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06 Chapter 1
06 Chapter 1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 POLYMER
The word polymer is derived from the classical Greek words poly
(meaning “many”) and meres meaning “parts”. Simply stated, a polymer is a
large molecule (macromolecule) composed of repeating structural units
typically connected by covalent chemical bonds. Certain polymers, such as
proteins, cellulose and silk, are found in nature. While many others, including
polystyrene, polyethylene and nylon, are produced only by synthetic routes.
when many naturally occurring materials such as Hevea rubber were in short
supply. In the 1950s, Ziegler and Natta independently developed a family of
stereo specific transition-metal catalysts that lead to the commercialization of
polypropylene as a major commodity plastic. The 1960s and 1970s witnessed
the development of a number of high performance polymers that could
compete favourably with more traditional materials, such as metals, for
automotive and aerospace applications. Yet, today polymer dimensions are
neglected no more, for industries associated with polymeric materials employ
more than half of all American chemists and chemical engineers.
S. Vinyl
Property (unit) Polyester Epoxy Silicone Polyimide
No. ester
1. Density (g/cm³) 1.19-1.20 1.12-1.30 1.21-1.24 1.42-1.51 1.72-1.81
2. Tensile strength 55-62 80-96 76-104 38-56 94-100
(MPa)
3. Tensile elongation 1.80-2.10 5.0-6.30 11.46- 100-400 90-94
(%) 13.20
4. Tensile modulus 1.30-1.60 3.30-3.60 1.73-2.10 3.50-4.70 2.50-2.80
(GPa)
5. Flexural strength 100-120 145-151 128-160 97-120 156-173
(MPa)
6. Flexural modulus 2400-2600 3100-3800 3100-4200 4200-4520 4300-4500
(MPa)
7. Heat distortion 67-72 102-110 81-92 118-120 122-126
temperature ( C)
Plastic containers of all shapes and sizes are light weight and
economically less expensive than the more traditional containers. Clothing,
floor coverings, garbage disposal bags and packaging are other polymer
applications.
1.2 COMPOSITES
1.2.2.1 Reinforcements
1.2.2.2 Matrix
1.2.2.3 Fillers
Inactive
Active
surface, particle shape and size, the treatment of the surface by coupling
agents. The fillers activity is governed by the mutual adhesion of the polymer
and filler; it corresponds to the physico-chemical character of the polymer-
filler interfaces which determine the extent of sorption processes on the solid
surfaces as well as the type of polymer filler bonds.
By particle
By composition By function
morphology
Crystalline Inorganic Organic Reinforcement
Fibers Carbonates Cellulose Cost reduction
Platelets Fluorides Fatty acids
Polyhedrons Hydroxides Lignin
Irregular Metals Polyalkene
Masses Oxides Polyamides
Whisker Silicates Polyaromatics
Sulfates Polyesters
Amorphous Sulfides Proteins
Fibers
Flakes
Solid spheres
Hollow sphere
Irregular masses
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Fillers tend to slow the curing rate and reduce the exotherm because
of their diluting effect (Lee and Reville 1982). Fillers such as mica powder
(Bajaj et al 1992) and glass improve electrical properties, particularly arc
resistance in epoxy resin. Solvent resistance of epoxy resin filled with 30%
clay, 50% calcium carbonate, 50% microsil and 65% zirconium silicate are
better than that of the pure resin.
1.3 NANOCOMPOSITES
the reinforcing phase and/or its exceptionally high aspect ratio. The
mechanical properties of the composites filled with micron sized filler
particles are inferior to those filled with nanoparticles of the same filler. In
addition, the physical properties, such as surface smoothness and barrier
properties cannot be achieved by using conventional micron sized particles.
The reinforcing material can be made up of particles (e.g. minerals), sheets
(e.g. exfoliated clay stacks) or fibers (e.g. carbon nanotubes or electrospun
fibers). The area of the interface between the matrix and reinforcement
phase(s) is typically an order of magnitude greater than for conventional
composite materials. The matrix material properties are significantly affected
in the vicinity of the reinforcement. Polymer nanocomposites properties are
related to degree of thermoset cure, polymer chain mobility, polymer chain
conformation, degree of polymer chain ordering or crystallinity can all vary
significantly and continuously from the interface with the reinforcement into
the bulk of the matrix.
1.3.1 Background
When two dimensions are in the nanometer scale and the third is
larger, an elongated structure is formed. Examples are carbon nanotubes,
carbon nanofibers, cellulose whiskers, boron nitride tubes, boron carbon
nitride tubes and gold or silver nanotubes.
1.3.4 Nanoparticles
Silica
results. Some experimental data has shown that reduced particle size
improves mechanical properties, specifically elastic modulus. Other studies
have shown that elastic modulus decreases with reduced dimensionality. No
clear conclusions have been made regarding trends in the mechanical
properties of polymer nanocomposites (Kar et al 2008). Although studies
have focused on many different matrix-filler systems, a common feature of all
polymer composites is the existence of a phase border between the matrix and
filler and the formation of an inter phase layer between them. The properties
of the inter phase can differ dramatically from the bulk and influence the
mechanical properties of the composite. To explain the impact on properties,
a number of theories have been applied to the study of inter phase.
Figure 1.3 Schematic of inter phase area between filler and the
polymer matrix
1.3.9.3 Films
1.4.1 Synthesis
1.4.2 Advantages
1.4.3 Properties
Fillers are added to UPR system to reduce shrinkage after cure, for
improving molding characteristics and cured properties or to reduce the
overall cost of the system (Sarojadevi et al 1998). Almost any powdered
material can be used as a filler (Paauw and Pizzi 1994, Yu et al 1976, Lisaka
and Shibayma 1978, Wu 1988, Doului and Hoen 1994, Liu and Gilbert 1996,
Nikhil et al 2001, Sagi-Manna et al 1988, Vipulanandan and Dharmarajan
1989, Luo and Wong 2001, Guhanathan et al 2001, Navin and Nidhikhare
1999) the common ones being obtained from natural deposits (Marcovich et
al 1996). Of the several hundreds of fillers calcium carbonate, quartz and
silica, flours, talc and various clays are widely used (Katz and Mileswski
1978, Chand and Gautham 1993). Generally fillers affect the properties of
polyester compounds in several ways. The most important of these are the
modification of viscosity and rheology. Viscosity rises as the filler content is
increased.
system, the catalyst and accelerator must be chosen with care and correct
amount used. Supplier generally recommends particular catalyst and
accelerator combination, for use with each of their resins together with
proportions.
1.4.5.1 Catalyst
1.4.5.2 Accelerator
Accelerators are usually used at between 0.5 and 4% based on the resin
weight. Cobalt octoate is an extremely active and most widely used
accelerator for curing the unsaturated polyester resin.
1.5.1 Preparation
1.5.3 Applications
Silica products are diverse groups and fall into three groups.
Precipitated silica, diatomaceous silica and ground silica. Precipitated silica is
used primarily as thixotropes and viscosity control agents in unsaturated
polyester. Precipitated silica is also used as a processing aid in extrusion
molding of various resins. Silica fillers are used for obtaining hardness,
strength, chemical resistance, flow, electrical insulation, thermal conductivity,
heavy loading, dimensional stability and wear resistance.
1.6.2 Applications
1.7 ALUMINA
1.7.2 Production
1.7.3 Properties
1.7.4 Applications
Figure 1.6 Crystal structures of (a) Wurtzite and (b) Zinc blende
structures of zinc oxide
1.8.2 Properties
Zinc oxide decomposes into zinc vapor and oxygen only at around
1975 °C, reflecting its considerable stability. Heating with carbon converts the
oxide into the metal, which is more volatile than the oxide.
ZnO + C Zn + CO
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It reacts with hydrogen sulfide to give the zinc sulfide: this reaction
is used commercially in removing H2S using zinc oxide powder (e.g., as
deodorant).
1.8.3 Applications
Rubber manufacture
About 50% of the zinc oxide is used in rubber industry. Zinc oxide
is also an important additive to the rubber used in car tyres. Zinc oxide along
with stearic acid activates vulcanization. Vulcanization catalysts are derived
from zinc oxide and it considerably improves the thermal conductivity.
Concrete industry
Medical field
Cigarette filters
Food additive
Coatings
results indicate that the calcium carbonate nanoparticles improve the thermal
stability and acid resistance of polymethylmethacrylate.
Aswathy and Joseph (2008) synthesized the nano zinc oxide from
zinc chloride through an in situ precipitation. The nano zinc oxide was
incorporated into polypropylene matrix. The results reveal improved thermal
stability of nanocomposites and rate of crystallization.
were found out for all the above fabricated composites viz.,
tensile, flexural, impact and hardness and thermal properties
like thermal stability, heat deflection temperature, glass
transition temperature and storage modulus and physical
properties. Appropriate compositions, which give better
properties, were optimized.