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Section1 Electromagnetism
Section1 Electromagnetism
2)
is
very
important.
It
means
that
only
the
time-‐average
of
the
optical
field
is
observed
and
determines
the
conditions
under
which
wave-‐like
behaviour
is
seen.
1.1
A
reminder
of
Maxwell
Equations
in
a
Vacuum
or
in
an
Isotropic
Dielectric
and
the
Wave
Equation.
where 𝜀 = 𝜀! 𝜀! & 𝜇 = 𝜇! 𝜇! , and for a vacuum 𝜀! = 𝜇! = 1 and for a dielectric 𝜀! ≠ 1; 𝜇! ≅ 1
We recognise this as the equation for a wave travelling at a velocity, v
where
v = 1 = 𝑐 =
𝑐 𝑛
and
c = 1
𝜀𝜇 𝜀! 𝜇! 𝜀! 𝜇!
1
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P a g e
PHYS20312
Wave
Optics
-‐
Section
1:
Electromagnetism
Properties
of
EM
waves
Neatly summarised by: v𝑩 = 𝒌×𝑬 (1.3) where 𝒌 is the unit propagation vector
The instantaneous flow of energy per unit area per sec (or flux) is given by the Poynting vector, S:
!
𝑺 = 𝑬×𝑩
(1.4)
!
the
unit
vector,
𝑺
,
gives
the
direction
of
energy
flow
i.e.
the
Poynting
vector
is
where
a
beam
of
light
is
pointing
!
Using
eqn.
(1.3)
and
v = 1 :
𝑺 = 𝑆 = 𝐸 𝜂
𝜀𝜇
𝜇 𝜇!
where
the
‘plane-‐wave
impedance’
𝜂 = 𝜀 ;
in
a
vacuum,
this
becomes
𝜂! = 𝜀! = 377Ω
However,
since
𝜈 ~1015
Hz
for
visible
light
we
generally
observe
the
time-‐averaged
flux,
which
is
known
as
the
irradiance
or
intensity,
𝐼 ,
i.e.
!!! ! !!! ! !
1 1
!
𝐸 𝑡′
𝐼= 𝑆 ! = 𝑆 𝑡′ 𝑑𝑡 == 𝑑𝑡′
𝑇 !!! ! 𝑇 !!! ! 𝜂
In your E&M lectures, you saw that one solution to the wave equation is
𝑬 𝒓, 𝑡 = 𝑬𝟎 cos 𝒌. 𝒓 − 𝜔𝑡
𝐸!!
and
in
the
example
sheet
you
will
show
that
for
this
solution
𝐼 = 2𝜂
However, it is often mathematically more convenient to use instead
𝑬 𝒓, 𝑡 = 𝑬𝟎 exp 𝑖 𝒌. 𝒓 − 𝜔𝑡
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P a g e
PHYS20312
Wave
Optics
-‐
Section
1:
Electromagnetism
But
now
𝐸 ! 𝑡 ! = 𝑬𝑬∗ = 𝐸!!
i.e.
we
have
lost
a
factor
of
one
half.
Hence
for
consistency
when
using
the
exponential
form,
we
redefine
intensity
as
𝑬𝑬∗ ! 𝐸!!
𝐼= =
2𝜂 2𝜂
v ! ∇! 𝑬 = 𝑬
We
are
now
going
to
use
the
separation
of
variables
technique
to
obtain
a
time-‐independent
version
of
the
wave
equation:
v ! ∇! 𝑬! 𝐸! = 𝑬! 𝐸𝒕
v ! 𝐸! ∇! 𝑬! = 𝑬! 𝐸𝒕
now
LHS
is
a
function
of
r
only
and
RHS
is
a
function
of
t
only;
this
can
only
be
true
if
both
sides
are
equal
to
a
constant.
Consider
RHS
of
equation
1.5
and
set
it
equal
to
a
constant,
−𝜔 !
(chosen
because
we
are
expecting
an
oscillating
solution):
𝐸𝒕
= −𝜔 !
𝐸𝒕
𝐸! = −𝜔 ! 𝐸𝒕
3
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P a g e
PHYS20312
Wave
Optics
-‐
Section
1:
Electromagnetism
which
has
the
solution
(eqn
1.6):
• from
now
on
we
will
set
𝐸𝒕,𝟎 = 1
i.e.
all
the
amplitude
information
is
carried
with
𝑬!
• 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜈
is
the
frequency
of
oscillation
• 𝐸! = 𝐸!,! 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡
and
𝐸! = 𝐸!,! 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡
(or
a
linear
combination)
are
also
solutions
but
we
will
use
eqn
1.6
because
it
is
mathematically
more
convenient
with
the
real
part
representing
the
physical
quantity.
𝜔!
∇! 𝑬! = − 𝑬
v! !
∇! 𝑬! = −𝑘 𝟐 𝑬! (1.7)
or if the vector direction is constant then a scalar version can be used:
∇! 𝐸! = −𝑘 ! 𝐸! (1.8)
𝜔 𝑛𝜔 2𝜋
𝑘= 𝒌 = = = 𝑛
v 𝑐 𝜆
1 𝜈
𝑘= =
𝜆 𝑐
The full solution to the wave equation is the product of the time-‐ and space-‐varying parts:
𝑬 𝒓, 𝑡 = 𝑬! 𝒓 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ±𝑖𝜔𝑡
However,
for
much
of
this
course
𝐸!
will
not
be
important
and
so
we’ll
just
consider
𝑬!
and
the
Helmholtz
equation,
or
𝐸!
and
equation
1.8.
(And
from
now
on
I’ll
drop
the
subscript
for
the
sake
of
brevity
i.e.
𝑬 = 𝑬!
and
𝐸 = 𝐸! ).
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PHYS20312
Wave
Optics
-‐
Section
1:
Electromagnetism
1.3
Particular
Solutions
of
the
Helmholtz
Equation
.
The
Helmholtz
equation
(1.7)
has
many
different
solutions,
which
depend
on
the
symmetry
and
the
boundary
conditions.
We’ll
now
consider
three
different
particular
solutions
which
we
will
need
later
in
the
course:
Consider the case when the 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 components are independent and thus separable, i.e.:
𝐸 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝐸! 𝑥 𝐸! 𝑦 𝐸! 𝑧
Substituting this into the scalar Helmholtz wave equation (eqn 1.8) and dividing by𝐸 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 :
(N.B
𝑘 ! is
a
constant
and
so
we
are
free
to
say
it
is
the
sum
of
three
others).
This
yields
the
following
solutions:
𝐸! 𝑥 = 𝐸!,! exp 𝑖𝑘! 𝑥 ; 𝐸! 𝑦 = 𝐸!,! exp 𝑖𝑘! 𝑦 ; 𝐸! 𝑧 = 𝐸!,! exp 𝑖𝑘! 𝑧 ;
Hence,
𝐸 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐸! exp 𝑖 𝒌. 𝒓 ± 𝜔𝑡 (1.9)
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PHYS20312
Wave
Optics
-‐
Section
1:
Electromagnetism
1.3.2
Wavefronts.
A
wavefront
is
a
surface
of
constant
phase
and
its
shape
can
be
determined
from
the
wave
equation
at
a
particular
instant
of
time.
For
example,
the
wavefront
corresponding
to
equation
1.9
is
given
by:
𝒌. 𝒓 ± 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
At
a
particular
instant
(i.e.
𝑡
fixed)
this
yields
𝒌. 𝒓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡,
which
is
the
equation
for
a
plane
(hence
the
name
of
this
solution
to
the
wave
equation).
𝒌
is
normal
to
the
wavefront
in
isotropic
media
but,
as
we
will
see
in
the
next
section,
this
is
not
always
the
case
in
anisotropic
media.
The
idea
of
a
‘ray’
used
in
geometric
optics
corresponds
to
the
normal
to
the
wavefront
even
in
anisotropic
media,
and
hence
is
sometimes
called
the
wave
normal.
Wavefront velocity.
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P a g e
PHYS20312
Wave
Optics
-‐
Section
1:
Electromagnetism
1.3.2
Spherical
Waves
Consider
a
point
source
from
which
light
spreads
out
(or
converges
to)
isotropically
so
that
𝐸 𝒓 =
𝐸 𝑟
1 𝜕 ! 𝑟𝐸
∇! 𝐸 = = −𝑘 ! 𝐸
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 !
𝜕 ! 𝑟𝐸
= −𝑘 ! 𝑟𝐸
𝜕𝑟 !
𝑟𝐸 = 𝐴𝑒𝑥𝑝 ±𝑖𝑘𝑟
𝑒𝑥𝑝 ±𝑖𝑘𝑟
𝐸 𝑟 =𝐴
𝑟
(1.10)
N.B.
𝐴
𝐼 𝑟 ∝ 𝐸𝐸 ∗ =
𝑟!
As
for
the
plane
wave,
the
wavefront
velocity
can
be
found
by
considering
how
a
surface
of
constant
phase
travels
and
yields:
𝜔 𝑑𝑟
v! = = ∓
𝑘 𝑑𝑡
Hence,
𝐸!
𝐸 𝑟, 𝑡 = exp 𝑖 𝑘𝑟 − 𝜔𝑡
𝑟
corresponds
to
a
spherical
wavefront
expanding
or
diverging
at
v! ,
and
𝐸!
𝐸 𝑟, 𝑡 = exp 𝑖 𝑘𝑟 + 𝜔𝑡
𝑟
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P a g e
PHYS20312
Wave
Optics
-‐
Section
1:
Electromagnetism
1.4
Optical
Spectra.
If
𝐸𝒕 = 𝐸𝒕,! 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
is
a
solution
of
the
wave
equation
then
so
is
any
linear
combination,
i.e.:
!
𝐸! 𝑡 = 𝐴! 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑖𝜔! 𝑡
!!!
!
𝐸! 𝑡 = 𝐴! 𝜔 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔
!!
(1.11)
!
1
𝐴! 𝜔 = 𝐸! 𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑝 +𝑖𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2𝜋 !!
(1.12)
is the corresponding Fourier transform and is a definition of ‘the spectrum’ of frequencies, 𝜔 .
(For more on Fourier transforms see you Waves & Fields notes or Hecht Section 11.1 and 11.2)
!
𝐸 𝑥 = 𝐴! 𝑘 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑖𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑘
!!
(1.13)
!
1
𝐴! 𝑘 = 𝐸 𝑥 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2𝜋 !!
(1.14)
where 𝐴! 𝑘 is the “spatial spectrum” comprised of “spatial frequencies”, 𝑘 .
Note:
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P a g e
PHYS20312
Wave
Optics
-‐
Section
1:
Electromagnetism
• Eqn
1.13
and
1.14
imply
that
any
spatial
distribution
of
light
can
be
constructed
from
a
superposition
of
plane
waves.
• In
this
example,
we
have
restricted
propagation
to
being
along
the
𝑥 -‐axis
to
ensure
it
yields
the
1D
form
the
Fourier
transform
that
you’ve
seen
before.
In
general,
however,
𝒌
is
a
vector
and
so
the
spatial
spectrum
can
consist
of
plane
waves
with
different
wavelengths
and
orientated
in
different
directions.
Huygen’s Wavelets.
• Every
point
on
a
wavefront
acts
as
a
source
of
secondary
wavelets
(with
the
same
v!
and
𝜐
etc)
• These
wavelets
destructively
interfere
in
all
but
one
direction
to
form
a
new
wavefront
• The
process
repeats
and
thus
the
wave
propagates
N.B.
That
portion
of
a
wavelet
that
crosses
a
distance
in
the
minimum
time
(i.e.
by
a
direct
path)
will
be
in
phase
with
portions
of
the
other
wavelets
that
crossed
the
same
distance
in
the
same
minimum
time.
This
leads
on
to…
Light takes the minimum time to travel between two points
In
other
words,
to
find
the
path
taken
by
a
light
ray
we
need
to
minimise
the
‘optical
path
length’,
𝐿 ,
where
!
𝐿= 𝑛! 𝑙!
!!!
where
𝑛!
is
the
refractive
index
of
the
ith
region
through
which
the
light
passes
and
𝑙!
is
the
length
of
the
light
path
in
that
region.
𝐿
takes
into
account
the
phase
retardation
(i.e.
speed
reduction)
caused
by
higher
values
of
𝑛.
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P a g e
PHYS20312
Wave
Optics
-‐
Section
1:
Electromagnetism
1.5.1.
Example
1
–
Snell’s
Law
Snell’s
law
can
be
derived
from
Fermat’s
principle
i.e.
by
minimising 𝐿:
Figure
1
Snell's
Law
(Image
courtesy
of
A.
Pedlar).
𝑑𝐿
= 0
𝑑𝑥
i.e. when
𝑥 𝑎−𝑥
𝑛!"# = 𝑛!"#$$
𝑥 ! + ℎ! 𝑎−𝑥 ! + 𝑏!
QED
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PHYS20312
Wave
Optics
-‐
Section
1:
Electromagnetism
1.5.2.
Example
2
–
The
Law
of
Reflection.
Deriving
the
law
of
reflection
using
Fermat’s
principle
is
set
as
a
tutorial
question.
Use
the
following
the
diagram
to
help:
Figure
2
The
Law
of
Reflection.
This is also set as a tutorial question and yields the following relationship:
1 1 2
+ =
so si R
where
𝑅
is
the
radius
of
curvature
for
the
mirror,
and
𝑠!
and
𝑠!
are
the
distances
from
the
mirror
to
an
object
and
to
its
reflected
image,
respectively.
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P a g e
PHYS20312
Wave
Optics
-‐
Section
1:
Electromagnetism
1.5.3
Refraction
at
a
Spherical
Surface.
One
or
both
of
the
surfaces
of
a
lens
are
spherical
and
so
understanding
refraction
at
such
as
surface
is
key
to
understanding
how
light
propagates
through
lenses.
We
will
use
Fermat’s
principle
to
find
out
how
light
is
refracted
at
a
single
spherical
surface
and
then
combine
the
effects
of
two
surfaces
to
derive
the
lens
equation.
Figure
3
Refraction
at
a
spherical
surface.
𝐿 = 𝑛! 𝑙! + 𝑛! 𝑙!
where
𝑛! is
the
refractive
index
for
the
object
ray
(in
the
medium
before
the
surface
i.e.
to
the
left
in
Fig
3)
and
𝑛!
is
the
refractive
index
for
the
image
ray
(in
the
medium
after
the
surface
i.e.
to
the
right
in
Fig
3).
𝑙!! = 𝑠! + 𝑅 !
+ 𝑅 ! − 2𝑅 𝑠! + 𝑅 cos 𝜃
𝑙!! = 𝑠! − 𝑅 !
+ 𝑅 ! − 2𝑅 𝑠! − 𝑅 cos 180° − 𝜃
𝑙!! = 𝑠! − 𝑅 !
+ 𝑅 ! + 2𝑅 𝑠! − 𝑅 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝐿 𝑛! 𝑅 𝑠! + 𝑅 sin 𝜃 𝑛! 𝑅 𝑠! − 𝑅 sin 𝜃
= −
𝑑𝜃 𝑙! 𝑙!
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PHYS20312
Wave
Optics
-‐
Section
1:
Electromagnetism
-‐when
𝑑𝐿
= 0
𝑑𝜃
𝑛! 𝑠! + 𝑅 𝑛! 𝑠! − 𝑅
=
𝑙! 𝑙!
𝑅 𝑅
𝑛! 1 + = 𝑛! 1 +
𝑠! 𝑠!
[This
is
known
as
the
“paraxial
approximation”
or
sometimes
the
“First
order
approximation”
or
“Gaussian
optics”].
Re-‐arranging:
𝑛! 𝑛! 𝑛! − 𝑛!
+ =
𝑠! 𝑠! 𝑅
(1.15).
Note the eqn. (1.15) has no dependence on 𝜃 and so all rays from S will converge at P.
Since
the
surface
is
spherically
curved
then
there
is
nothing
special
about
the
line
SP;
we
can
draw
other
lines
through
the
centre
of
the
lens
and
the
same
analysis
would
be
valid.
We
can
thus
generalise
this
result
to
say
that,
for
small
angles,
all
the
rays
from
any
object
point
will
converge
on
a
corresponding
image
point.
In
other
words,
there
is
a
unique
‘mapping’
of
points
from
object
to
image
i.e.
the
optical
field
in
the
object
plane
is
reproduced
in
the
image
plane
(although
it
may
have
been
shrunk
or
expanded).
This
is
what
we
mean
when
we
say
an
image
has
been
formed.
Now
let’s
consider
two
spherical
surfaces
combined
together
to
form
a
lens.
The
image
formed
by
the
first
will
act
as
the
object
for
the
second:
Figure
4
Propagation
through
a
lens.
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P a g e
PHYS20312
Wave
Optics
-‐
Section
1:
Electromagnetism
Writing
down
eqn.
(1.15)
for
each
surface.
The
object
distance
for
the
second
surface,
𝑠!,! ,
is
related
to
the
image
distance
for
the
first
surface,
𝑠!,! ,
by
𝑠!,! = − 𝑠!,! − 𝑑
and is negative because it is to the right of the lens.
1 1 𝑛! − 𝑛! 1 1 𝑛! 𝑑
+ = − +
𝑠!,! 𝑠!,! 𝑛! 𝑅! 𝑅! 𝑛! 𝑠!,! 𝑠!,! − 𝑑
For a ‘thin lens’, 𝑑 is negligible and we obtain “The Lensmaker’s Formula”:
1 1 𝑛! − 𝑛! 1 1
+ = −
𝑢 𝑣 𝑛! 𝑅! 𝑅!
(1.16)
where 𝑢 = 𝑠!,! is the object distance and 𝑣 =𝑠!,! is the image distance.
The
RHS
of
the
Lensmaker’s
equations
is
determined
solely
by
the
properties
of
the
lens
and
the
refractive
index
of
the
surrounding
medium,
and
characterises
how
it
refracts
light.
Replacing
the
RHS
with
a
single
parameter,
we
get
the
“The
Lens
Equation”:
1 1 1
+ =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑓
(1.17)
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