84 PETROPHYSICS: RESERVOIR ROCK PROPERTIES

t1¡2 half-life of parent elernent

T temperature
Tf formatíon temperature
Tpc pseudo-critica! temperature
Tpr pseudo-reduced temperature
'fR reservoir temperature
Ts surface temperature
TDS total dissolved solids
V velocity
V volume
X Cartesian distance coordinate
z valen ce
z real gas deviation factor
Za height of a column of oil

GREEK SYMBOLS

y specific weight, lb/ft3

e contact angle
µ víscosíty
µga gas viscosity at atrnospheric pressure
~ viscosity at reservoir temperature and atmospheric pressure
p density
Po oil density
Pw water density
o interfacial tension
't shear stress

SUBSCRIPTS

e compressional wave
d dísplacernent
f fluid
h horizontal
leading pore or edge
o oil
ob overburden
s shear wave
t trailíng porc or edge
V vertical
w water
1,2 reservoir zones
 REFERENCES 85

REFERENCES
1. Link, P. K. Basic Petroleum Geology, Oil & Gas Consultants 1ntemational,
lnc., Tulsa, OK, 1982, 235 pp.
2. Stokes, W. L.EssentialsofEarthHistory. Prentice-Hal!Pub. Co., Englewood
Cliffs, NJ, 1966, 468 pp.
3. Dott, R. H., Jr. and Batten, R. L. Euolution of the Earth. McGraw-Hill Book
Co., New York, 1976, 504 pp.
4. LePichon. "Sea-floor Spreading and Continental Drift." }. Geopbys.
Research, Vol. 73, No. 12, 1968, pp. 3661-3697.
5. Flint, R. F. and Skinner, F. J. Pbysical Geology. John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1974, 407 pp.
6. Selley, R C. Elements of Petroleum Geology. Cbap. 4, W. H. Freeman &
Co., New York, 1985, 449 pp.
7. Lowell, J. D. Structural Styles in Petroleum Exploration. Oíl & Gas
Consultants 1nternational, lnc., Tulsa, OK, 1985, 460 pp.
8. Hobson, G. D. Deuelopments in Petroleum Geology-1. Applied Science
Pub. Ltd., London, 1977, 335 pp.
9. Chapman, R. E. Petroleum Geology-1. Elsevier Science Pub., New York,
Amsterdarn, 1 986, 328 pp.
10. Magara, K. Geological Models of Petroleum Entrapment, Elsevier Science
Pub., New York, Amsterdam, 1986, 328 pp.
11. Pirson, S. J. Elements of Oíl Reseruoir Bngineering, 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill
Book Co., New York, 1958, 441 pp.
12. Hobson, G. D. and Tiratsoo, E. N. Introduction to Petroleum Geology.
Gulf Pub. Co., Houston, TX, 1985, 352 pp.
1 :;. Dickey, P. E. Petroleum Deuelopment Geology, 2nd ed. PennWell Books,
Tulsa, OK, 1979, 424 pp.
14. Tissot, B. P. and Welte, D. H. Petroleum Formatton and Occurrence.
Springer-Verlag Pub. Co., Heidelberg, 1978, 538 pp.
15. Chilingarian, G. V. and Yen, T. E. (Eds.). Büumens, Aspbalts and Tar Sands.
Elsevier Science Pub., New York, Arnsterdarn, 1978, 331 pp.
16. Barker, C. "Origin, Composition and Properties of Petroleurn." Chap. 2 in:
Donaldson, E. C., Chilíngarían, G. V. and Yen, T. F. Enbanced oa Recouery.
Elsevier Science Pub., New York, Arnsterdam, 1985, pp. 11-42.
17. Blurner, M. and Snyder, W. O. "Porphyrins of High Molecular Weight in
a Triassic Oíl Shale." Cbem. Geol., Vol. 2, 1967, pp. 35-45.
18. Levorsen, A. l. Geology of Petroleum, 2nd ed. W.H. Freeman & Co.,
San Francisco, 1967, 724 pp.
19. Collins, A. G. Geochemistry of Sorne Petroieum-associated Waters from
Louisiana. US Bureau of Mines R1 7326, Natl. Tech lnf. Sv. Dept.
Commerce, Springfield, VA, 1970, 31 pp.
86 PETROPHYSICS: RESERVOIR ROCK PROPERTIES

20. Rieke, H. H., III and Chilingarian, G. V. (Eds.). Argillaceous Sediments.

Elsevier Science Pub., New York, Amsterdam, 1974, 424 pp.
21. Fertl, W. H. and Timko, D. J. "Prepressured Formations." Oil & Gas].,
Vol. 68, No. 1,Jan. 5, 1970, pp. 97-105.
22. Bebout, D. G. "Subsurface Techniques for Locating and Evaluating
Geopressured/Geothermal Reservoirs along the Texas Gulf Coast." Proc.
2nd Geopressured/Geotberrnal Energy Conf, Vol. 11, U. of Texas, Austin,
TX,Feb. 23-25, 1976,pp. 1-12.
23. Jones, P. H. "Geothermal and Hydrocarbon Regimes, Northem Gulf of
Mexico Basin." Proc. Jst Geopressured/Geotbermal Energy Conf, U. of
Texas, Austin, TX, June 2-4, 1975, pp. 15-22.
24. Kreitler, C. W. and Gustavson, T. C. "Geothermal Resources of the Texas
Gulf Coast-Environmental Concerns Arising from the Production and
Disposal of Geothermal Waters." Proc. 2nd Geopressured/Geotbermat
Energy Conf, Vol. V, Part 3, U. of Texas, Austin, TX, Feb. 23-25, 1976,
pp. 1-9.
25. Collins, A. G. and Wright, C. C. "Enhanced Oil Recovery Injection Waters."
Chap. 6 in: Donaldson, E. C., Chilingarian, G. V. and Yen, T. F. (Eds.)
Enbanced Oil Recouery. Elsevíer Science Pub., New York, Amsterdarn,
1985, pp. 151-217.
26. Collins, A. G. Geochemistry of Oilfield Waters. Elsevier Science Pub.,
New York, Amsterdam, 1975, 496 pp.
27. Dodson, C. R. and Standing, M. B. "Pressure-Volume Temperature and
Solubility Relations for Natural-Gas-Water Mixtures." API Drtü. and Prod.
Prac., 1944, pp. 173-179.
28. Mathews, C. S. and Russell, D.G. Pressure Buildup and Flow Tests in Wells.
Soc. Petrol, Engr. Monogram, Vol. 1, Richardson, TX, 1967, 167 pp.
29. Standing, M. B. and Katz, D. L. "Densiry of Natural Gases." Trans. A/ME,
Vol. 146, 1942, pp. 140-149.
30. Carr, N. L., Kobayashi, R. and Burrows, D. B. "Viscosíry of Hydrocarbon
Gases under Pressure." Trans. A/ME, Vol. 201, 1954, pp. 264-272.
31. Amyx, ]. W., Bass, D. M., Jr. and Whiting, R. L. Petroleum Reseruoir
Engtneering. McGraw-HiU Book Co., New York, 1960, 610 pp.
32. Pisher Scientific Co. Fisber/Tag Manual for Inspectors of Petroleum,
28th ed., Fisher Scientific Co., New York, 1954, 218 pp.
33. Hunt, J. M. Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology. W. H. Freeman Co.,
San Francisco, 1979, 617 pp.
34. Donaldson, E. C., Chilingarian, G. V. and Yen, T. F. (Eds.). Enhanced
Oil Recouery, l=Pundamentals and Analyses. Elsevier Science Pub.,
New York, Amsterdam, 1985, 357 pp.
35. Donaldson, E. C. and Crocker, M. E. "Characterization ofthe Crude Oil Polar
Compound Extract." DOE/BETC/Rl-80/5, Natl. Tech. lnf Su., Springfield,
VA, 1980, 27 pp.
 CHAPTER 3

POROSITY ANO
PERMEABILITY

The nature of reservoir rocks containing oíl and gas dictates the
quantities of fluíds trapped within the void space of these rocks, the
ability of these fluids to flow through the rocks, and other related physical
properties. The rneasure of the void space is defined as the porosity
of the rock, and the rneasure of the ability of the rock to transrnit
fluids is called the perrneability. A knowledge of these rwo properties
is essential before questions conceming types of fluids, arnount of
fluids, rates of fluid flow, and fluid recovery estirnates can be answered.
Methods for rneasuring porosity and permeability have cornprised rnuch
of the technical literature of the oíl industry. Other reservoir properties
of irnportance include the texture, the resistivity of the rock and its
contained fluids to electrical current, the water content as a function
of capillary pressure, and the tortuous nature of the interstices or pare
channels.
The texture of sedirnentary rocks is determined largely by grain
shape and roundness, grain síze and sorting, grain orientation and
packing, and chernical cornposition. A specific cornbination of these
variables rnay revea! inforrnatíon about diagenetic and catagenetic
processes and rnechanisrns operating during transportation, deposition,
and cornpaction and deforrnation of sedirnentary rnaterials. In sorne
cases, texture rnay yield sorne inforrnation about formation permeability
and porosity. For example, fine-grained sandstones with poorly sorted
angular grains will generally have lower porosity than sandstones
cornposed of coarse, well-sorted grains. Variatíon in permeability rnay be

87
88 PETROPHYSICS: RESERVOIR ROCK PROPERTIES

predicted from variation in grain size and shape, and from distribution of
pore channels in the rock.
The resistivity of any formation to the electrical current flow is a
function of the amount of water in that formation and the resistivity of the
water itself. The rock grains and hydrocarbons are normally insulators.
Changes in water saturation combined with changes in the resistivity of
the fluids filling the pores create resistivity profiles in well logs. These
profiles help locate hydrocarbon-bearing formations.

POROSITY
Sand grains and particles of carbonate materials that make up sandstone
and limestone reservoirs usually never fit together perfectly due to the
high degree of irregularity in shape. The void space created throughout
the beds between grains, called pore space or ínterstíce, is occupied by
fluids (liquids and/or gases). The porosity of a reservoir rock is defined as
that fraction ofthe bulk volume ofthe reservoir that is not occupied by the
solid framework of the reservoir. This can be expressed in mathematical
formas:

(3.1)

where:

<!> = porosity, fraction.

Vb = bulk volume of the reservoir rock.
V gr = grain volume.
V p = pore volume.

According to this definition, the porosity of porous materials could

have any value, but the porosíry of most sedimentary rocks is generally
lower than 50%.

EXAMPLE

A clean and dry core sample weighing 425 g was 100% saturated with a
1.07 specific gravity (y) brine. The new weight is 453 g. The core sample
is 12 cm long and 4 cm in diameter. Calculate the porosity of the rock
sample.
 POROSITY 89

SOLUTION

The bulk volume of the core sample is:

Vb = n(2)2(12) = 150.80 cm3

The pare volume is:

_ 1 _ 453 - 425 _
Yp - - (Ywet - Vdrv) - - 26.17 cm 3
y · 1.07

Using Equation 3 .1, the porosity of the core is:

Yp 26.17
<)> = vb = 150.80 = 0.173 or 17.3%

fACTORS GOVERNING THE MAGNITUDE OF POROSITY

In an effort to determine approximate limits of porosity valúes, Fraser

and Gratan determined the porosity of various packing arrangements of
uniform spheres [1]. They have shown that the cubic, or wide-packed
system, has a porosity of 47.6% and the rhombohedral, or close-packed
system, has a porosity of 25.9%. The porosity for such a system is
independent of the grain síze (sphere diameter). However, if smaller
spheres are mixed arnong the spheres of either system, the ratio of pare
space to the solid framework becomes lower and porosity is reduced [2].
Figure 3.1 shows a three-grain-size cubic packing. The porosity of this
cubic packing is now approximately 26.5%.
The porosities of petroleum reservoirs range from 5% to 40% but
most frequently are between 10% and 20%. The factors governing the
magnitude of porosity in clastic sediments are:

(a) Uniformity o( grain size: Uniformity or sorting is the gradation of

grains. If small particles of silt or clay are mixed with larger sand graíns,
the effective (intercommunicating) porosity will be considerably reduced
as shown in Figure 3 .1. These reservoirs are referred to as dirty or shaly.
Sorting depends on at least four majar factors: size range of material,
type of deposition, current characterístics, and the duration of the
sedimentary process.
(b) Degree o( cementation or consolidation: The highly cemented sand
stones have low porosities, whereas the soft, unconsolidated rocks
have high porosities. Cementation takes place both at the time of
90 PETROPHYSICS: RESERVOIR ROCK PROPERTIES

A
Figure 3.1. Collection of (a) different sized mu! sbaped sand grains mu/ (h) spberes
ittustrattng. a cubic packing o/ tbree grain sizes.

lithification and during rock alteratíon by círculatíng groundwater.

The process is essentíally that of filling void spaces with mineral material,
whích reduce porosity. Cementing materials include: calcíum carbonate,
magnesium carbonate, iron carbonate, iron sulfides, limonite, hematite,
dolomite calcíum sulphate, clays, and man y other materials including any
combinatíon of these materials.

(e) Amount of compaction during and a#er deposition: Compaction tends

to lose voids and squeeze fluid out to bring the mineral partíclcs
clase together, especiaJly the finer-grained sedimentar)' rocks. This
expulsion of fluids by compaction at an increased temperature is the
basic mechanísm for primar)' migration of petroleum frorn the source to
reservoir rocks. Whereas compactíon is an important lithifying process
in claystones, shales, and fíne-graíned carbonate rocks, ít is negligible
in closely packed sandstones or conglomerates, Generally, porosíry
is lower in deeper, older rocks, but exceptions to this basic trend
are common. Many carbonate rocks show little evídence of physical
compaction.

(d) Methods of pacl<ing:With increasing overburden pressure, poorly

sorted angular sand grains show a progressíve change from randorn
packíng to a closer packing. Sorne crushing and plastic deformation of
the sand particles occur.
 POROSITY 91

ENGINEERING (LASSIFICATION OF POROSITY

Duríng sedimentation and lithification, some of the pore spaces

initially developed became isolated from the other pore spaces by
various diagenetic and catagenetic processcs such as cementation and
compaction. Thus, many of the pores will be interconnected, whereas
others will be completely isolated. This leads to two distinct categories
of porosity, namely, total (absolute) and effective, depending upon
which pore spaces are measured in determining the volume of these
pore spaces. The difference between the total and effective porosities is
the isolated or non-effectíve porosity. Absolute porosities is the ratio of
the total void space in the sample to the bulk volurne of that sample,
regardless of whether or not those void spaces are interconnected.
A rock may have considerable absolute porosity and yet have no fluid
conductivity for lack of pore interconnections. Examples of this are lava,
pumice stone, and other rocks with vesicular porosity.
Effective porosity is affected by a number of lithological factors
including the rype, content, and hydration of the clays present in the
rock, the heterogeneity of graín sizes, the packing and cementation of
the grains, and any weathering and leaching that may have affected the
rock. Many of the pores may be dead-ends with only one entry to the
main pore channel system. Depending on wettability, these dead-end
pores may be filled with water or oil, which are irreducible fluids.
Experimental techniques for measuring porosity must take these facts
into consideration.
In order to recover oil and gas from reservoirs, the hydrocarbons
must flow severa! hundred feet through the pore channels in the rock
before they reach the producing wellbore. If the petroleum occupies
non-connected void spaces, it cannot be produced and is of little ínterest
to the petroleum engineer. Therefore, effective porosity is the value used
in ali reservoir engineering calculations.

GEOLOGICAL (LASSIFICATION OF POROSITY

As sediments were deposited in geologically ancient seas, the first fluid

that filled pore spaces in sand beds was seawater, generally referred to as
connate water. A common method of classifying porosity of petroleum
reservoirs is based on whether pore spaces in which oil and gas are
found orígínated when the sand beds were laíd down (primary or
matríx porosity), or if they were formed through subsequent diagenesis
(e.g., dolomitization in carbonate rocks), catagenesis, earth stresses,
and solution by water flowing through the rock (secondary or induced
porosity). The following general classification of porosity, adapted from
92 PETROPHYSICS: RESERVOIR ROCK PROPERTIES

Ellison, is based on the time of origin, mode of origin, and distribution

relationships of pores spaces f 3].

Primary Porosity
1. lntercrystalline: voids between cleavage planes of crystals, voids
between individual crystals, and voids in crystal Iattíces. Many of
these voids are sub-capíllary, i.e., pores less than 0.002 mm in
díameter. The porosiry found in crystal lattices and berween mud-sized
particles has been called "mícro-porosity'' by Pittrnan, as shown in
Figure 3.2 [ 4J. Unusually high rccovery of water in sorne productive
carbonate reservoírs may be due to the presence of large quantities of
microporosity.

l. lntergranular or interparticle: voids between grains, i.e., interstitial

voids of ali kinds in ali rypes of rocks. These openíngs range frorn
sub-capillary through super-capillary size (voids greater than O. 5 mm in
diameter).

3. Beddingplanes: voids of many varieries are concenrrared parallel to

bedding planes. The larger geometry of many petroleum reservoirs is
controlled by such bedding planes. Dífferences of sedírnents deposited,
of partícle sizes and arrangements, and of the environments of deposition
are causes of becklíng plane voids.

4. Miscellaneous sedimentary voids: ( 1) voids resulting frorn thc

accumulation of detrital fragments of fossils, (2) voíds resultíng frorn
the packing of oolites, (3) vuggy and cavernous voíds of irregular and
variable sizes for at the time of deposition, and ( 4) voi<ls crcated by living
organisms at the time of deposition.

lntergranuh1r
Olssolutlon

Figure 3.2. Tvpes of porosity fo1111d in sandstone reseruoirs (courtcsy of Cor«

/,a{JTJl"U{(l/"ÍC'S).
 POROSITY 93

Secondary Porosity
Secondary porosity is the result of geological processes (diagenesis
and catagenesis) after the deposition of sediment. The magnítude, shape,
size, and interconnection of the pares may have no direct relation to
the form of original sedimentary particles. lnduced porosity can be
subdívided into three groups based on the most dominant geological
process:

1. Sofutionporosity:channels dueto the solutíon of rocks by circulating

warm or hot solutions: openings caused by weathering, such as enlarged
joints ami solution cavems; and voids caused by organisms and later
enlarged by solution.

l. Dolomitization: a process by which limestone is transformecl into

dolomite according to the following chernical reaction:

limestone dolomite
(3.2)
2CaCo:, + Mg2+ - CaMg(Co~) + Ca2+
Sorne carbonates are almost pure limestones, and if the circulating pare
water contains significant amounts of magnesíum cation, the calcíum
in the rock can be exchanged for magnesiurn in the solution. Because
the ionic volume of magnesíum is considerably smaller than that of the
calcíum, which it replaces, the resulting dolorníte will have greater
porosity. Complete replacement of calcíum by magnesium can result
in a 12-13% íncrease in porosity [5,6].

3. Fracture porosity: openings created by structural failure of the

reservoir rocks under tension caused by tectonic activities such as folding
and faulting. These openings include joints, fissures, and fractures. In
sorne reservoir rocks, such as the Ellenburger carbonate fields of West
Texas, fracture porosity is important. Porosity due to fractures alone in
the carbonates usually does not exceed 1 % [7].

4. MisceUaneoussecondary voids: ( 1) saddle reefs, which are openíngs

at the crests of closely folded narrow antíclínes: (2) pítches and flats.
which are openings forrned by the parting of beds under gentle slumpíng:
and (3) voids caused by submarine slide breccias and conglomerares
resulting from gravity movement of seafloor material after partial
lithification.
In carbonate reservoírs, secondary porosity is much more
important than primary porosity: Dolomites compríse nearly 8oc;;
of North American hydrocarbon reservoirs [6]. Primary porosity is
dominant in clastic-also called detrital or fragmental-sedimentary rocks
94 PETROPHYSICS: RESERVOIR ROCK PROPERTIES

such as sandstones, conglomerates, and certain oolitic limestones [ 7].

However, it is important to emphasize that both types of porosity often
occur in the same reservoír rock.

VISUAL 0ESCRIPTION OF POROSITY IN CARBONATE ROCKS

The role played by the visual description of pore space in carbonate

rocks has changed considerably since the development of a method
for classifying carbonate reservoir rocks in 1952 by Archie [8]. The
development of well logging technology has provided the petroleum
industry with effective and direct methods to measure the in-situ
porosíty of a formation. The visual descriptíon of the pore geometry,
however, is stíll needed to estimate the effects of (1) the graín
size; (2) the amount of interparticle porosity; (3) the amount of
unconnected vugs; ( 4) the presence of fractures and cavities; and (5) the
presence or absence of connected vugs on the porosiry-perrneability
relationship and other petrophysical parameters of naturally fractured
reservoirs. Lucia presented field classífication of carbonate rock pore
space based on the visual description of petrophysícal parameters of
a large number of samples [9]. He also discussed basic geological
characteristics necessary for the visual estímatíon of particle size and
recognition of interpartícle pore space, and connected and unconnected
vugs.
Figure 3.3 shows two common types of particle sízes based on
artíficially prepared samples containing various kinds of carbonate
partícles: large sand sized particles such as those found in packstone
or grainstone deposits, small silt-to-clay-sízed particles such as mudstone
or wackestonc [9]. The particle size of primary interest is that of the
supportíng framework beca use interparticle porosity of the matrix rock is
controlled by the síze of the partícles. The concept of support in defining
particle size in dolomítes is illustrated in Figure 3.4 [9]. If the dolomite
crystals form a continuous, supporting network, their size controls the
connected pore size. The dolomítc crystal size is of primary ínterest when
it is the same or larger than the sediment particle size, such as observed
in dolornitized limestone or wackestone rocks. However, the sedíment
particle size becomes of primary interest if the sediment particle size is
larger than the dolomite crystal size, as is usually the case in dolomitized
grainstones or packstones [9].
Recognition of intergranular porosity depends on the size and shape of
graíns in the rock matrix. In coarsely grained rocks, the intergranular pore
space may be ídentífied with the naked eye. In finely grained limestones
or dolomites, for example, the intergranular pores are more difficult
 POROSITY 95

,'oo1µ WACKESTONE t--i

100µ
Lime Mud Mud Support
(Fine Partlcle SIze J

t----1
PACKSTONE 1001&

Graln Support
(Large Partlcle Slz:el

Figure 3.3. Mud and grain support in depositionalfabric [9/.

Lime Mud Supporr

Slzel

Medlum Cryateir Suppor-t

<Modlum Partlcle 51:;i:el

Figure 3.4. Fine and medium crystal support in do/omites /9/.

to identify, and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and petrographic

techniques are necessary to observe this porosity.
Visual recognition of unconnected vug porosity depends on the
granular texture of the rock and origin of the vugs. Intrafossil, shelter,
96 PETROPHYSICS: RESERVOIR ROCK PROPERTIES

and fenestra! porosiry, as well as leached grains and leached anhydríte

crystals, are unconnected vug types. Vugs and cavities can be connected
by intergranular pore channels or by fractures. Visual evaluation of
fracture-connected porosities in core samples is complicated by the
possibility of fractures induced by the coring operations [ 1 O]. Based
on these observations, Lucia proposed a field classification of carbonate
porosity as follows [9]: (1) for fine particle size (dgr less than 20 urn),
the displacement pressure, Po, is greater than 70 psia; (2) for medium
particle size (20 < dgr < 100 um), the Po is in the range of 15- 70 psia;
(3) for large grains (dgr > 100 µm), the displacement pressure is
less than 15 psia. The term Po is the extrapolated displacement
pressure, which is determined from the mercury capillary-pressure
curves discussed in Chapter 5. Figure 3.5 shows the relationship
between Po and the average grain size as a function of the intergranular
porosíry for nonvuggy rocks with permeability greater than 0.1 mD.
This relationship is the basis for dividing particle size into the three
groups.

FLUID SATURATION

The porosity of a reservoir rock is very important because it is a

measure of the ability of that rock to store tluids (oil, gas, and water).

-
18)
• 22
e:
CI) 100
E
CI)
u 14) 19
ns
Q.
.!!! ns 13>
e·¡¡;
~c.
CI) - 100 R:rart lr1e¡Btide A:ra;ity
-~
-a,
ns ...
o a, 8)
......a,
C1.a,
ns
~a.. B) 12 •
w
... • 18
«J
~
...
u
CI) 3) 18
:E •
o 16 21
o 3) «J B) 8) 100 13)

Figure 3.5. Relattonsbip betuieen displacement pressure and particle size far
nonuuggy rock, witb k>O. I mD [9/.
 POROSITY 97

Equally important the relative extent to which the pores of the rock
are filled with specific fluids. This property is called fluid saturation
and is expressed as the fraction, or percent, of the total pore volume
occupied by the oil, gas, or water. Thus, for instance, the oil saturation
S0 is equal to:

Volume of oil in the rock, V0

So=~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Total pore volume of the rock, VP

Similarexpressions can be written for gas and water. It is evident that:

S0 + Sq + s; = 1 (3.3)

and:

(3.4)

ldeally,because ofthe difference in fluid densities, a petroleum reservoir

is formed in such a way that, from top to bottom of the sand bed
there will be gas, oil and water. Connate water, however, is nearly
always found throughout the petroleum reservoir. Connate water is
the seawater trapped in porous spaces of the sediments during their
deposition and lithification,long before the oil migratedinto the reservoir
rock. In addition to density, wettability and interfacial tension combine
to alter the manner in which the three fluids are distributed in the
reservoir.
The amount of connate water present in the porous space varies
from 100% below the oil zone to theoretically zero at heights above
the free water level. However, in practical cases a nearly constant
content of irreducible connate water (S¡w)exists above the transition
zone. The rnagnítude of S¡w and height of the transition zone depend
on the pore size and texture, High S¡w values are indicative of small
pore sizes. The transition zone corresponds to the zone of varying
water saturation. Wells completed within this zone will produce
hydrocarbons and water, and wells completed above this zone, i.e.,
within the zone of irreducible water saturation, will produce only
hydrocarbons [ 11].

QUANTITATIVE USE OF POROSITY

One of the simplest methods of calculating reservoir oil content is

called the volumetric method. The mathematical expression for the
98 PETROPHYSICS: RESERVOIR ROCK PROPERTIES

ínitial oíl-in-place (N in bbl) by this method is:

N = 7, 758 Ash<l>S0¡ (3.5)

where:

As = surface area of the reservoir, acres.

h = thickness of the formation, ft.
<I> = porosity, fraction.
S0¡ = initial oíl saturation, fraction.

Equation 3.5 gives the volume of oil contained in the porous rock at
reservoir conditions of pressure and temperature. However, the surface
or "stock tank" oíl as finally sold by the producer is different from
the liquid volume that exísted underground. Toe difference is due to
the changes in the oil properties as the pressure is decreased from
high underground pressure and temperature to surface pressure and
temperature. This reduction in p and T causes sorne of the volatile
components to come out of solution (evaporate), causing the liquid
volume to shrink. This reduction in volume is expressed by the oil
formation volume factor, B0. Thus, the stock tank oíl initially in
place is:

A h"'(l - S· )
N = 7, 758 s 't' IW (3.6)
Boí

where B0¡ is in reservoir barreis per stock tank barrel or bbl/STB. In

this equation, S0¡ is replaced by (1 - S¡w ), where S¡w is the irreducible
or connate water saturation. This implies that no free gas is present in
the pore space. Because no petroleum reservoir is homogenous, the
factors As, h, q>, and S¡w, must be averaged. Toe constant 7,758 becomes
10,000 if As, h are expressed in hectares (1 hectare = 10,000 rrr') and m,
respectively, and N in m3.

EXAMPLE

Calcula te the initial oíl-in-place (N) of an oil reservoir if A = 1, 600 acres,

h = 32 ft, q> = 22%, S¡w = 20%, and B0¡ = 1.23 bbl/STB.

SOLUTION

Using Equation 3.6, we have:

N = 7, 758(1,600)(32)(0.22)(1 - 0.20)/1.23 = 56.8 x 106 STB

 POROSITY 99

An expression similar to Equation 3.6 may be derived for estimating the

initial gas-in-place. In this case it is convenient to express the gas volume
in cubic feet. At standard condítions-i.e., Psc = 14.7 psia and Tsc = 60ºF,
the initial gas-in-place in a volumetric reservoir is given by:

Ahtl\(1 - S· )
G = 43,560 '+' IW (3.7)
Bgi

where Bgi, the initial gas formation volume factor in ft3 /SCF, is calculated
from:

Bg¡ = 0.02829 ( ~z-T) (3.8)

The initial gas deviation (also called compressibility) factor, Z¡, is

calculated at the initial pressure p¡ of the gas reservoir. This factor
accounts for the difference between the actual and ideal gas volumes.
The reservoir temperature T is in degree Rankin (ºR).

EXAMPLE

A volurnetric gas reservoir has the following characteristics:

A = 1, 320 acres T = 200°F

h = 45 ft P¡ = 4,000 psía
<)> = 0.175 Z¡ = 0.916
S¡w = 0.23

SOLUTION

The initial gas formation volume factor is:

0.916(460 + 200) ft3

Bg¡ = 0.02829 = 0.004276-
4,000 SCF

The initial gas in place is:

G = 43 560 (1,320)(45)(0.175)(1 - 0.23) = 81.539 x 109 SCF

' 0.004276
100 PETROPHYSICS:
RESERVO
IR ROCKPROPERTIES

PERMEABILITY
In addition to being porous, a reservoir rock must have the ability
to allow petroleum fluids to flow through its interconnected pores.
Toe rock's ability to conduct fluids is termed as permeability. This
indicates that non-porous rocks have no permeability. Toe permeability
of a rock depends on its effective porosity, consequently, it is affected
by the rock grain size, grain shape, grain size distribution (sorting),
grain packing, and the degree of consolidation and cementation.
The type of clay or cementing material between sand grains also
affects permeability, especially where fresh water is present. Sorne
clays, particularly smectítes (bentonites) and montmorillonites swell in
fresh water and have tendency to partially or completely block the pore
spaces.
French engineer Henry Darcy developed a fluid flow equation that
since has become one of the standard mathematical tools of the
petroleum engineer [12J. This equation is expressed in differential form
as follows:
q k dp
u=-=--- (3.9)
Ac µ di
where:

u = fluid velocity, crn/s.

q = flow rate crn-'/s.
k = permeability of the porous rock, Darcy (0.986923 µm2).
A.e = cross-sectionalarea of the rock, cm2.
µ = viscosity of the fluid, centipoises (cP).
l
:f = length of the rock sample, cm.
= pressure gradient in the directlon of the flow, atm/cm.

One Darcy is relatívely high permeability. The permeability of most

petroleum reservoir rocks is less than one Darcy. Thus a smaller unit
of permeability, the millidarcy (mD), is widely used in the oil and
gas industry. In SI units, the square micrometer (µm2) is used instead
ofm2.
The permeability, k, in Equation 3.9 is termed the "absolute"
permeability if the rock is 100% saturated with a single fluid (or phase),
such as oil, gas, or water. In presence of more than one fluid,permeability
is called the "effective" permeability (ko, kg, or kw being oíl, gas, or water
effective permeability respectívely). Reservoirfluids interface with each
other during their movement through the porous channels of the rock;
 PERMEABILITY 101

consequently, the sum of the effective permeabilities of ali the phases

will always be less than the absolute permeability.
In presence of more than one fluid in the rock, the ratio of effective
permeability of any phase to the absolute permeability of the rock is
known as the "relative" permeability (k.) of that phase. For example,
the relative permeability of the oíl, gas, and water would be kro = k0/k,
krg = kg/k, krw = kw/k respectívely.

(LASSIFICATION OF PERMEABILITY

Petroleum reservoirs can have primary permeability, which is also

known as the matrix permeability, and secondary permeability. Matrix
permeability originated at the time of deposition and lithification
(hardening) of sedimentary rocks. Secondary permeability resulted from
the alteration of the rock matrix by compaction, cementation, fracturing,
and solution.
Whereas compaction and cementation generally reduce the
permeability, as shown in Figure 3.6, fracturing and solution tend
to íncrease it [ 13 J. In sorne reservoir rocks, particularly low-porosity
carbonates, secondary permeability provides the main flow conduit for
fluid migration, e.g., in the Ellenburger Field, Texas.

Porosity = 36% Porosity = 36%

Horizontal permeability, Horizontal permeability,
Ktt = 1,000 mD Ktt = 100 mD
Vertical permeability, Vertical permeability,
Kv= 600 mD Kv= 25 mD

Sand Grains without Clay Sand Grains Without Clay

Cementing Material Cementing Material

Figure 3.6. Efjects of clay cementing material 011 porosity and permeability [13].
102 PETROPHYSICS: IR ROCKPROPERTJES
RESERVO

fACTORS AFFECTING THE MAGNITUDE OF PERMEABILITY

Permeability of petroleum reservoir rocks may range from 0.1 to

1,000 or more rníllídarcies, as shown in Table 3.1. Toe quality of a
reservoir as determined by permeability, in mD, may be judged as:
poor if k < 1, fair if 1 < k < 10, moderare if 10 < k < 50, good if
50 < k < 250, and very good if k > 250 mD. In East Texas fields,
permeability mayas high as 4,600 mD. Reservoirs having permeability
below 1 mD are considered "tight". Such low permeability values
are found generally in limestone matrices and in tight gas sands of
the western United States. Stimulation techniques such as hydraulic
fracturing and acidizing increase the permeability of such rocks and allow
the exploitation of such low permeability reservoirs, which were once
considered uneconomical. Only 50 years ago rocks wíth permeability of
50 mD or less were considered tight.

TABLE 3.1
PERMEABILITYANO POROSITY OF SELECTEO OIL SANOS

Name of Sand Porosity % Permeability (mD)

"Second Wilcox" (Ordovician) 12.0 100.0
Ok.Iahoma Co., OK
Clinch (Silirian) 9.6 0.9
Lee Co., VA
Strawn (Pennsylvanian) 22.0 81.5
Cook Co., TX
Bartlesville (Pennsylvanían) 17.5 25
Anderson Co., KS
Olympic (Pennsylvanian) 20.5 35.0
Hughes Co., OK
Nugget (Iurassic) 24.9 147.5
Fremont Co., WY
Cut Bank (Cretaceous) 15.4 111.5
Glacíer Co., MT
Woodbíne (Cretaceous) 22.1 3. 390.0
Tyler Co., TX
Eutaw (Cretaceous) 30.0 100.0
Choctaw Co., AL
O'Hern (Eocene) 28.4 130.0
Dual Co., TX
 PERMEABILITY 103

Factors affecting the magnitude of permeability in sediments are:

(o) Shope ond síze of sond grains: If the rock is composed of large and
flat grains uniformly arranged with the longest dimension horizontal,
as íllustrated in Figure 3.7, its horizontal permeabílity (ktt) will be very
high, whereas vertical penneability (kv) will be medíurn-to-large. lf the
rock is composed of mostly large and rounded grains, its permeability
will be considerably high and of same magnitude in both directions,
as shown in Figure 3.8. Permeability of reservoir rocks is generally
lower, especially in the vertical direction, if the sand grains are small
and of irregular shape (Figure 3.9). Most petroleum reservoirs fall in

Large, Flat Grains

Horizontal Permeability, ktt = 2,000 mD

Vertical Permeability, kv= 800 mD

Figure 3.7. Effects of large flat grains on permeabittty f 13/.

Largc, Rounded Grains

Horizontal Permeability, ktt = 2,000 mD

Vertical Permeability, kv= 1,500 Md

Figure 3.8. Effects of large rounded grains on permeabitity f 13/.

104 PETROPHYSICS:RESERVOIR ROCK PROPERTIES

Very Small lrregular Grains

Horizontal Permeability, kH = 150 mD

Vertical Permeability, kv= ISmD

Figure 3.9. Effects of smaü, irregular grains on permeability ( 13}.

this category. Reservoirs with directional permeability are called

anisotropic. Anisotropy greatly affects fluid flow characteristics of the
rock. The difference in permeability measured parallel and vertical to
the bedding plane is the consequence of the origin of the sediment,
because grains settle in the water with their longest and flattest sides in
a horizontal position. Subsequent compaction of the sediment increases
the ordering of the sand grains so that they generally lie in the same
direction [13].

(b) Lamination: Platy minerals such as muscovite, and shale

laminations, actas barriers to vertical permeabilíry. In this case the kH/kv
ratio generally ranges from 1. 5 to 3 and may exceed 1 O far sorne reservoir
rocks. Sometimes, however, kv is higher than kH due to fractures or
vertical jointing and vertical solution channels. Joints act as barriers to
horizontal permeability only if they are filled with clay or other minerals.
The importance of the clay minerals as a determinant of permeability is
afien related not only to their abundance but also to their mineralogy
and composition of the pare fluids. Should the clay mínerals, which coat
the grain surfaces, expand and/or become dislodged due to changes in
the chemistry of the pare fluids or mud filtrate ínvasion, as explained in
Chapter 10, the permeability will be considerably reduced.

(e) Cementation: Figure 3.6 shows that both permeability and

porosity of sedímentary rocks are influenced by the extent of the
cementation and the location of the cementing material within the pare
space.
 PER.t\1EABILITY-POROSITY RELATIONSHIPS 105

(d) Fracturing and solution: In sandstone rocks, fracturing is not an

important cause ofthe secondary permeabilíry, except where sandstones
are interbedded with shales, Iimestones, and dolomites. In carbonates,
the solution of minerals by percolating surface and subsurface acidíc
waters as they pass along the primary pores, fissures, fractures, and
beddíng planes, increase the permeability of the reservoir rock. As shown
by Chilingarian et al. [7], horizontal and vertical permeabilities are equal
in many carbonate reservoirs.

PERMEABILITY-POROSITY RELATIONSHIPS

Figure 3.10 shows a plot of permeability versus porosity data obtained

from a large number of samples of a sandstone formation. Even though
this formation is generally considered very uniform and homogeneous,
there is not a specifically defined trendline between permeability and
porosity values. In this case, the relationship between permeability
and porosity is qualitative and is not directly or indirectly quantitative
in any way. lt is possible to have very high porosity without having
any permeability at all, as in the case of pumice stone (where the
effective porosity is nearly zero), clays, and shales. The reverse of
high permeability with a low porosity might also be true, such as
in micro-fractured carbonates. In spite of this fundamental lack of
correspondence between these two properties, there often can be found
a very useful correlation between them within one formatíon, as shown
in Figure 3.11.

• 1

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

Porosity, Fraction

Figure 3.10. Permeability-porosity relationsbip.

106 PETROPHYSICS: RESERVOIR ROCK PROPERTIES

1000 É~~g~~~E~~§~~~~~~~
----·--+--·---+-----+-----+------J
f----f----f----f----f-L-~~~

--·- -7""-l---~ ·-~-

f----f----~~--'C_~-t----,.--+----...~--r----

•
k = 0.1038e0·325••
=
R2 0.5967 ---,
0.1 +------+----+-----+------+---- 1

o 5 10 15 20 25
Porosity, Fraction

Figure 3.11. Permeability-porosity relationsbip.

Chilingarian showed that the granulometric composition of sandstones

influences the relationship between permeability and porosity [ 14].
Figure 3.12 is a semilog plot of perrneability versus porosity for (1) very
coarse-grained, (2) coarse and medium grained, (3) fine-grained, ( 4) silty,
and (5) clayey sandstones. Figure 3.13 shows typical permeability and
porosity trends for varíous rock types. Such a relationship is very
useful in the understanding of fluid flow through porous media. Many
correlations relatíng permeability, porosity, pore size, speci.fic surface
area, irreducible fluid saturation, and other variables have been made.
Sorne of these relationships are presented here for the sole purpose
of enabling the reader to form a reasonable understanding of the
interrelation of the rock properties in petroleum reservoirs.

KOZENY (ORRELATION

Kozeny derived one of the most fundamental and popular correlations

expressing permeability as a function of porosity and speci.fic surface
area [ 15]. Consider a porous rock sample of cross-sectíonal area A and
length L as being made up of a number, n, of straight capillary tubes
in a parallel, with the spaces between the tubes sealed by a cementing
material. If the capillary tu bes are ali of the same radius r ( cm) and length
L (cm), the flow rate q (cm3 /s) through this bundle of tubes, according
to Poíseuille's equation, is:

(3.10)

where the pressure loss LlP over length L is expressed in dynes/cm2.

 PERMEABILITY-POROSITY RELA TIONSHIPS 107

.V V
µ

1000
•
-----
~ .. )(

hl.LI

f
100
.l .f

10
,_ !-E"
,
1---1--+~1--+~
X
'
~
.
'.
... -1-ce~-~-"•-f-•--1-+-+--1---
i,

-r "-'
I.B[J -----r-- ,._

;_ :=
••
O 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
Porosity, %

Figure 3.12. lnfluence of grain size cm tbe relationship between permcabitity and
porosity.

1000
Reef Sucrosic
Dolomlte

e 100
E
j
:e
"' .e
o.
. 10

o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Porosity, %

Figure 3.13. Typicat permeabüity-porosity reiationsbip for uarious rock types

(courtesy of Core Laboratories).

Darcy's law as can also approximate the flow of fluids through these n
capillaries:

~p
q= (;) (3.11)
L

where Ac is the total cross-sectional area, including cemented zones, of

this bundle of capíllary tubes.
108 PETROPHYSICS: RESERVOIR ROCK PROPERTIES

Equating Equations 3.1 O and 3.11 and solving for k gives:

(3.12)
k = (::')

By definition, porosiry is

(3.13)

Substituting Ac = n1tr2/4> from Equation 3.13 ínto Equation 3.12, one

obtains a simpler relationship between permeability and porosity for
pares of the same size and radü equal to r:

4>r2
k=- (3.14)
8

where k is in cm2 (1 cm2 = 1.013 x 108 darcys) or in µm2 (1 mD =

9.871 x 10-4µm2) and <Pis a fraction.
Let svp be the interna! surface area per unit of pore volume, where the
surface area As for n capillary tu bes is n(21trL) and the pore volume V p is
n(rtrL):

As n(2rtrL) 2
Sy
P
= V- P =
n(rcr2L)
= -r (3.15)

Let svgr be the specific surface area of a porous material or the total
area exposed within the pore space per unit of grain volume. For a
bundle of capillary tubes, the total area exposed, Ar, is equivalent to the
interna! surface area As; and the grain volume, V gr is equal to AcL(l-4>).
Thus

s = n(2rcrL) = 2rtnr = 1tnr2 (~) 1 (3.16)

Vgr AcL(l - <!>) Ac(l - <!>) Ac r (1 - <!>)

Combining Equations 3.15 and 3.16 gíves:

svgr= svp (-<1>

1 - 4>
) (3.17)
 PERMEABILITY-POROSITY RELATIONSHIPS 109

Equation 3.14 can be written as:

k= m (2;,), = C~J ~ (3.18)

Substituting for svp from Equation 3.18 yields:

1 ) <1>'>
(3.19)
k = ( 2s~gr (1 - <!>)2

After the specific surface area per unit of pare volume, svp, is determined
from capillary data or petrographic image analysis (PIA), then Equation
3. 1 7 is used to obtain svgr.

EXAMPLE

A core sample from a uniform sandstone formation has a permeability

of 480 mD anda porosity of 0.17. Estimate:

(a) the average pare throat radius of the core;

(b) specific surface areas Svp and svgr.

SOLUTION

(a) Assuming the flow channels in the core sample may be represented
by a bundle of capillary tubes, the pare throat radius can be estimated
from Equation 3.14. Fírst, the permeability is converted from mD to µm2:

k = (480)(9.8717 X 10-4) = 0.4738 µm2

Solving Equation 3.14 for r:

<)>r2
k=-
8

8(0 4738))º·5
r = ( · · = 4.72 µmor 4.72 x 10-4 cm
0.17
110 PETROPHYSICS: RESERVOIR ROCK PROPERTIES

(b) The specífic surface area per unit pore volume is given by
Equation 3.15:

2
Svp = -r
2
svp = 4.72 X 10- 4
= 4,237 cm
-1

The specíñc surface area per unit grain volume can be estímated using
Equation 3.17:

svgr = Svp (-<1>-)

1 - q>

0.17 ) -1
svgr = 4,237 ( = 868cm
1 - 0.17

Ali the above equations used in deriving the relationship between the
permeability and porosity (Equation 3.19) are based on the assumption
that the porous rock can be represented by a bundle of straight capillary
tubes. However, the average path length that a fluid particle must travel
is actually greater than the length L of the core sample. Toe departure of
a porous medium from being made up by a bundle of straight capillary
tu bes can be measured by the tortuosity coefficient, r, whích is expressed
as (16, 17]:

(3.20)

where La is the actual flow path and L is the core length. Note that in
the literature tortuosity is sometimes defined as L.i/L. Equation 3.20 is
preferred here because in most laboratory experiments, the product of
the formation resistivity factor (F) and porosity is related to the ratio La/L
by the following correlation [ 17]:

(3.21)

The exponent C is the correlation constant, which ranges from 1.7 to 2.

Note that this range is rather similar to that of the cementation factor m.
 PERMEABILITY-POROSITY RELATIONSHIPS 111

Thus, for a bundle of tortuous capíllary tubes, Poiseuille's law becomes:

(3.22)
q= (";;') L~

Combining Equation 3.22 wíth Equatíon 3.11 and using the same
approach as above, one can show that Equations 3.14, 3.18, and 3.19
respectively become:

(3.23)

(3.24)

k- -- 1 ) (3.25)
- ( 2't~gr

Wyllie and Spangler suggested that the factor 2 be replaced by a more

general parameter, namely, the pore shape factor Kps [18]. Carman
reported that the product Kps't may be approximated by 5 for most
porous materials [ 19]. Equation 3.25 for porous rocks can then be written
as follows:

1 ) <!>3
k = ( -2-
5svgr (1 - <!>)
2 (3.26)

Equation 3.26 is the most popular form of the Kozeny equatíon, even
though in actual porous rock Kps't is variable and much greater than 5.

EXAMPLE

A sandpack of uniform fine grains has an effective porosity of 0.2.

The average grain size diameter is approxímately 1/8 mm. Calculate the
permeability of this unconsolidated sandpack.

SOLUTION

The specific surface area of the grains can be estimated, assuming that
the grains are spherícal, as follows:

6
Svgr = -
dgr