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Public Value of Urban Parks PDF
Public Value of Urban Parks PDF
Parks have long been recognized as major and operate recreational facilities and pro-
contributors to the physical and aesthetic grams—is still widely embraced by commu-
quality of urban neighborhoods. But a new, nity members.1 Parks are valued even by
broader view of parks has recently been those who do not use them. For example, one
emerging. This new view goes well beyond study found that three-quarters of the respon-
the traditional value of parks as places of dents who said that they did not themselves
recreation and visual assets to communities, use parks nonetheless reported receiving ben-
and focuses on how policymakers, practition- efits from them, with many of those benefits
ers, and the public can begin to think about tied to opportunities for children (Godbey,
parks as valuable contributors to larger urban Graefe, and James 1992).
policy objectives, such as job opportunities,
youth development, public health, and com-
The “new view” of urban Parks’ value to neighborhood quality is fur-
munity building.
ther confirmed by studies that find a
parks calls attention to the
statistically significant link between property
broader contributions they This first in a series of policy briefs reviews values and proximity to green space, includ-
can make to the vitality the traditional value of parks and explains how ing neighborhood parks and urban forested
parks are claiming new attention for their areas. 2 One study found that the value of
of communities and their broader potential. It goes on to discuss properties near Pennypack Park in Philadel-
residents. how parks are building new partnerships to phia increased from about $1,000 per acre at
strengthen their communities in these 2,500 feet from the park to $11,500 per acre
broader ways—but that, to do so, they need at 40 feet from the park (Hammer, Coughlin,
reliable information about community needs and Horn 1974). Another found that the price
and the effects of actions intended to meet of residential property—based on data from
those needs. The brief concludes with a dis- three neighborhoods in Boulder, Colorado—
cussion of how public support for parks decreased by $4.20 for every foot farther
increases as they expand their role, creating away from the greenbelt (Correll, Lillydahl,
a self-reinforcing process. and Singell 1978).
The examples cited and the policy implications This connection between urban parks and
in these briefs derive largely from material neighborhood quality is receiving renewed
gathered by researchers at the Urban Institute attention from community developers as
in the course of an evaluation of The Wallace they strive to make their neighborhoods
Foundation’s Urban Parks Initiative, a wide- more attractive to low-income and, increas-
ranging effort to determine how to improve ingly, middle-income residents. A recent
the quality of urban parks, particularly in low- survey for Community Development Corpo-
income neighborhoods, and to broaden urban rations (CDCs)—which were once focused
leaders’ understanding of the importance of largely on housing and commercial develop-
parks to the health and vitality of cities. ment activities—reveals that about 20 per-
cent of CDCs now invest in open-space
programs, and that this activity area is under-
going the most rapid expansion. This finding
The Traditional View should be no surprise. CDCs respond to their
The traditional view of parks and recreation communities, and the communities’ priority
departments—that they provide open spaces is often more green space (see box).
1
BEYOND RECREATION A Broader View of Urban Parks
Slavic Village, a Cleveland CDC that once focused exclusively on “bricks-and-mortar” projects, found
that community members living around its Mill Creek Housing Development were adamant that they
wanted public access to Mill Creek, as well as public green space, incorporated into the private hous-
ing development project. In response, the Slavic Village CDC created two committees, one focused on
the housing development itself, the other on the park space—with 35 acres of the 100-acre property
dedicated to park space.
2
A Broader View of Urban Parks BEYOND RECREATION
Prospect Park’s welfare-to-work program pro- The promise of social capital as a vital ingredi-
vides an excellent example. In this program (and ent in neighborhood health rests on a solid
similar ones throughout New York City), work scientific foundation. Recent research demon-
crews consisting of recent welfare recipients strates, for example, that a neighborhood’s
perform routine maintenance. Parks are a partic- collective efficacy—people’s connections
ularly fruitful area for such efforts because the with one another and their capacity to work
work is low skill, continuously needed, and orga- together to achieve shared goals—can reduce
nized so that a single park employee can super- crime and disorder, even in very poor commu-
vise a relatively large work crew. nities (Sampson, Raudenbush, and Earls
1997). Research also points to the unique role
that parks in particular can play in building the
Health relationships that constitute social capital. For
example, research on low-income housing
Park use is certainly a good (and generally free) developments has found that park-like public
way to engage in healthy exercise. Park pro- spaces encourage residents to leave the iso-
grams can be particularly useful in promoting lation of their apartments, socialize with one
healthful exercise among youth and the another, and form lasting ties (Coley, Kuo, and
elderly. A study in Cleveland confirms the Sullivan 1997; Kuo, Coley, and Brunson 1998).
promise of parks in promoting health for Amer- Moreover, the higher levels of social capital
icans age 50 and older (Payne et al. 1998). that develop in these settings contribute both
Older park users (bikers, joggers, walkers) to individual health and well-being and to the
were found significantly healthier than nonpark security and livability of the development as a
users and reported feeling “renewed” after whole (Kweon, Sullivan, and Wiley 1998).
using the park, with greater frequency of use
linked to better health. These active users also Prospect Park in Brooklyn—through its Com-
reported fewer physician visits. munity Advisory Committee—provides an
excellent example of how parks can help
Hearts N’ Parks—a community-based pro- people work together to achieve common
gram supported by the National Heart, Lung, goals. The Community Advisory Committee
and Blood Institute and the National Recre- has about 90 members, representing a wide
ation and Park Association—is a good exam- range of organizations and interests from the
ple of an innovative health-focused program. It neighborhoods that surround the park. The
has two pilot sites, in North Carolina and Committee meets monthly and consists of
Arlington County, Virginia. The Virginia pro- four working groups—operations, advocacy,
gram, launched in 2000, focuses on children, education, and special events/membership.
youth, and seniors at summer camps, parks Twelve local officials also attend these meet-
and recreation centers, and after-school pro- ings. In addition to the Committee’s numer-
grams. A survey of participants found that ous accomplishments in educational outreach,
young people knew more about eating habits business support, and advocacy for new pub-
that promote good health, and that adults lic funding, it has strengthened the park’s ties
actually had healthier eating habits. to the many ethnic and racial groups through-
out Brooklyn. The park’s hosting of the week-
end festival Boricua, for example, prompted
Social Capital representatives from the Puerto Rican com-
munity to organize a community group to plan
In addition to their tangible contributions to and raise funds for future weekend festivals.
youth development, employment opportunities,
and public health, parks help build and
strengthen ties among community residents by
bringing people together, including those who
are otherwise divided by race or class, and by Building Partnerships
helping them work together on common Can Help Parks Strengthen
projects. These ties—often labeled “social
Their Communities
capital”—represent subtle but important assets
for a community. They provide avenues through As parks managers devote more attention to
which information, values, and social expecta- their multiple and diverse community roles,
tions flow, and they empower people to tackle they are forming partnerships with other public
communitywide problems, embark on collec- agencies and with nonprofit organizations.
tive actions, and advocate effectively for their These partnerships are generating much excite-
community. ment and interest. First, they are successfully
3
BEYOND RECREATION A Broader View of Urban Parks
combining the assets of the public and non- local Boys and Girls Clubs, on programs sup-
profit sectors in novel ways to create new and ported in part by the Portland Parks Youth
refurbished parks, greenways, trails and other Trust Fund; and works on a variety of activities
community assets—often in the face of munic- with individual volunteers, who represent the
ipal budget constraints. Second, after nearly hourly equivalent of nearly 200 full-time staff.
three decades of steady decline in public expen-
ditures to build and maintain public infrastruc-
ture, changing public attitudes are encouraging
many cities to support renewed investments.
As parks managers work to assemble the
Getting the Information Parks Need
resources they need to expand and improve to Broaden Their Community Role
their programs and facilities, they can often When parks managers broaden their objec-
count on the support of their new partners, tives, seeking to ensure that the parks they
especially from the expanding community- manage serve their communities the best
based nonprofit sector. way possible, they need rigorous information
about the characteristics and needs of park
In good partnerships, one party’s assets offset users (and potential users) and about the
the other’s liabilities. Thus, in addition to their effectiveness of their efforts to meet those
other virtues, such collaborations have value in needs. Most parks managers already take
their own right, helping to strengthen the local advantage of public meetings and formal hear-
“civic infrastructure.” Public partners tend to ings to gain input from the community. But
contribute predictable funding, organizational collecting information through systematic
infrastructure, and institutional legitimacy, surveys of park users can do more. Such infor-
which offset common liabilities facing nonprofit mation can include data on
organizations—highly variable funding, lack of
follow-through, and shallow support. Nonprofit
who uses a park compared with those who
partners bring flexible funding, organizational
live in the surrounding community, which
adaptability, community credibility, and broad
can show whether some groups are being
constituencies. These offset common liabili-
missed;
ties of public agencies—earmarked funding
how people use a park, which can identify
streams, bureaucratic inertia, public indiffer-
whether specific facilities are being over-,
ence, and narrow constituencies.
under-, or misused—thus helping guide
park investments and management;
The partnerships included in the Wallace
why community members do (or do not)
Urban Parks Initiative included parks founda-
use a park, which can guide outreach
tions, “friends-of” organizations, and several
efforts or initiatives to improve or change
groups focused on broader urban initiatives.
services; and
These diverse projects featured efforts not
what features visitors value, which can
only to improve major urban parks, create new
help resolve conflicts among groups about
urban greenways, and construct or recon-
struct neighborhood parks, but also to intro- park priorities.4
duce new community arts, recreational,
scientific, and cultural programs. The value of a well-designed survey is high-
lighted by the experience of the Garfield Park
Portland’s array of nonprofit, corporate, insti- Conservatory Alliance, which wanted to find out
tutional, and public partners is increasingly whether improvements made in cooperation
typical of state-of-the-art urban parks systems. with the Chicago Parks District were drawing
The Portland Parks and Recreation Depart- more frequent visits by people living both inside
ment shares facilities and programs with sev- and outside the immediate neighborhoods.
eral school districts; collaborates with regional Garfield managers already knew they could
parks, water, and environmental agencies on attract large numbers of visitors for seasonal
land acquisition, watershed education, and flower shows and other special events, but
resource protection; solicits donations of wanted to see whether they were attracting
equipment and other products from corpora- more visitors on “typical” days and times. The
tions, and earns product-placement and adver- findings provided strong evidence that the Con-
tising fees; has partnered with “friends” servatory’s strategy was paying off (figure 1).
groups on park maintenance, renovation, or The estimated number of casual visitors more
programming; has worked extensively with than doubled—from 15,000 to 40,000 between
youth-serving organizations, such as the the two survey years, with big increases in both
YMCA, Portland Public Housing Authority, and neighborhood and non-neighborhood visitors.
4
A Broader View of Urban Parks BEYOND RECREATION
FIGURE 1. Do Garfield Park Conservatory Visitors Come from Inside or Outside the Neighborhood?
80,000
70,000 70,519
Estimated number of visitors per year
60,000
Outside the neighborhood
50,000
40,000
31,038
30,000
26,481
Inside the neighborhood
20,000
10,000 10,962
0
1997 survey 1998 survey
5
BEYOND RECREATION A Broader View of Urban Parks
Parks Conservancy is an excellent example of grams and partnerships under way in a grow-
the power of nonprofit advocates. Working in ing number of cities. This new view capitalizes
partnership with the City of Louisville and Metro on the tremendous value parks generate by
Parks, the Conservancy provides planning and providing open space and recreational oppor-
funding for park improvements through dona- tunities. But it goes further—it recognizes
tions from corporations, individuals, and foun- parks as vital contributors to the achievement
dations. In its first 10 years, the Conservancy of wider urban policy objectives, including job
raised close to $10 million in private donations, opportunities, youth development, public
which leveraged an additional $4.5 million in city health, and community building—all of which
investment for park projects.6 help strengthen the neighborhoods in which
parks are located. For parks managers, this
Prominent nonprofit partners are helping parks
view reinforces the critical importance of gath-
fulfill their new and broader community devel-
ering reliable information to help make wise
opment role. The City Parks Alliance, an orga-
resource choices based on what communities
nization comprising city parks leaders from
and their residents most want from parks and
across the country, belongs to this wave of the
decide how best to deliver on those needs.
future. An outgrowth of the Wallace Urban
Parks Initiative, the Alliance was formed in
response to a broad-based movement of city
park advocates who recognized the critical role
Notes
parks play in the revitalization of our cities. 1. See, for example, Ulrich and Addoms (1981).
2. See Correll, Lillydahl, and Singell (1978); Hammer,
Another extremely encouraging sign that the Coughlin, and Horn (1974); Kitchen and Hendon
broader view of urban parks is gaining cur- (1967); Phillips (2000); Tyrväinen and Miettinen
rency is the cooperation between national (2000); Weicher and Zerbst (1973).
community development organizations and 3. For more information on how parks can provide
the Trust for Public Land (a nonprofit organiza- innovative youth development opportunities, see
tion that helps communities across the coun- “Urban Parks as Partners in Youth Development,”
try fund and carry out land conservation) to the third brief in the parks series.
bring increased attention to urban parks as 4. For more information on how parks managers
assets in neighborhood revitalization. In New can find answers to these kinds of questions,
York City, the Trust for Public Land has worked see “Understanding Park Usership,” the second
with the Enterprise Foundation and the Coun- brief in the parks series.
cil on the Environment of New York City in 5. From “Ask the Expert,” an online interview with
South Bronx, Central Brooklyn, and Upper Charles Jordon at http://pps.org/upo/askexpert/
Manhattan to create community gardens and one-qa?qa_id=55&qa_id=55.
parks as part of housing renovation projects 6. See http://www.olmsteadparks.org/about.htm.
carried out by community-based organizations.
6
A Broader View of Urban Parks BEYOND RECREATION
Kuo, Frances E., Rebekah Levine Coley, and Journal of Environmental Economics and Man-
Liesette Brunson. 1998. “Fertile Ground for agement 39(2): 205–23.
Community: Inner-City Neighborhood Common Ulrich, Roger S., and David L. Addoms. 1981. “Psy-
Spaces.” American Journal of Community Psy- chological and Recreational Benefits of a Resi-
chology 26(6): 823–51. dential Park.” Journal of Leisure Research 13(1):
Kweon, Byoung-Suk, William C. Sullivan, and Angel 43–65.
R. Wiley. 1998. “Green Common Spaces and the
Walker, Christopher, Robin Redford, and Carol
Social Integration of Inner-City Older Adults.”
Steinbach. 1999. Partnerships for Parks. Wash-
Environment and Behavior 30(6): 832–58.
ington, DC: The Urban Institute.
Payne, Laura, Beth Orsega-Smith, Geoffrey God-
bey, and Mark Roy. 1998. “Local Parks and the Weicher, John C., and Robert H. Zerbst. 1973. “The
Health of Older Adults: Results of an Exploratory Externalities of Neighborhood Parks: An Empiri-
Study.” Parks & Recreation 33(10): 64. cal Investigation.” Land Economics 49:99–105.
Phillips, Patrick. 2000. “Real Estate Impacts of
Urban Parks.” Issue paper. Washington, DC:
Economics Research Associates. About the Author
Sampson, Robert J., Stephen W. Raudenbush, and
Felton Earls. 1997. “Neighborhoods and Violent
Chris Walker is a senior research associate
Crime: A Multilevel Study of Collective Effi- in the Metropolitan Housing and Communities
cacy.” Science 277:918–24. Policy Center at the Urban Institute. His cur-
Tyrväinen, Liisa and Antti Miettinen. 2000. “Prop- rent research focuses on community building
erty Prices and Urban Forest Amenities.” and development.
Parks Publications
This brief is one of three short studies focused on a new and broader view of the roles parks
can play in urban communities: “The Public Value of Urban Parks” and “Understanding Park
Usership,” by Chris Walker; and “Urban Parks as Partners in Youth Development,” by Margery
Austin Turner.
Other publications stemming from the Urban Institute’s evaluation of the Wallace Urban Parks
Initiative include Partnerships for Parks: Lessons from the Lila Wallace-Reader’s Digest
Urban Parks Program, by Chris Walker; Public Use of Urban Parks: A Methods Manual for
Park Managers and Community Leaders, by William Kornblum, Chris Hayes, and Ryan Allen;
and Communities for Parks: A Framework for Building Engagement, by Chris Walker, Maria-
Rosario Jackson, and Robin Redford.
All these publications can be obtained from the Urban Institute’s online bookstore,
http://www.uipress.org, or by calling 202-261-5687.
7
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