Electrodynamic

Early wattmeter on display at the Historic Archive and Museum of Mining in Pachuca, Mexico.

The traditional analog wattmeter is an electrodynamic instrument. The device consists of a pair
of fixed coils, known as current coils, and a movable coil known as the potential coil.

The current coils connected in series with the circuit, while the potential coil is connected in
parallel. Also, on analog wattmeters, the potential coil carries a needle that moves over a scale to
indicate the measurement. A current flowing through the current coil generates an
electromagnetic field around the coil. The strength of this field is proportional to the line current
and in phase with it. The potential coil has, as a general rule, a high-value resistor connected in
series with it to reduce the current that flows through it.

The result of this arrangement is that on a dc circuit, the deflection of the needle is proportional
to both the current and the voltage, thus conforming to the equation W=VA or P=VI. On an ac
circuit the deflection is proportional to the average instantaneous product of voltage and current,
thus measuring true power, and possibly (depending on load characteristics) showing a different
reading to that obtained by simply multiplying the readings showing on a stand-alone voltmeter
and a stand-alone ammeter in the same circuit.

The two circuits of a wattmeter can be damaged by excessive current. The ammeter and
voltmeter are both vulnerable to overheating — in case of an overload, their pointers will be
driven off scale — but in the wattmeter, either or even both the current and potential circuits can
overheat without the pointer approaching the end of the scale! This is because the position of the
pointer depends on the power factor, voltage and current. Thus, a circuit with a low power factor
will give a low reading on the wattmeter, even when both of its circuits are loaded to the
maximum safety limit. Therefore, a wattmeter is rated not only in watts, but also in volts and
amperes.

A typical wattmeter in educational labs has two voltage coils (pressure coils) and a current coil.
We can connect the two pressure coils in series or parallel to each other to change the ranges of
the wattmeter. Another feature is that the pressure coil can also be tapped to change the meter's
range. If the pressure coil has range of 300 volts, the half of it can be used so that the range
becomes 150 Volts.
[edit] Electrodynamometer

Siemens electrodynamometer, circa 1910. F = Fixed coil, D = Movable coil, S = Spiral spring, T
= Torsion head, MM = Mercury cups, I = Index needle.

An early current meter was the electrodynamometer. Used in the early 20th century, the Siemens
electrodynamometer, for example, is a form of an electrodynamic ammeter, that has a fixed coil
which is surrounded by another having its axis at right angles to that of the fixed coil. This
second coil is suspended by a number of silk fibres, and to the coil is also attached a spiral spring
the other end of which is fastened to a torsion head. If then the torsion head is twisted, the
suspended coil experiences a torque and is displaced through an angle equal to that of the torsion
head. The current can be passed into and out of the movable coil by permitting the ends of the
coil to dip into two mercury cups.

If a current is passed through the fixed coil and movable coil in series with one another, the
movable coil tends to displace itself so as to bring the axes of the coils, which are normally at
right angles, more into the same direction. This tendency can be resisted by giving a twist to the
torsion head and so applying to the movable coil through the spring a restoring torque, which
opposes the torque due to the dynamic action of the currents. If then the torsion head is provided
with an index needle, and also if the movable coil is provided with an indicating point, it is
possible to measure the torsional angle through which the head must be twisted to bring the
movable coil back to its zero position. In these circumstances, the torsional angle becomes a
measure of the torque and therefore of the product of the strengths of the currents in the two
coils, that is to say, of the square of the strength of the current passing through the two coils if
they are joined up in series. The instrument can therefore be graduated by passing through it
known and measured continuous currents, and it then becomes available for use with either
continuous or alternating currents. The instrument can be provided with a curve or table showing
the current corresponding to each angular displacement of the torsion head.

[edit] Electronic wattmeter

Electronics portal
Prodigit Model 2000MU (UK version), shown in use and displaying a reading of 10 Watts being
consumed by the appliance.

Electronic wattmeters are used for direct, small power measurements or for power measurements
at frequencies beyond the range of electrodynamometer-type instruments.

[edit] Digital

A modern digital electronic wattmeter/energy meter samples the voltage and current thousands
of times a second. The average of the instantaneous voltage multiplied by the current is the true
power. The true power divided by the apparent volt-amperes (VA) is the power factor. A
computer circuit uses the sampled values to calculate RMS voltage, RMS current, VA, power
(watts), power factor, and kilowatt-hours. The simple models display that information on LCD.
More sophisticated models retain the information over an extended period of time, and can
transmit it to field equipment or a central location.

[edit] Radio frequency

Instruments with moving coils can be calibrated for direct current or power frequency currents
up to a few hundred Hz. At radio frequencies a common method is a rectifier circuit arranged to
respond to current in a transmission line; the system is calibrated for the known circuit
impedance.