Emissivity - Wikipedia

5/2/2019 Emissivity - Wikipedia
Emissivity
The emissivity of the surface of a material is its effectiveness in emitting
energy as thermal radiation. Thermal radiation is electromagnetic
radiation and it may include both visible radiation (light) and infrared
radiation, which is not visible to human eyes. The thermal radiation from
very hot objects (see photograph) is easily visible to the eye. Quantitatively,
emissivity is the ratio of the thermal radiation from a surface to the
radiation from an ideal black surface at the same temperature as given by
the Stefan–Boltzmann law. The ratio varies from 0 to 1. The surface of a
Blacksmiths work iron when it is hot
perfect black body (with an emissivity of 1) emits thermal radiation at the
enough to emit plainly visible
rate of approximately 448 watts per square metre at room temperature thermal radiation.
(25 °C, 298.15 K); all real objects have emissivities less than 1.0, and emit
radiation at correspondingly lower rates.[1]
Emissivities are important in several contexts:
Insulated windows – Warm surfaces are usually cooled directly by air, but they also cool themselves by emitting
thermal radiation. This second cooling mechanism is important for simple glass windows, which have emissivities
close to the maximum possible value of 1.0. "Low-E windows" with transparent low emissivity coatings emit less
thermal radiation than ordinary windows.[2] In winter, these coatings can halve the rate at which a window loses
heat compared to an uncoated glass window.[3]
Solar heat collectors – Similarly, solar heat collectors lose heat by

emitting thermal radiation. Advanced solar collectors incorporate
selective surfaces that have very low emissivities. These collectors
waste very little of the solar energy through emission of thermal
radiation.[4]
Thermal shielding – For the protection of structures from high surface
temperatures, such as reusable spacecraft or hypersonic aircraft, high
emissivity coatings (HECs), with emissivity values near 0.9, are
applied on the surface of insulating ceramics.[5] This facilitates
radiative cooling and protection of the underlying structure and is an
alternative to ablative coatings, used in single-use reentry capsules.
Solar water heating system based
Planetary temperatures – The planets are solar thermal collectors on a
large scale. The temperature of a planet's surface is determined by the on evacuated glass tube collectors.
balance between the heat absorbed by the planet from sunlight, heat Sunlight is absorbed inside each
emitted from its core, and thermal radiation emitted back into space. tube by a selective surface. The
Emissivity of a planet is determined by the nature of its surface and surface absorbs sunlight nearly
atmosphere.[6] completely, but has a low thermal
Temperature measurements – Pyrometers and infrared cameras are emissivity so that it loses very little
instruments used to measure the temperature of an object by using its
heat. Ordinary black surfaces also
thermal radiation; no actual contact with the object is needed. The
calibration of these instruments involves the emissivity of the surface absorb sunlight efficiently, but they
that's being measured.[7] emit thermal radiation copiously.
Contents
Mathematical definitions
Hemispherical emissivity
Spectral hemispherical emissivity
Directional emissivity
Spectral directional emissivity
Emissivities of common surfaces
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emissivity 1/12
Absorptivity
Directional spectral emissivity
Emittance
SI radiometry units
See also
References
Further reading
Mathematical definitions
Hemispherical emissivity
Hemispherical emissivity of a surface, denoted ε, is defined as[8]
where
Me is the radiant exitance of that surface;

Me° is the radiant exitance of a black body at the same temperature as that surface.
Spectral hemispherical emissivity

Spectral hemispherical emissivity in frequency and spectral hemispherical emissivity in wavelength of
a surface, denoted εν and ελ respectively, are defined as[8]
where
Me,ν is the spectral radiant exitance in frequency of that surface;

Me,ν° is the spectral radiant exitance in frequency of a black body at the same temperature as that surface;
Me,λ is the spectral radiant exitance in wavelength of that surface;
Me,λ° is the spectral radiant exitance in wavelength of a black body at the same temperature as that surface.
Directional emissivity
Directional emissivity of a surface, denoted εΩ, is defined as[8]
where
Le,Ω is the radiance of that surface;
Le,Ω° is the radiance of a black body at the same temperature as that surface.
Spectral directional emissivity

Spectral directional emissivity in frequency and spectral directional emissivity in wavelength of a
surface, denoted εν,Ω and ελ,Ω respectively, are defined as[8]
where
Le,Ω,ν is the spectral radiance in frequency of that surface;

Le,Ω,ν° is the spectral radiance in frequency of a black body at the same temperature as that surface;
Le,Ω,λ is the spectral radiance in wavelength of that surface;
Le,Ω,λ° is the spectral radiance in wavelength of a black body at the same temperature as that surface.
Emissivities of common surfaces

Emissivities ε can be measured using simple devices such as Leslie's cube in conjunction with a thermal radiation
detector such as a thermopile or a bolometer. The apparatus compares the thermal radiation from a surface to be
tested with the thermal radiation from a nearly ideal, black sample. The detectors are essentially black absorbers with
very sensitive thermometers that record the detector's temperature rise when exposed to thermal radiation. For
measuring room temperature emissivities, the detectors must absorb thermal radiation completely at infrared
wavelengths near 10×10−6 metres.[9] Visible light has a wavelength range of about 0.4 to 0.7×10−6 metres from violet
to deep red.
Emissivity measurements for many surfaces are compiled in many handbooks and texts. Some of these are listed in
the following table.[10][11]
Material Emissivity
Aluminum foil 0.03
Aluminum, anodized 0.9[12]

Asphalt 0.88
Brick 0.90
Concrete, rough 0.91
Copper, polished 0.04
Copper, oxidized 0.87 Photographs of an aluminum
Leslie's cube. The color
Glass, smooth (uncoated) 0.95
photographs are taken using an
Ice 0.97 infrared camera; the black and white
photographs underneath are taken
Limestone 0.92
with an ordinary camera. All faces of
Marble (polished) 0.89 to 0.92 the cube are at the same
Paint (including white) 0.9 temperature of about 55 °C
(131 °F). The face of the cube that
Paper, roofing or white 0.88 to 0.86 has been painted black has a large
Plaster, rough 0.89 emissivity, which is indicated by the
reddish color in the infrared
Silver, polished 0.02 photograph. The polished face of
Silver, oxidized 0.04 the cube has a low emissivity
indicated by the blue color, and the
Snow 0.8 to 0.9
reflected image of the warm hand is
Transition metal Disilicides (e.g. MoSi2 or WSi2) 0.86 to 0.93 clear.
Water, pure 0.96
Notes:
1. These emissivities are the total hemispherical emissivities from the surfaces.
2. The values of the emissivities apply to materials that are optically thick. This means that the absorptivity at the
wavelengths typical of thermal radiation doesn't depend on the thickness of the material. Very thin materials emit
less thermal radiation than thicker materials.
Absorptivity
There is a fundamental relationship (Gustav Kirchhoff's 1859 law of thermal radiation) that equates the emissivity of a
surface with its absorption of incident radiation (the "absorptivity" of a surface). Kirchhoff's Law explains why
emissivities cannot exceed 1, since the largest absorptivity - corresponding to complete absorption of all incident light
by a truly black object - is also 1.[7] Mirror-like, metallic surfaces that reflect light will thus have low emissivities, since
the reflected light isn't absorbed. A polished silver surface has an emissivity of about 0.02 near room temperature.
Black soot absorbs thermal radiation very well; it has an emissivity as large as 0.97, and hence soot is a fair
approximation to an ideal black body.[13][14]
With the exception of bare, polished metals, the appearance of a surface to the eye is not a good guide to emissivities
near room temperature. Thus white paint absorbs very little visible light. However, at an infrared wavelength of
10x10−6 metres, paint absorbs light very well, and has a high emissivity. Similarly, pure water absorbs very little visible
light, but water is nonetheless a strong infrared absorber and has a correspondingly high emissivity.
Directional spectral emissivity
In addition to the total hemispherical emissivities compiled in the table above, a more complex "directional spectral
emissivity" can also be measured. This emissivity depends upon the wavelength and upon the angle of the outgoing
thermal radiation. Kirchhoff's law actually applies exactly to this more complex emissivity: the emissivity for thermal
radiation emerging in a particular direction and at a particular wavelength matches the absorptivity for incident light
at the same wavelength and angle. The total hemispherical emissivity is a weighted average of this directional spectral
emissivity; the average is described by textbooks on "radiative heat transfer".[7]
Emittance
Emittance (or emissive power) is the total amount of thermal energy emitted per unit area per unit time for all
possible wavelengths. Emissivity of a body at a given temperature is the ratio of the total emissive power of a body to
the total emissive power of a perfectly black body at that temperature. Following Plancks law, the total energy radiated
increases with temperature while the peak of the emission spectrum shifts to shorter wavelengths. The energy emitted
at shorter wavelengths increases more rapidly with temperature. For example, an ideal blackbody in thermal
equilibrium at 1273 K, will emit 97% of its energy at wavelengths below 14 μm.[5]
The term emissivity is generally used to describe a simple, homogeneous surface such as silver. Similar terms,
emittance and thermal emittance, are used to describe thermal radiation measurements on complex surfaces
such as insulation products.[15][16]
SI radiometry units
SI radiometry units
Quantity Unit Dimension

Notes
Name Symbol[nb 1] Name Symbol Symbol
Energy of
Radiant energy Qe[nb 2] joule J M⋅L2⋅T−2 electromagnetic
radiation.
joule per cubic Radiant energy
Radiant energy density we J/m3 M⋅L−1⋅T−2
metre per unit volume.
Radiant energy
emitted, reflected,
transmitted or
received, per unit
Radiant flux Φe[nb 2] watt W = J/s M⋅L2⋅T−3
time. This is
sometimes also
called "radiant
power".
Radiant flux per
unit frequency or
Φe,ν[nb 3] watt per hertz W/Hz M⋅L2⋅T−2
wavelength. The
Spectral flux or or or or latter is commonly
Φe,λ[nb 4] watt per metre W/m M⋅L⋅T−3 measured in
W⋅nm−1.
Radiant flux
emitted, reflected,
transmitted or
Radiant intensity Ie,Ω[nb 5] watt per steradian W/sr M⋅L2⋅T−3 received, per unit
solid angle. This is
a directional
quantity.
Radiant intensity
per unit frequency
watt per steradian or wavelength.
Ie,Ω,ν[nb 3] per hertz W⋅sr−1⋅Hz−1 M⋅L2⋅T−2 The latter is
Spectral intensity or or or or commonly
Ie,Ω,λ[nb 4] watt per steradian W⋅sr−1⋅m−1 M⋅L⋅T−3 measured in
per metre W⋅sr−1⋅nm−1. This
is a directional
quantity.
Radiant flux
emitted, reflected,
transmitted or
received by a
surface, per unit
solid angle per unit
watt per steradian
Radiance Le,Ω[nb 5] W⋅sr−1⋅m−2 M⋅T−3 projected area.
per square metre
This is a
directional
quantity. This is
sometimes also
confusingly called
"intensity".
Spectral radiance Le,Ω,ν[nb 3] watt per steradian W⋅sr−1⋅m−2⋅Hz−1 M⋅T−2 Radiance of a
or per square metre or or surface per unit
Le,Ω,λ[nb 4] per hertz W⋅sr−1⋅m−3 M⋅L−1⋅T−3 frequency or
or wavelength. The
watt per steradian latter is commonly
per square metre, measured in
per metre W⋅sr−1⋅m−2⋅nm−1.
This is a
directional
quantity. This is
sometimes also
confusingly called
"spectral intensity".
Radiant flux
received by a
surface per unit
Irradiance watt per square
Ee[nb 2] W/m2 M⋅T−3 area. This is
Flux density metre
sometimes also
confusingly called
"intensity".
Irradiance of a
surface per unit
frequency or
wavelength. This
is sometimes also
confusingly called
watt per square "spectral intensity".
Ee,ν[nb 3] metre per hertz W⋅m−2⋅Hz−1 M⋅T−2 Non-SI units of
Spectral irradiance
or or or or spectral flux
Spectral flux density
Ee,λ[nb 4] watt per square W/m3 M⋅L−1⋅T−3 density include
metre, per metre jansky (1 Jy =
10−26 W⋅m−2⋅Hz−1)
and solar flux unit
(1 sfu =
10−22 W⋅m−2⋅Hz−1
= 104 Jy).
Radiant flux
leaving (emitted,
reflected and
transmitted by) a
watt per square
Radiosity Je[nb 2] W/m2 M⋅T−3 surface per unit
metre
area. This is
sometimes also
confusingly called
"intensity".
Radiosity of a
surface per unit
frequency or
watt per square wavelength. The
Je,ν[nb 3] metre per hertz W⋅m−2⋅Hz−1 M⋅T−2
latter is commonly
Spectral radiosity or or or or measured in
Je,λ[nb 4] watt per square W/m3 M⋅L−1⋅T−3 W⋅m−2⋅nm−1. This
metre, per metre
is sometimes also
confusingly called
Radiant flux
emitted by a
surface per unit
area. This is the
emitted
component of
watt per square
Radiant exitance Me[nb 2] W/m2 M⋅T−3 radiosity. "Radiant
metre
emittance" is an
old term for this
quantity. This is
sometimes also
confusingly called
"intensity".
Spectral exitance Me,ν[nb 3] watt per square W⋅m−2⋅Hz−1 M⋅T−2 Radiant exitance
or metre per hertz or or of a surface per
Me,λ[nb 4] or W/m3 M⋅L−1⋅T−3 unit frequency or
wavelength. The
watt per square latter is commonly

metre, per metre measured in
W⋅m−2⋅nm−1.
"Spectral
emittance" is an
old term for this
quantity. This is
sometimes also
confusingly called
Radiant energy
received by a
surface per unit
area, or
equivalently
joule per square irradiance of a
Radiant exposure He J/m2 M⋅T−2
metre surface integrated
over time of
irradiation. This is
sometimes also
called "radiant
fluence".
Radiant exposure
of a surface per
unit frequency or
joule per square wavelength. The
He,ν[nb 3] metre per hertz J⋅m−2⋅Hz−1 M⋅T−1
latter is commonly
Spectral exposure or or or or measured in
He,λ[nb 4] joule per square J/m3 M⋅L−1⋅T−2 J⋅m−2⋅nm−1. This
metre, per metre
is sometimes also
called "spectral
fluence".
Radiant exitance
of a surface,
Hemispherical divided by that of a
ε 1
emissivity black body at the
same temperature
as that surface.
Spectral exitance
εν of a surface,
Spectral hemispherical divided by that of a
or 1
emissivity black body at the
ελ
same temperature
as that surface.
Radiance emitted
by a surface,
divided by that
Directional emissivity εΩ 1 emitted by a black
body at the same
temperature as
that surface.
Spectral radiance
emitted by a
εΩ,ν surface, divided by
Spectral directional
or 1 that of a black
emissivity
εΩ,λ body at the same
temperature as
that surface.
Hemispherical A 1 Radiant flux
absorptance absorbed by a
surface, divided by
that received by
that surface. This
should not be
confused with
"absorbance".
Spectral flux
absorbed by a
surface, divided by
Aν that received by
Spectral hemispherical
or 1 that surface. This
absorptance
Aλ should not be
confused with
"spectral
absorbance".
Radiance
absorbed by a
surface, divided by
the radiance
Directional
AΩ 1 incident onto that
absorptance
surface. This
should not be
confused with
"absorbance".
Spectral radiance
absorbed by a
surface, divided by
AΩ,ν the spectral
Spectral directional radiance incident
or 1
absorptance onto that surface.
AΩ,λ
This should not be
confused with
"spectral
absorbance".
Radiant flux
reflected by a
Hemispherical
R 1 surface, divided by
reflectance
that received by
that surface.
Spectral flux
Rν reflected by a
or 1 surface, divided by
reflectance
Rλ that received by
that surface.
Radiance reflected
by a surface,
Directional reflectance RΩ 1 divided by that
received by that
surface.
Spectral radiance
RΩ,ν reflected by a
reflectance
RΩ,λ that received by
that surface.
Radiant flux
transmitted by a
Hemispherical
T 1 surface, divided by
transmittance
that received by
that surface.
Spectral flux
Tν transmitted by a
transmittance
Tλ that received by
that surface.
Directional TΩ 1 Radiance
transmittance transmitted by a
surface, divided by
that received by
that surface.
Spectral radiance
TΩ,ν transmitted by a
transmittance
TΩ,λ that received by
that surface.
Radiant flux
absorbed and
scattered by a
Hemispherical
attenuation coefficient
μ reciprocal metre m−1 L−1 volume per unit
length, divided by
that received by
that volume.
Spectral radiant
flux absorbed and
μν scattered by a
or reciprocal metre m−1 L−1 volume per unit
μλ length, divided by
that received by
that volume.
Radiance
absorbed and
scattered by a
Directional attenuation
coefficient
μΩ reciprocal metre m−1 L−1 volume per unit
length, divided by
that received by
that volume.
Spectral radiance
absorbed and
μΩ,ν scattered by a
or reciprocal metre m−1 L−1 volume per unit
μΩ,λ length, divided by
that received by
that volume.
See also: SI · Radiometry · Photometry
1. Standards organizations recommend that radiometric quantities should be denoted with suffix "e" (for "energetic")
to avoid confusion with photometric or photon quantities.
2. Alternative symbols sometimes seen: W or E for radiant energy, P or F for radiant flux, I for irradiance, W for
radiant exitance.
3. Spectral quantities given per unit frequency are denoted with suffix "ν" (Greek)—not to be confused with suffix "v"
(for "visual") indicating a photometric quantity.
4. Spectral quantities given per unit wavelength are denoted with suffix "λ" (Greek).
5. Directional quantities are denoted with suffix "Ω" (Greek).
See also
Albedo
Stefan–Boltzmann law
Radiant barrier
Reflectivity
Form factor (radiative transfer)
Sakuma–Hattori equation
Wien's displacement law
References
1. The Stefan-Boltzmann law is that the rate of emission of thermal radiation is σT4, where σ=5.67×10−8 W/m2/K4,
and the temperature T is in Kelvins. See Trefil, James S. (2003). The Nature of Science: An A-Z Guide to the
Laws and Principles Governing Our Universe (https://books.google.com/books?id=JVj9SylSuB4C&pg=PA377).
Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 377. ISBN 9780618319381.
2. "The Low-E Window R&D Success Story" (http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/02/f8/BTO_windows_and_envel
ope_report_3.pdf#page=15) (PDF). Windows and Building Envelope Research and Development: Roadmap for
Emerging Technologies. U.S. Department of Energy. February 2014. p. 5.
3. Fricke, Jochen; Borst, Walter L. (2013). Essentials of Energy Technology (https://books.google.com/books?id=zn1
nAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA37). Wiley-VCH. p. 37. ISBN 978-3527334162.
4. Fricke, Jochen; Borst, Walter L. (2013). "9. Solar Space and Hot Water Heating" (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=zn1nAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA249). Essentials of Energy Technology. Wiley-VCH. p. 249. ISBN 978-3527334162.
5. Shao, Gaofeng; et al. (2019). "Improved oxidation resistance of high emissivity coatings on fibrous ceramic for
reusable space systems" (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010938X1830605X). Corrosion
Science. 146: 233–246. doi:10.1016/j.corsci.2018.11.006 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.corsci.2018.11.006).
6. "Climate Sensitivity" (http://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/climatescience/atmosphericwarming/climatsensitivity.htm
l). American Chemical Society. Retrieved 2014-07-21.
7. Siegel, Robert (2001). Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer, Fourth Edition (https://books.google.com/books?id=O389
yQ0-fecC&pg=PA41). CRC Press. p. 41. ISBN 9781560328391.
8. "Thermal insulation — Heat transfer by radiation — Physical quantities and definitions" (http://www.iso.org/iso/ho
me/store/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=16943). ISO 9288:1989. ISO catalogue. 1989. Retrieved
2015-03-15.
9. For a truly black object, the spectrum of its thermal radiation peaks at the wavelength given by Wien's Law:
λmax=b/T, where the temperature T is in kelvins and the constant b ≈ 2.90×10−3 metre-kelvins. Room temperature
is about 293 kelvins. Sunlight itself is thermal radiation originating from the hot surface of the sun. The sun's
surface temperature of about 5800 kelvins corresponds well to the peak wavelength of sunlight, which is at the
green wavelength of about 0.5×10−6 metres. See Saha, Kshudiram (2008). The Earth's Atmosphere: Its Physics
and Dynamics (https://books.google.com/books?id=Jlb5PtwpkI8C&pg=PA84). Springer Science & Business
Media. p. 84. ISBN 9783540784272.
10. Brewster, M. Quinn (1992). Thermal Radiative Transfer and Properties (https://books.google.com/books?id=z_an
VNTmQLUC&pg=PA56). John Wiley & Sons. p. 56. ISBN 9780471539827.
11. 2009 ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals - IP Edition. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and
Air-Conditioning Engineers. 2009. ISBN 978-1-933742-56-4. "IP" refers to inch and pound units; a version of the
handbook with metric units is also available. Emissivity is a simple number, and doesn't depend on the system of
units.
12. The visible color of an anodized aluminum surface does not strongly affect its emissivity. See "Emissivity of
Materials" (http://www.electro-optical.com/eoi_page.asp?h=Emissivity%20of%20Materials). Electro Optical
Industries, Inc. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120919150451/http://www.electro-optical.com/eoi_page.a
sp?h=Emissivity%20of%20Materials) from the original on 2012-09-19.
13. "Table of Total Emissivity" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090711135115/http://www.monarchserver.com/TableofE
missivity.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (http://www.monarchserver.com/TableofEmissivity.pdf) (PDF) on
2009-07-11. Table of emissivities provided by a company; no source for these data is provided.
14. "Influencing factors" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140112002045/http://www.evitherm.org/default.asp?ID=216).
evitherm Society - Virtual Institute for Thermal Metrology. Archived from the original (http://www.evitherm.org/defa
ult.asp?ID=216) on 2014-01-12. Retrieved 2014-07-19.
15. "ASTM C835 - 06(2013)e1: Standard Test Method for Total Hemispherical Emittance of Surfaces up to 1400°C" (h
ttp://www.astm.org/Standards/C835.htm). ASTM International. Retrieved 2014-08-09.
16. Kruger, Abe; Seville, Carl (2012). Green Building: Principles and Practices in Residential Construction (https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=_YM6TOKEEwgC&pg=PA198). Cengage Learning. p. 198. ISBN 9781111135959.
Further reading
"Spectral emissivity and emittance" (http://www.spectralemissivity.com). Southampton, PA: Temperatures.com,

Inc. An open community-focused website & directory with resources related to spectral emissivity and emittance.
On this site, the focus is on available data, references and links to resources related to spectral emissivity as it is
measured & used in thermal radiation thermometry and thermography (thermal imaging).
"Emissivity Coefficients of some common Materials" (http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/emissivity-coefficients-d
_447.html). engineeringtoolbox.com. Resources, Tools and Basic Information for Engineering and Design of
Technical Applications. This site offers an extensive list of other material not covered above.
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5/2/2019 Emissivity - Wikipedia

Emissivities are important in several contexts:

Solar heat collectors – Similarly, solar heat collectors lose heat by

Me is the radiant exitance of that surface;

Spectral hemispherical emissivity

Me,ν is the spectral radiant exitance in frequency of that surface;

Le,Ω is the radiance of that surface;

Spectral directional emissivity

Le,Ω,ν is the spectral radiance in frequency of that surface;

Emissivities of common surfaces

Aluminum, anodized 0.9[12]

Water, pure 0.96

Directional spectral emissivity

Quantity Unit Dimension

watt per square latter is commonly

"Spectral emissivity and emittance" (http://www.spectralemissivity.com). Southampton, PA: Temperatures.com,

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emissivity&oldid=893687161"

This page was last edited on 22 April 2019, at 23:39 (UTC).

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