Understanding Item Analyses

Item analysis is a process which examines student responses to individual test items (questions) in
order to assess the quality of those items and of the test as a whole. Item analysis is especially
valuable in improving items which will be used again in later tests, but it can also be used to eliminate
ambiguous or misleading items in a single test administration. In addition, item analysis is valuable for
increasing instructors’ skills in test construction, and identifying specific areas of course content which
need greater emphasis or clarity. Separate item analyses can be requested for each raw score1 created
during a given ScorePak® run.

Sample Item Analysis (30K PDF)

A basic assumption made by ScorePak® is that the test under analysis is composed of items
measuring a single subject area or underlying ability. The quality of the test as a whole is assessed by
estimating its “internal consistency.” The quality of individual items is assessed by comparing students’
item responses to their total test scores.

Following is a description of the various statistics provided on a ScorePak® item analysis report. This
report has two parts. The first part assesses the items which made up the exam. The second part
shows statistics summarizing the performance of the test as a whole.

Item Statistics

Item statistics are used to assess the performance of individual test items on the assumption that the
overall quality of a test derives from the quality of its items. The ScorePak® item analysis report
provides the following item information:

Item Number

This is the question number taken from the student answer sheet, and the ScorePak® Key Sheet. Up to
150 items can be scored on the Standard Answer Sheet.

Mean and Standard Deviation

The mean is the “average” student response to an item. It is computed by adding up the number of
points earned by all students on the item, and dividing that total by the number of students.

The standard deviation, or S.D., is a measure of the dispersion of student scores on that item. That is, it
indicates how “spread out” the responses were. The item standard deviation is most meaningful when
comparing items which have more than one correct alternative and when scale scoring is used. For this
reason it is not typically used to evaluate classroom tests.

Item Difficulty

For items with one correct alternative worth a single point, the item difficulty is simply the percentage of
students who answer an item correctly. In this case, it is also equal to the item mean. The item difficulty
index ranges from 0 to 100; the higher the value, the easier the question. When an alternative is worth
other than a single point, or when there is more than one correct alternative per question, the item
difficulty is the average score on that item divided by the highest number of points for any one
alternative. Item difficulty is relevant for determining whether students have learned the concept being
tested. It also plays an important role in the ability of an item to discriminate between students who

1
know the tested material and those who do not. The item will have low discrimination if it is so difficult
that almost everyone gets it wrong or guesses, or so easy that almost everyone gets it right.

To maximize item discrimination, desirable difficulty levels are slightly higher than midway between
chance and perfect scores for the item. (The chance score for five-option questions, for example, is 20
because one-fifth of the students responding to the question could be expected to choose the correct
option by guessing.) Ideal difficulty levels for multiple-choice items in terms of discrimination potential
are:

Format Ideal Difficulty

Five-response multiple-choice 70

Four-response multiple-choice 74

Three-response multiple-choice 77

True-false (two-response multiple-choice) 85

(From Lord, F.M. “The Relationship of the Reliability of Multiple-Choice Test to the Distribution of Item
Difficulties,” Psychometrika, 1952, 18, 181-194.)

ScorePak® arbitrarily classifies item difficulty as “easy” if the index is 85% or above; “moderate” if it is
between 51 and 84%; and “hard” if it is 50% or below.

Item Discrimination

Item discrimination refers to the ability of an item to differentiate among students on the basis of how
well they know the material being tested. Various hand calculation procedures have traditionally been
used to compare item responses to total test scores using high and low scoring groups of students.
Computerized analyses provide more accurate assessment of the discrimination power of items
because they take into account responses of all students rather than just high and low scoring groups.

The item discrimination index provided by ScorePak® is a Pearson Product Moment

correlation2 between student responses to a particular item and total scores on all other items on the
test. This index is the equivalent of a point-biserial coefficient in this application. It provides an estimate
of the degree to which an individual item is measuring the same thing as the rest of the items.

Because the discrimination index reflects the degree to which an item and the test as a whole are
measuring a unitary ability or attribute, values of the coefficient will tend to be lower for tests measuring
a wide range of content areas than for more homogeneous tests. Item discrimination indices must
always be interpreted in the context of the type of test which is being analyzed. Items with low
discrimination indices are often ambiguously worded and should be examined. Items with negative
indices should be examined to determine why a negative value was obtained. For example, a negative
value may indicate that the item was mis-keyed, so that students who knew the material tended to
choose an unkeyed, but correct, response option.
2
Tests with high internal consistency consist of items with mostly positive relationships with total test
score. In practice, values of the discrimination index will seldom exceed .50 because of the differing
shapes of item and total score distributions. ScorePak® classifies item discrimination as “good” if the
index is above .30; “fair” if it is between .10 and.30; and “poor” if it is below .10.

Alternate Weight

This column shows the number of points given for each response alternative. For most tests, there will
be one correct answer which will be given one point, but ScorePak® allows multiple correct
alternatives, each of which may be assigned a different weight.

Means

The mean total test score (minus that item) is shown for students who selected each of the possible
response alternatives. This information should be looked at in conjunction with the discrimination index;
higher total test scores should be obtained by students choosing the correct, or most highly weighted
alternative. Incorrect alternatives with relatively high means should be examined to determine why
“better” students chose that particular alternative.

Frequencies and Distribution

The number and percentage of students who choose each alternative are reported. The bar graph on
the right shows the percentage choosing each response; each “#” represents approximately 2.5%.
Frequently chosen wrong alternatives may indicate common misconceptions among the students.

Difficulty and Discrimination Distributions

At the end of the Item Analysis report, test items are listed according their degrees of difficulty (easy,
medium, hard) and discrimination (good, fair, poor). These distributions provide a quick overview of the
test, and can be used to identify items which are not performing well and which can perhaps be
improved or discarded.

Test Statistics

Two statistics are provided to evaluate the performance of the test as a whole.

Reliability Coefficient

The reliability of a test refers to the extent to which the test is likely to produce consistent scores. The
particular reliability coefficient computed by ScorePak® reflects three characteristics of the test:

 Intercorrelations among the items — the greater the relative number of positive relationships,
and the stronger those relationships are, the greater the reliability. Item discrimination indices
and the test’s reliability coefficient are related in this regard.
 Test length — a test with more items will have a higher reliability, all other things being equal.
 Test content — generally, the more diverse the subject matter tested and the testing techniques
used, the lower the reliability.

Reliability coefficients theoretically range in value from zero (no reliability) to 1.00 (perfect reliability). In
practice, their approximate range is from .50 to .90 for about 95% of the classroom tests scored by
ScorePak®. High reliability means that the questions of a test tended to “pull together.” Students who
3
answered a given question correctly were more likely to answer other questions correctly. If a parallel
test were developed by using similar items, the relative scores of students would show little change.
Low reliability means that the questions tended to be unrelated to each other in terms of who answered
them correctly. The resulting test scores reflect peculiarities of the items or the testing situation more
than students’ knowledge of the subject matter.

As with many statistics, it is dangerous to interpret the magnitude of a reliability coefficient out of
context. High reliability should be demanded in situations in which a single test score is used to make
major decisions, such as professional licensure examinations. Because classroom examinations are
typically combined with other scores to determine grades, the standards for a single test need not be as
stringent. The following general guidelines can be used to interpret reliability coefficients for classroom
exams:

Reliability Interpretation

.90 and Excellent reliability; at the level of the best standardized tests
above

.80 – .90 Very good for a classroom test

.70 – .80 Good for a classroom test; in the range of most. There are probably a few items which
could be improved.

.60 – .70 Somewhat low. This test needs to be supplemented by other measures (e.g., more
tests) to determine grades. There are probably some items which could be improved.

.50 – .60 Suggests need for revision of test, unless it is quite short (ten or fewer items). The test
definitely needs to be supplemented by other measures (e.g., more tests) for grading.

.50 or below Questionable reliability. This test should not contribute heavily to the course grade, and
it needs revision.

The measure of reliability used by ScorePak® is Cronbach’s Alpha. This is the general form of the more
commonly reported KR-20 and can be applied to tests composed of items with different numbers of
points given for different response alternatives. When coefficient alpha is applied to tests in which each
item has only one correct answer and all correct answers are worth the same number of points, the
resulting coefficient is identical to KR-20.

(Further discussion of test reliability can be found in J. C. Nunnally, Psychometric Theory. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1967, pp. 172-235, see especially formulas 6-26, p. 196.)

Standard Error of Measurement

4
The standard error of measurement is directly related to the reliability of the test. It is an index of the
amount of variability in an individual student’s performance due to random measurement error. If it were
possible to administer an infinite number of parallel tests, a student’s score would be expected to
change from one administration to the next due to a number of factors. For each student, the scores
would form a “normal” (bell-shaped) distribution. The mean of the distribution is assumed to be the
student’s “true score,” and reflects what he or she “really” knows about the subject. The standard
deviation of the distribution is called the standard error of measurement and reflects the amount of
change in the student’s score which could be expected from one test administration to another.

Whereas the reliability of a test always varies between 0.00 and 1.00, the standard error of
measurement is expressed in the same scale as the test scores. For example, multiplying all test
scores by a constant will multiply the standard error of measurement by that same constant, but will
leave the reliability coefficient unchanged.

A general rule of thumb to predict the amount of change which can be expected in individual test scores
is to multiply the standard error of measurement by 1.5. Only rarely would one expect a student’s score
to increase or decrease by more than that amount between two such similar tests. The smaller the
standard error of measurement, the more accurate the measurement provided by the test.

(Further discussion of the standard error of measurement can be found in J. C. Nunnally, Psychometric
Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967, pp.172-235, see especially formulas 6-34, p. 201.)

A Caution in Interpreting Item Analysis Results

Each of the various item statistics provided by ScorePak® provides information which can be used to
improve individual test items and to increase the quality of the test as a whole. Such statistics must
always be interpreted in the context of the type of test given and the individuals being tested. W. A.
Mehrens and I. J. Lehmann provide the following set of cautions in using item analysis results
(Measurement and Evaluation in Education and Psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
1973, 333-334):

 Item analysis data are not synonymous with item validity. An external criterion is required to
accurately judge the validity of test items. By using the internal criterion of total test score, item
analyses reflect internal consistency of items rather than validity.
 The discrimination index is not always a measure of item quality. There is a variety of reasons
an item may have low discriminating power:(a) extremely difficult or easy items will have low
ability to discriminate but such items are often needed to adequately sample course content and
objectives;(b) an item may show low discrimination if the test measures many different content
areas and cognitive skills. For example, if the majority of the test measures “knowledge of
facts,” then an item assessing “ability to apply principles” may have a low correlation with total
test score, yet both types of items are needed to measure attainment of course objectives.
 Item analysis data are tentative. Such data are influenced by the type and number of students
being tested, instructional procedures employed, and chance errors. If repeated use of items is
possible, statistics should be recorded for each administration of each item.

1
Raw scores are those scores which are computed by scoring answer sheets against a ScorePak®
Key Sheet. Raw score names are EXAM1 through EXAM9, QUIZ1 through QUIZ9, MIDTRM1 through
MIDTRM3, and FINAL. ScorePak® cannot analyze scores taken from the bonus section of student
answer sheets or computed from other scores, because such scores are not derived from individual
items which can be accessed by ScorePak®. Furthermore, separate analyses must be requested for
different versions of the same exam. Return to the text. (anchor near note 1 in text)
5
2
A correlation is a statistic which indexes the degree of linear relationship between two variables. If the
value of one variable is related to the value of another, they are said to be “correlated.” In positive
relationships, the value of one variable tends to be high when the value of the other is high, and low
when the other is low. In negative relationships, the value of one variable tends to be high when the
other is low, and vice versa. The possible values of correlation coefficients range from -1.00 to 1.00.
The strength of the relationship is shown by the absolute value of the coefficient (that is, how large the
number is whether it is positive or negative). The sign indicates the direction of the relationship
(whether positive or negative). Return to the text.

Heavenly Father, I thank you for all the blessings received. I ask
forgiveness for all the sins committed. I pray Lord God, that you will
send your Holy Spirit to enlighten me, to give me the wisdom,
knowledge and understanding that I need for the final defense of my
thesis. Guide me during the presentation of my paper, that I will be
able to present well the result of my study and hopefully passed
successfully my defense. I also pray for the panelists that they will
make it easy to me and enlighten my understanding that I will be
able answer the questions they will ask. I offer to you oh God the
successes of my masteral program. Amen
Essentially, a table of specification is a table chart that breaks down the topics that will be on a test and the
amount of test questions or percentage of weight each section will have on the final test grade. This kind of
table chart is usually split into two charts, and each sub topic is numbered under the main topics that are
being covered for the test. This type of table is mainly used by

teachers to help break down their testing outline on a specific subject. Some teachers use this particular
table as their teaching guideline by breaking the table into subjects, the teachers main points, how much
time should be spent on the point, and what assignment or project can be done to help the student learn the
subject.

Sample Table of Specifications for Multiple Choice Exams

Sample Table of Specifications for Multiple Choice Exams in Medical

School

6
 To prepare a multiple choice exam or test you have to know the percentages of the topics
depending on their importance to the subject and the hours spent in their discussion.

Let’s say you are preparing an exam for the prelim period, for your subject in Human Physiology
in medical school; here are steps you can adapt.

1. Assign the percentage per topic based on the course requirement:

Intro to human physiology – 10%

The human body- 15%

The muscular system -25%

The skeletal system -25%

The cardiovascular system -25%

TOTAL = 100%

N.B. You can adjust the percentages according to your syllabus or academic requirements.

2. Decide on how many items the test should be. Let’s say you have decided that the items for your
Prelim exam are 150. The time allotted should at least be 2 hours for this exam, if 1 minute per
question and 3 minutes per problem is assigned.

3. Present your data in a table of specifications for clarity.

TOPIC NO. OF ITEMS PERCENTAGE

Intro to 10
Physiology

The Human Body 15

The Muscular 25
System

7
 The Skeletal 25
System

The 25
Cardiovascular
system

TOTAL 100%

4. Solve for the number of items of each topic by multiplying the percentage-decimal
equivalent with the total number of items.

Intro to Physiology = 0.10 (10%) X 150 = 15 items

The Human Body = 0.15 (15%) X 150 = 22.50 items

The Muscular System = 0.25 (25%) X 150 = 37.50 items

The Skeletal System = 0.25 (25%) X 150 =37.50 items

The Cardiovascular System = 0.25 (25%) X 150 = 37.50 items

For a total of 150 items. Since there are no 0.5 questions, you may decide to which topic you
would assign the 1 item excess.

Let’s say you have the final items assigned:

Intro to Physiology = 0.10 X 150 = 15 items

The Human Body = 0.15 X 150 = 23 items

The Muscular System = 0.25 X 150 = 37 items

The Skeletal System = 0.25 X 150 =37 items

The Cardiovascular System = 0.25 X 150 = 38 items

You come up with this table

8
 TOPIC NO. OF ITEMS PERCENTAGE

Intro to 15 10
Physiology

The Human Body 23 15

The Muscular 37 25
System

The Skeletal 37 25
System

The 38 25
Cardiovascular
system

TOTAL 150 100%

5. This is the simplest form of preparing for a table of specifications. You may want to be more
specific and prepare a more detailed table assigning easy, average and difficult questions. The
average questions should at least be 80% of your exams, while the easy at least 20% and the
difficult, at least 15 %. This is recommended but the final decision still relies on the subject per se,
and the learning ability of your students.

TOPIC Easy qsns. Average Difficult NO. OF ITEMS PERCENTAGE

qsns. qsns.

Intro to 3 10 2 15 10
Physiology

The Human Body 4 16 3 23 15

The Muscular 5 28 4 37 25
System

The Skeletal 5 28 4 37 25
System

The 5 28 4 38 25

9
 Cardiovascular
system

TOTAL 22 111 17 150 100%

6. You should be able to determine which questions are easy, average and difficult based on an item
analysis that you have done in previous exams. This is an analysis of what questions were
answered easily and correctly and which ones were difficult for the students. There are available
software for item analysis that maybe available from your school or you could prepare one yourself
through the semesters that you teach the subject.

Another Sample Table of Specifications

Clinical Chemistry 1 subject – Prelim Exams

Topic Identification Multiple Problem Number of Percentage

Choice Solving Items

Intro to 2 10 0 12 10
Clinical
Chemistry

Laboratory 2 14 20 36 30
Mathematics

Carbohydrates 3 33 0 36 30

Lipids 3 33 0 36 30

Total No. of 10 90 20 120 100%

Items

DECIDE THE NUMBER OF ITEMS FOR YOUR EXAM, BASED ON THE HOURS AVAILABLE.

1. You assign the percentage according to the importance of the topic to your subject, or you can also refer to
the required weight of the topic by your school or accrediting institution.

10
2.

Decide on the total number of items for the exam depending on the number of hours assigned.

3.

At least 1 minute is given for easy questions and 3-5 minutes for difficult questions. In case analyses, you
may want to increase the time.

4.

Based on your total items, you now get the number of items for each topic simply by multiplying the total
score with the percentage. Below is the computation for this Table of Specifications.

How to solve the number of items for your Table of Specifications.

Introduction to clinical chemistry = 120 X 0.10 (10%) = 12 items

Laboratory Mathematics = 120 X 0.30 = 36 items

Carbohydrates = 120 X 0.30 = 36 items

Lipids = 120 X 0.30 =36 items

Total number of items = 120

Assign now the specific type of test for the items. As the instructor, you would know what type of test could
effectively test the knowledge of your students with the different topics. Your Table of
Specifications should reflect which topics are vital to your course.

1.

In this example, the Introduction to Clinical Chemistry would not use problem solving but only multiple choice
and identification. You can compose 10 items for multiple choice and 2 items for identification.

11