al., 2005; Licciardi
et al., 2009). On the other hand, our study highlights that ENSO and
ENSO-like patterns may have played a more important role for past
glaciation in the tropical Andes than hitherto assumed.
254 J. Zech et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 293 (2010) 248–254
Acknowledgments
JZ would like to thank Thomas Nägler and Igor Villa for providing
access to the laboratory facilities of the Geological Institute, University
of Bern, and Yongsong Huang and the Environmental Change
Initiative for hosting as visiting scientist at Brown University. This
work was financially supported by the Swiss National Fund (Project
200020-113461/1).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.05.026.
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