 Introduction – CC3  Growth/overall regulation -- growth factors, tropic

hormones -- regulate production of other hormones.

Endocrine system
- Group of ductless glands that secrete hormones necessary for
normal growth and development, reproduction, and
homeostasis
- In humans, the major endocrine glands are the hypothalamus,
pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, islet of
Langerhanns in the pancreas, ovaries and testes
(Note: not all GF's are endocrines.)
 Hormones may have more than one function. For
example, cortisol is constantly made to maintain
homeostasis, but it is secreted in larger amounts in
response to stress.
Classification of Hormones According to Composition and Structure

Endocrine Action 1) Peptides and Proteins

- A network of ductless glands of internal secretions
- Considered to be the regulatory system of the body
- Reregulated by means of control of hormone synthesis rather
than by degradation.
- Hormones serve as chemical messenger in the body to
produce biochemical changes
- Refers to the collection of hormones
Hormones
- Each hormone is produced by a specific endocrine gland
- Chemical signals produced by specialized cells secreted into
the blood stream and carried to a target site of action as free
hormone or bound to transport protein
- They play an important role in the growth and development of
an organism
- They are regulated by the metabolic activity either positive or
negative feedback mechanism
 Positive feedback mechanism – a decrease in the product
, causing an increase in the activity of the system and the
production rate
- Synthesized and stored within the cell in the form of secretory
granules and are cleaved as needed
- They cannot across the cell membrane and thus, produce their
effects in the outer surface of the cell
- Water soluble and bound to carrier protein
- Examples
 Glycoprotein – FSH, hCG, TSH, Erythropoetin
 Polypeptides – ADH, GH, Angiotensin, Calcitonin,
Cholecystokinin, Gastrin, Glucagon, Insulin, MSH, Oxytocin,
PTH, Prolactin, Somatostatin
2) Steroids
- Are lipid molecules that have cholesterol as a common
precursor
- They are produced by adrenal glands, ovaries, testes and
placenta
- They are water insoluble and circulate, but not bound to a
protein carrier
- Aldosterone, Cortisol, Estradiol, Estrone, Progesterone,
Testosterone, Androgens

 Negative feedback mechanism – an increase in the 3) Amines

product, causing decrease in the activity of the system and - Derived from amino acid and they are intermediary between
the production rate steroid and protein hormones
- Major funcion: to maintain the constancy of chemical - Epinephrine, Norepinephrine, T3, T4, Serotonin
composition of ECF and ICF
- Chemical compounds secreted into the blood that affects Tissue of Origin
tissues generally at a site distant from original production Hypothalamus TRH, GnRH, CRF
Anterior Pituitary TSH,ACTH, FSH, LH, prolactin, GH
3 characteristics of hormone Posterior Pituitary Vasopressin, oxytocin
1. Each hormone is produced by specific tissue Adrenal Medulla Epinephrine,norephinephrine
2. Hormones are released directly from the tissue into the Adrenal Cortex Cortisol, aldosterone
bloodstream and carried to the site of action Parathyroid Parathyroid hormone
3. Each hormone acts at a specific site or sites(target cells)to Thyroid T3,T4, calcitonin
induce certain characteristic biochemical changes Pancreas Insulin, glucagon
Ovaries Estrogen
How to describe or classify hormones
Testes Testosterone, other androgen
a) Many Possible Classification Schemes -- Hormones can be
classified by effect, chemical nature, source
Hormone secretion can be stimulated and inhibited by:
b) Look for: the major hormone-producing glands, details
- Other hormones (stimulating- or releasing-hormones)
for specific hormones
- Plasma concentrations of ions or nutrients, as well as binding
globulins
Summary of typical hormone roles and examples
- Neurons and mental activity
 Stress response -- cortisol, epinephrine. Regulate heart
- Environmental changes, e.g., of light or temperature
rate, blood pressure, inflammation, etc.
 Maintenance of Homeostasis -- insulin, glucagon, cortisol.
Hormonal Interaction
Regulate blood glucose/energy supplies and
concentrations of substances in general. Maintain more or
1) Synergistic
less constant conditions = homeostasis.
- 2 or more hormones are additive/complementary in effect
 Regulation of episodic or cyclic events -- estrogen, insulin,
- The effect of one hormone is the same as the action of the
oxytocin -- regulate lactation, pregnancy, effects of eating,
other
etc.
- Example: Thyroid Hormone + Growth Hormone
2) Antagonistic 2) Morphogenesis
- Hormone offsets another hormone - Some hormones play an important part in controlling the
- The effect of one hormone is against the action of another growth and development of an organism
- Example: The regulation of plasma glucose involves insulin
[for increased blood glucose] and glucagon [for decreased 3) Integrative Action
blood glucose] hormones - Each hormone has specific function, however, hormones
by several endocrine glands may be important for
3) Permissive regulating a single function
- Hormone will enhance the responsiveness of a target to
another hormone Hormone Concentrations
- Example: Increased thyroid hormone levels, tissues
become more responsive to catecholamine a) Threshold- hormone will not have any physiological effect until
hormone threshold is reached
4) Potentiation reaction b) Concentration effect- differential physiology depending on
- The presence of one hormone increase the action of concentration
another Example:
 Testosterone- surge of testosterone after puberty
5) Stimulatory reaction  Growth of auxiliary/pubic/facial hair, and muscle mass
- The presence of one hormone stimulates the secretion of  However, Injection of large amount of testosterone can
another lead to even more effects such as acne and growth of
breast tissue.
6) Inhibitory reaction c) Half-life- the time it takes for the concentration of a hormone
- The presence of one hormone inhibits the secretion of to reduce 50%
another  Liver filters the concentration of hormones via blood.
Kidney can excrete a certain amount of hormones.
Types of Hormone Actions  Endocrine has the longest half-life because it has to enter
the blood stream and travel to the target.
1. Endocrine  Autocrine has the shortest half-life because it is secreted
- Secreted in one location and release into blood circulation; into its cell of origin being targeted
binds to specific receptor to elicit physiological response d) Receptor Saturation- hormone receptor are not a set number.
Can down regulate if bombarded with hormones
2. Paracrine
- Secreted in endocrine cells and release into interstitial Factors affecting Hormonal Secretion
space; binds into specific receptor in adjacent cell and
effects its function 1. Stimulatory and Inhibitory Agent. These include Hypothalamic
peptides or neurotransmitters. These may influence hormone
3. Autocrine synthesis or release.
- Secreted in endocrine cells and sometimes release into 2. Many hormones such as GnRH, are released pulsatile fashion.
interstitial space; binds into specific receptor on cell of 3. Some hormones exhibit a circadian rhythm. ACTH,
origin resulting to self-regulation of its function consequently cortisol, TSH, GH, and even parathyroid
hormones have peak secretion at different time during the day
4. Juxtacrine or night.
- Secreted in endocrine cells and remains in relation to 4. Stress can increase hormone synthesis and release. Examples
plasma membrane; acts on immediate adjacent cell by are ACTH, GH, and Prolactin.
direct cell-to-cell contact 5. Hormone synthesized by target organ/ cells may feedback to
the main endocrine glands.
5. Exocrine 6. Change in metabolic products as a result of hormone action
- Secreted in endocrine cells and released into lumen of gut; may likewise exert feedback control.
it effects their function 7. Other hormones or drug may modulate normal endocrine
responses.
6. Neurocrine
- Secreted in neurons and released into extracellular space; Control of Hormone Secretion
binds to receptor in nearby cell and effects its function - The majority of endocrine functions are regulated through
the pituitary glands, which in turn is controlled by:
7. Neuroendocrine
- Secreted in neurons and released from nerve endings; 1. secretion from the hypothalamus. The posterior part of
interacts with receptor of cells at distant site pituitary secretes some hormones that have different effect on
end organs (VASOPRESSIN AND OXYTOCIN)
ACTIONS OF HORMONES IN GENERAL 2. From its anterior part, it secretes a group of stimulating
hormones that circulate to other endocrine gland and cause
1) Regulatory Function those glands to secrete hormones that then directly affect end
- To maintain constancy of chemical composition of organs.
extracellular and intracellular fluids 3. A tight feedback control is usually present among all these
secretions.
Hormonal Binding to Cell membrane Receptor

1) Peptide or protein , and catecholamine cannot pass the lipid

membrane of the cell because of either large molecular size or
polarity or molecular charge that make them insoluble in lipid.
2) Whenever a hormone in the circulation will be effective at a
particular tissue site depends on the presence of receptor
molecules specific for that hormone on cell surface.
3) The receptor molecule for a given hormone will recognize no
other hormones.

Steps:
1. As the hormones bids to the correct receptor in the cell
membrane, the cell is stimulated thru a series of activation
steps resulting in the synthesis of the second messenger (that
transmits the stimulation of the signal intracellular).
 Example of these second messengers: Cyclic adenosine
3’5’ monophosphate ( cyclic AM – c AMP), inositol
phosphate, and calcium ion.

2. Some hormone receptors extend from the extracellular side

thru the cell membrane to interact with guanine nucleotide
binding protein (G-Protein) on the cytoplasmic side of the
membrane.
 Binding of hormone to receptor promotes an association,
with the G-protein, which then give up a molecule of
guanine diphosphate (GDP) and pick up another molecule
of guanine triphosphate (GTP).

3. This complex interacts with adenylate cyclase in the cytoplasm

to convert adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to cAMP.
 This second messenger cAMP diffuses thru out the
cytoplasm, where it is activated by an enzyme called c
AMP –dependent protein kinases in order to be able to
phosphorylate other proteins that control cell processes.
 The intercellular concentration of cAMP is regulated by the
enzymes phosphodiesterase which converts into AMP.

4. The pituitary hormones, ACTH, FSH, LH,and TSH, as well as

human chorionic gonadotrophin, parathyroid, catecholamine,
glucagon generated by cAMP by this mechanism.

5. An analogous series of reaction occurs for some other hormone

(releasing factors, ADH) in which binding to the receptor and
interaction with a G-protein result in activation of the enzyme
phospholipase C, which generates inositol phosphate.
 This molecule causes the release of intercellular calcium
ions, which activate protein kinase .
 Through this type of reaction and also by binding to
calmodulin, calcium ion acts has a second messenger.
 Still another mechanism for hormone action involves
binding to a receptor that stimulate tyrosine kinase
activity directly without a second messenger.
 Insulin and some growth factors act thru this mechanism.

6. A complete mechanism of hormone action is employed by

steroid and thyroid hormone that are able to move across the
cell membrane.
 Steroid hormone binds to receptor molecules in cytoplasm
and are transported to the cell nucleus, where the active
complex of hormone and recptor stimulate mRNA
transcription of specific genes.
 Thyroid hormone similarly stimulates transcription by
interacting with receptors in chromatin nucleus.
PandaMT13