Icelandic Society, History and Culture

Colonization of Iceland

– systematic settlement of Iceland in the second half of the 9th century AD

– Norse settlers migrated across the North Atlantic
– reasons:
– shortage of arable land in Scandinavia
– civil strive brought about by the ambitions of the Norse king Harald the Fair-haired
– unlike Britain and Ireland, Iceland was (largely) unsettled land, and could be claimed
without conflicts with the inhabitants
– 874 often referred to as the first year of settlement
– age of settlement lasted from 874 to 930, when most of the island has been claimed and
Althingi, a „national parliament“ was founded in Thingvellir

– first people probably Irish monks or hermits who came in the 8th century
– „first“ (official) Norse settler, Ingolfur Arnarson, is supposed to have settled in Reykjavik in
874
– Ingolfur was followed by many other emigrant settlers, largely Norsemen, some with Irish
wives and slaves

Emigration to Greenland

– Eric the Red was sentenced to a three-year exile for several murders ca. 982
– his Icelandic farm: a museum
– explored the land west of Iceland and named it Greenland
– many Icelanders followed
– a settlement of a few thousand people
– the Little Ice Age

Exploring North-America

– according to Sagas, Leif Ericson, son of Eric the Red, went to North-America ca. 1000
– settlement not permanent
– called it Vinland
– “wine land” or more recently understood as “Meadow- or pasture-land”
– followed by Thorfinnur Karlsefni

The key to the Viking migration

– the ship of Christopher Columbus ca. 1500 comparision:
– improvements:
– better maps
– in the 14th Century: introduction of the compass to Europeans
– early 15th Century: bigger ships with 3 masts
The Book of Icelanders & The Book of Settlement

– information about the alleged first settlers comes from Islendingabok and Landnamabok
– Islendingabok
– Book of Icelanders
– historical work dealing with early Icelandic history
– author = priest, Ari the wise Thorgilsson, working in early 12th century
– Landnamabok
– Book of Settlement
– describes in considerable detail the settlement in Iceland
– written around 1100 perhaps
– lists 435 settlers, majority of them settling in the northern and south-western parts of the
island

i
The story of Ingolfur Arnarson I

– in Islendingabok Ari Thorgilsson claims, that Ingolfur was the first Nordic settler in Iceland
– Landnama contains a long and legendary story about Ingolfur’s settlement
– book claims that he left Norway after becoming involved in a blood feud
– Ingolfur had heard about a new island which Gardar Svavarsson, Floki Vilgerdarson and
others had found
– with a close friend Hjörleifur Hrodmarsson, he sailed for Iceland
– when land was in sight, he threw overboard his high seat pillars (sign of being a chieftain)
– promised to settle where the gods decided to bring them ashore
– two of his slaves searched the coast for three years, before finding the pillars in the small
bay where the capital Reykjavik is now
– in the meantime Hjrörleifur had been murdered by his Irish slaves
– they had been killed by Ingolfur in the Vestmannaeyjar (Westman Islands)
– Ingolfur is said to settled a large part of the south-western part of Iceland
– his son, Thorsteinn Ingolfsson, was a major chieftain
– said to have founded the first “thing” or parliament, in Iceland, which became a
forerunner of the “Althingi”
The Commonwealth (930-1262)

– in 930, the ruling chiefs established a parliament, called Althingi (Althing)

– by then, most arable land had been claimed
– it became the political hub of the Icelandic Commonwealth
– parliament convened each summer at Thingvellir
– representative chieftains (Goðordsmenn or Goðar) amended laws, settled disputes
and appointed juries to judge lawsuits
– laws were not written down, but memorized by an elected Lawspeaker (lögsögumadur)
– based on a common Germanic oral tradition, where wise men were asked to recite the
law, but it was only in Scandinavia that the function evolved into an office

– Althingi sometimes stated to be the world’s oldest existing parliament

– no central executive power, and therefore laws, were enforced only by the Goðar
– such an environment is very conductive to bloodfeuds, which provided the writers of the
sagas with plenty of material
– Iceland probably enjoyed prosperity during these years (relatively mild climate)
– Settlements from that era have been found in south-west Greenland and eastern Canada

Goðorð-system

– the medieval Icelandic state had an unusual structure. At the national level, the althing war
both court and a legislative body
– no king or other central executive power
– Iceland divided into numerous goðorð
– goðorð = clans or alliances run by chieftains called goðar (alltogether 36, later 39)
– chieftain provided for defense and appointed judges to resolve disputes between members
– goðorð were not strictily geographical districts
– membership was an individual’s decision, could change it theoretically at will
– no group of lesser men could elect or declare someone a goði
– could be bought, sold, borrowed, inherited

Court System

– if a person wanted to appeal a decision made by his goðorð court or if a dispute arose
between members of different goðorð
– case would be referred to a system of higher-level courts
– four regional courts which made up the Althing
– althing eventually created a national “fifth court” as highest courts
– althing only moderately successful at stopping feuds
– could act very sweepingly
– in 1117 laws were put into writing, this written code was later referred to as Gray Goos
Laws
Society and the Sagas

– actual operation of this system is a common theme in some of the Icelandic sagas
– works like Njalls Saga and the Laxdaela Saga give many details
– accuracy has been disputed
– tale of Grettir the Strong excellent adventure story
– Njalls Saga includes the conversion of Iceland to Christianity within the framework

Adoption of Christianity

– some of the first settlers = Christian

– British Isles
– vast majority heathen, worshipping among other Týr, Oðinn, Thór, Freyja
– old faith still exists
– Ásatrúar
– 10th century: political pressure from Europe to convert to Christianity mounted
– increasing number of prominent Icelanders accepted new faith
– high pointin the summer of year 999 during the meeting of the Althing
– major armed conflict between the rival religions seemed likely until mediators
intervened and the matter was submitted to arbitration

Thorgeir Thorkelsson the goði of Ljósavatn

– law speaker Thorgeir was accepted by both sides as mediator

– better known as a moderate and reasonable man
– accepted responsibility for deciding whether Iceland should become Christian
– with the condition that both parties abide by his decision
– agreed → spent a day and a night resting under a fur blanket
– following day, he announced that Iceland has to become Christian
– condition:
– old laws concerning exposure of infants and the eating of horseflesh would remain
– private pagan worship be permitted (later forbidden)
– he himself was a pagan priest
– took his pagan idols and threm them into a large waterfall (Godafoss)
Age of the Sturlungs

– Sturlungaöld (Age of the Sturlungs) was a 42-44 year old period of internal, bloody strife in
mid- 13th century
– bloodiest and most violent period
– marked by the conflicts of powerful chieftains (goðar)
– named for the Sturlungs, the most powerful family clan
– power in the country had consolidated within the grasp of a few family clans
– Haukdaelir of Arnesthing
– Oddaverjar of Rangerthing
– Asbirningar of Skagafjördur
– Vatnsfirdingar of Isafjördur
– Svinfellingar of Eastfjords
– Sturlungar of Hvammur in Dalir
– Hákon the Old (King of Norway) was trying to extend his influence in Iceland
– many chieftains became his vassals
– obliged to do his bidding
– in exchange received gifts, followers, status of respect

The Sturlungs

– powerful family, story is partly told in Sturlunga saga

– patriarch of the Sturlungs (Sturla Thorðarson born around 1115)
– inherited goðord from his father
– descendants of Sturla played an important role in the Sturlungaöld civil war
– most notably his sons Snorri and Sighvatur (and his sons Sturla and Thorður kakali)
– Sturla’s son Snorri Sturluson became the most influential of the Sturlungs
– most famous one, due to his literary endeavours
– another notable:
– Sturla Thoðarson, brother of Snorri and Sighvatur
– fought with Thoður kakali
– wrote Islendinga saga, longest part of Sturlunga saga and the story of Haakon IV of
Norway

Snorri Sturluson

– 1178-1241
– historian, poet, politician
– born into a wealthy and powerful family
– author of the Prose Edda
– consists of Gylfaginning (fooling of Gylfi)
– narrative of Norse mythology
– Skaldskaparmal (book of poetic language)
– Hattatal (list of verse forms)
– author of Heimskringla, history of the Norwegian king, that begins with legendary material
in Ynglinga saga, moves through to early medieval Scandinavian history
 – raised from the age of three (or four) by Jon Loftsson in Oddi (South Iceland’s primary
school and cultural center)
– excellent education, made good connections, never returned to his parent’s home
– arranged marriage to Herdis in 1199
– from father-in-law he inherited an estate at Borg and a chieftainship → more property
and chieftainships
– Snorri and Herdis together at Borg for four years
– few children
– succumed to Snorri’s philandering
– in 1206 settled in Reykholt as a manager of an estate, without Herdis

Sturlunga Saga

– collection of Icelandic sagas by various authors from the 12th and 13th centuries
– assembled ca. 1300
– mostly deals with the Sturlungs story
– Islendinga saga makes up a large part of it
– compilation of medieval Icelandic skin manuscripts, dating back to around AD 1300

Gissur Thorvaldsson

– 1208-1268
– Icelandic chieftain of the Haukdaelir family clan
– great-grandson of Jon Loftsson
– major role in the civil war, the Age of the Sturlungs
– part in a number of famous battles
– led the force of men who murdered Snorri Sturluson
– at the behest of Haakon IV
– 1258: Earl of Iceland for his loyal service to the king
– held this title till his death
– actively promoted “the old treaty” an agreement, which brought Iceland under the
sovereignty of the Norwegian crown 1262/64

The End of the Icelandic Commonwealth in 1262/64

– political system proved unable to cope with the increasing power of particular Icelandic
chieftains
– early 13th century: Sturlung era, Commonwealth began to suffer from serious internal strife
between chieftains
– King of Norway began to exert pressure on his Icelandic vassals that they bring the country
under his rule
– combination of discontent with domestic hostilities and pressure from the King led the
Icelandic chieftains to accept him as king, by signing of the Gamli sattmali (“The Old
Treaty”) in 1262/64
Iceland under foreign rule

Jörgen the dog-day King

– Jörgen Jörgensen (1780-1841)

– danish adventurer who went to Iceland in 1809
– declared the country independent from Denmark with himself as a temporary monarch
– only in power for two months
– Icelanders refer to him as Jörundur hundadagakonungur (Jörgen the dog-days King) in
Icelandic
– reference to the time when the dog star is in the sky
– some scholars argue, that his “independent scramble” in Iceland had influenced those
Icelanders who a few decades later started the national movement
Nationalist Movements in Iceland

– Denmark and Norway were separated by the Treaty of Kiel in 1814

– following the Napoleonic wars
– Denmark kept Iceland as a dependency/colony
– growing national consciousness in Iceland
– inspired by romantic and nationalist ideologies from continental Europe
– nationalistic ideas were originally expressed in the literature of the period and were
only later to influence political events
– its application was instrumental in the Icelandic movement for independence from Denmark,
led by Jon Sigurdsson

the national parliament: Althingi

– althingi in thingvellir
– had for centuries remained as a judicial body but was finally abolished in 1800
– moved to Reykjavik (where a new court was established)
– in 1845 a new body by the same name was founded as a consultative/advisory assembly to
the Danish government
– claimed continuity with the Althing founded in 930
– in 1851 althingi proposed a separate constitution for Iceland, which resulted in the attempt
of the Danish representatives to end the meeting, to the protest of the Icelanders
– this was Iceland’s first political conflict with Denmark

the national assembly

– Thoðfundurinn of 1851 was a constitutional convention called to decide the political status
of Iceland
– in 1851, when they met, the political tide had turned and conservative forces had regained
strength
– Danes presented a bill to the assembly which would have made the Danish Constitution of
1849 valid in Iceland, with the exception concerning the legislative power
– Iceland was to get six seats in the Danish Parliament
– delegates prepared an alternative bill, proposing a constitution for a practically independent
Iceland in personal union with the Danish king
– delegates would never agree to the Danish bill
– had no authority to discuss this bill
– → Governor Trampe decided to dissolve the Assembly
– constitutional status of Iceland was to remain an unresolved issue for decades to come
Jon Sigurðsson (1811-1879)

– leader of the 19th century Icelandic independence movement

– moved to Copenhagen in 1833 to study grammar and history
– never moved back to Iceland
– subsequently Jon began to work at the Arnamagnaean Collection which was then the home
of the manuscripts of the Icelandic sagas
– became an expert on the sagas an Icelandic history
– elected to the restored Althingi (1845), kept his seat until his death
– also attended Thoðfundur (National Assembly) in 1851 where he led the Icelanders in their
resistance to the adoption of Denmarks constitution from 1849 in Iceland
– Jons way of communication with the Icelanders was to publish an annual magazine calles
Ny Felagsrit (New Association Writings)
– published almost every year from 1841-1873

“President” Jon

– home of Jon and his wife Ingibjörg in Copenhagen became a centre for all Icelanders in the
city
– no children, except one foster-son
– all Icelanders are their children
– is often referred to as the President (Jon forseti) by Icelanders
– since 1851 he served as president of the Copenhagen Department of the Icelandic
Society of Literature
– president of the Althingi
– is currently pictured on the 500 kronur bill
– birthday: 17th of June, is Icelands National Holiday

Jonas Hallgrimsson

– 1807-1845
– one of the most beloved poets and authors
– one of the founding fathers of romanticism
– founding member of the Icelandic magazine Fjölnir, which was first published in
Copenhagen in 1835

the Lady of the Mountain

– poetic female image of Iceland

– symbolised what Icelanders considered genuine and purely Icelandic
– in her purity she reflected a deep-seated wish to be an independent nation
– first depicted in the poem Ofsjonir by Eggert Olafsson 1752
– name was mentioned for the first time in the poem Eldgamla Isafold by Bjarni
Thorarensen
Matthias Jochumsson

– priest, poet, playwright, editor, translator

– house in Akureyri now museum
– best known for writing the national anthem “Lofsöngur” (Hymn) or O, guð vors lands (oh,
our country’s god)
– three verses, only one is commonly sung
– rather difficult, many icelanders find it impossible
– essentially a hymn, consistent with the fact, that Iceland has a state church and
Christianity is the main religion

The path to the republic

– constitution of 1874 gave legislative power to the Althing

– in 1904 an Icelandic cabinet minister replaced the Danish governors (home rule)
– in 1918, Iceland became a sovereign state in a union with Denmark
– king of Denmark continued to be the symbolic head, represented Iceland’s foreign
affairs and defense interests
– in 1944, Iceland was declared a sovereign republic

Hannes Hafstein 1861-1922

– politician and poet

– 1904 first Prime Minister of Iceland, first Icelander to be appointed to the Danish Cabinet as
Minister of Iceland
– responsible to the Icelandic Althing

“The Mist Hardships” 1783-85

– catastrophic Laki eruption and earthquakes in the South

– one of the largest eruptions in the history of mankind
– followed by a devastating earthquake
– death of 10.000 people
– great famine followed
– Denmark considered relocating the remaining population of Iceland in the moors of
Jutland
– called Moðuharðindin (mist hardships)

Increasing population in the 19th century

– three possible exits

– heaths: many new farms there
– coast: villages grew
– abroad: North-America
Emigration: Causes

– similar reasons as in other European countries

– in addition, a series of natural disasters:
– volcanic eruption of Aska left North-East covered in ash, many people felt forced to
leave the country
– poor harvest due to harsh winters and cold summers
– sea ice covered regularly the northern part

Thorramatur

– thorrablot (mid-winter festival)

– celebrated during the old-calendar month thorri
– traditional icelandic food (thorra-matur)
– consists of sheep-heads, sheep-head-jelly, smoked lamb, blood-pudding, liver-pudding
History of Iceland

– 930 parliament founded in Thingvellir

– 999/1000 Iceland became officially Christian
– 1262 Iceland submitted itself unter the Norwegian crown
– 1380 the Norwegian monarchy entered into a union with Denmark
– didn‘t effect Iceland‘s status
– 1397 Norway joined Sweden and Denmark in the Kalmar Union (Danish Crown
was the dominant power)
– 1904 Iceland got home rule under Denmark
– 1918 Iceland became a sovereign state in a personal union with the Danish king
– 1944 Iceland ended its union with Denmark and became a republic

Iceland under foreign rule

– 1380-97: Iceland and Norway came under the Danish crown

– chieftains abolished and replaced by Danish royal officials
– althing became a court of law, judges chosen by royal officers
– 1402-04: Black Death plague ravages Iceland
– nearly one third died
– 30.-40.000 survived
– 1540-50: Reformation imposed on Iceland by the order of the Danish king
– last catholic bishop, Jon Arason, who opposed the introduction of the
Reformation, was beheaded
– Jon Arason had almost 20 children: most Icelanders today are related to him
– 1579: English pirates attacked and plundered coastal areas of the Westfjords
– 1602: Denmark establishes a trade monopoly in Iceland
– 1627: North African pirates plundered the Eastfjords and the Westman Islands
– killed a number of people
– took almost 400 hostages and sold them as slaves
– between 30 and 40 were able to return to Iceland
– 1662: Absolutism enforced on Iceland by Denmark
– Danish King assumed hereditary power
– Althings power declined
– 1703: national register, the first one in the world, done for a whole country
– population: 50.358
– 1707: smallpox epidemic killed ca. One third dead
– 1749: Skuli Magnusson became the official in charge of administrative affairs
(landfogeti)
– 1757: nine thousand people perished of disease and famine
– 1786: Reykjavik obtains town status
– population ca. 200
– 1787: Danish trade monopoly lifted partially
– 1798: Althingi in thingvellir abolished; replaced by a court in Reykjavik
 – 1814: Norway left the union with Denmark
– 1818: the National Library of Iceland founded
– 1845: Althing re-established as a consultative parliament in Reykjavik
– Jon Sigurdson led the continuing struggle for greater autonomy
– 1848: Althingi demanded autonomy and Iceland’s first newspaper appeared
– 1854: Danish Trade monopoly lifted: Complete freedom of trade
– 1855: Freedom of press established
– 1861: National Museum founded
– 1874: Milennium celebration of Settlement
– King Christian IX of Denmark visits Iceland for first time
– new icelandic constitution
– 1904: Home rule under Denmark:
– an Icelandic minister was located in Reykjavik
– Copenhagen remained capital of Iceland until 1918

– 1906: Submarine telegraph cable from Scotland to Iceland

– 1911: University of Iceland founded in Reykjavik
– 1915: Woman, 40 years and older, granted national elections voting rights
– 1915: Iceland acquired its own national flag

Modern Iceland

– 1918: sovereign state, policy of permanent neutrality

– 1919: Icelandic Coast Guard started operating
– 1920: Icelandic Supreme court founded
– 1930: Milennium of the Althing celebrated in Thingvellir
– 1940: Denmark occupied by Germany, Iceland occupied by British troops due to its
strategic location
– 1941: US forces defend Iceland; policy of permanent neutrality abandoned
– 1944: Iceland leaves union with Denmark
– June 17th republic of Iceland founded in Thingvellir
– 1945: first international flight by an Icelandic aircraft
– 1946: joins the United Nations
– 1947: becomes one of the founding members of OEEC (called OECD by ‘61)
– 1949: founding member of NATO
– 1950: joined the council of Europe
– 1951: defense agreement with USA
– Keflavik-airport main US-military base
– 1952: fishery limits extended to four miles, joins Nordic Council
– 1955: Halldor Kiljan Laxness receives Nobel prize
– 1958: fishery limits to 12 miled, “Cod war” with Britain, limit after 3 years accepted
– 1962: radio-telephone submarine cable from Scotland to Iceland
– 1963: radio-telephone submarine cable between Canada and Iceland
– 1963: birth of submarine island Surtsey (south coast) by volcanic eruption
– 1966: national TV station went on air
– 1967: disappearance of herring → ensuing economic crisis
 – 1970: joins EFTA
– 1972: fishery limits to 50 miles → second Cod War
– accepted after Iceland threatens to pull out of NATO and break all diplomatic
relations
– 1973: eruption on Island Heimaey
– 1974: 1000th anniversary of Settlement
– last stretch of 1400 km Ring road completed
– 1975: fishery limits 200 miles → third Cod War → threats → won
– 1980: Vigdis Finnbogadottir first woman to ever be democratically elected president
– 1983: women’s party founded
– won 5,5% seats
– 1986: Reagan-Gorbachef summit held in Höfði House in Reykjavik on Oct. 11-12
– 1987: new Leifur Eiriksson Air Terminal in Keflavik
– 1989: Pope John Paul II official visit, sale of strong beer permitted after 81y prohib.
– 1994: joins the European Economic Area EEA
– 2006: departure of US-military from Keflavik
– 2009: Althingi narrowly approved a proposal to seek EU-membership → put on ice
– 2016: top spot in Global Gender Gap Report (8th year in a row)

sheep = key to „traditional“ (agricultural) society in Iceland

cod = key to the new economy of 20th century Iceland
Modern Iceland

The sea, the snow and the ice

– 20th century
– 3500-4000 Icelandic fishermen and sailors died
– 193 died in avalanches and landslides
– sea ice from Greenland: depends on wind and climate

Industrial Revolution

– fishing industry driving force

– 1902-30
– mechanization of fishing industry
– increased productivity
– increased export
– since 1990 export:
– tourism accounts for 20% (excluding internal tourism)
– marine products 25%
– aluminium and ferro-silicone 25%

changing settlement patterns

– late but then rapid urbanization

– 1890: almost 90% on countryside
– 1990: less than 10% on countryside
– strong position of Reykjavik and capital-area
– over 60%
– Akureyri: only “urban” place outside the capital-area

war and occupation

– German occupation on April 9th 1940 cut communications between Iceland and Denmark
– WWII Iceland = neutral
– May 10th 1940: Operation Fork → British military occupied Iceland
– government issued protest against flagrant violation of neutrality
– prime minister Jonasson asked Icelanders to treat British troops as guests