EDSENG3: Structure of English Ms. Oharrah Mae Bernardez Officer-in-Charge, College of Education

Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Basic Sentence Pattern 3
 The Ten Sentence Pattern 5
Chapter 2: Nouns and Article 10
 Functions of Nouns 10
 Noun Types 11
 Article 11
Chapter 3: Pronouns and Prepositions 17
 Kinds of Pronouns 17
 Preposition 22
 Meaning of Preposition 23
 Selected Meanings and Uses of Common Prepositions 25
 Variation in Use of Preposition 26
Chapter 4: Verbs and Voice 34
 Meanings and Common Uses of Verbs 36

 Voice 40
 Advantages of the active voice 40
 Uses of Passive Voice 40
Chapter 5: Subject-Verb Agreement 44
Concord rules which often cause errors 44
Chapter 6: Phrasal Verbs and Adjectives 48
Meaning of Phrasal Verb 50
 Separable Phrasal Verbs with their Objects 52

 Inseparable phrasal verbs with their objects 53
 Adjective 54
 Types of Adjective 54
EDSENG3: Structure of English

Ms. Oharrah Mae Bernardez
Officer-in-Charge, College of Education Page 1
Chapter 7: Coordination and Subordination 65
 Forms of Coordinating Conjunctions 66

 Use of Coordinating Conjunction 67
 Subordination 67
Chapter 8: Negation and Yes/No Questions 76
 Placement of not 80
 Yes/No Question 84
 How to form yes-no questions 86
 Negative Yes/No Question 88
 Focused Yes/No Questions 89
Chapter 9: WH-Questions and Adverbs 94
 Forming Wh-Questions 95
 Social Uses of WH-Question 96
 Wh- Question Formation 97
 Adverbs 101
 Types of Adverb 102
Chapter 10: Prefix and Suffix 111
 Prefixes 111
 A Short List of Prefixes 111
 Suffixes 111
 A Short List of Suffixes 112

Chapter 1: Basic Sentence Pattern
The patterns are most easily classified according to the type of verb used:
Verb of being patterns(1,2,3,) use a form of the verb to be as the main verb in
the sentence.
Is are was were has been had been
Linking verb patterns (4,5) use one of the linking verbs as the main verb
in the sentence. The linking verb is followed by a noun or adjective
functioning as a subjective complement.
Smell taste look feel seem become appear grow
Action verb patterns (6,7,8,9,10,) use one of the many action verbs as the
main verb in the sentence.
See jump embrace write imagine buy plummet think etc.
Terms used to identify various parts of each sentence pattern include the
following:
 NP= noun phrase
Thv-is abbreviation refers to a headword noun and its modifiers functioning as a

subject, direct object, indirect object, subjective complement, or objective
complement.
 NP1, NP2, NP3, etc. = designations for different noun phrase functions
Numbers in sequential order are used with each NP to designate its

difference from or similarity to other NP‘s before and it.

 V- be = verb of being
 LV= linking verb
 V- int= intransitive verb
 V- tr= transitive verb
 ADV/TP= adverb of time or place
 ADJ= adjective
THE TEN SENTENCE PATTERNS
1. NP1 + V-be + ADV/TP
The verb is being followed by an adverb indicating where or when.
E.g.My friends are here.
NP1 V-be ADV/TP
The adverb indicating where or when may be a prepositional phrase.
E.g. My friends are at the library
NP1 V-be ADV/TP
2. NP1 + V-be + ADJ
The verb is being followed by an adjective that functions as the subjective

complement
E.g. His clear tenor voice was quite lovely.
NP1 v-be ADJ
3. NP1 + V-be + NP1
The verb is being followed by a noun that functions as the subjective

complement.

E.g.Mr. James has been a teacher for forty years.
NP1 V- be NP1
NOTE: thesecond NP receives the same numerical designation as the first NP

because the second NP, the subject complement, is the same as the subject
(Mr. James= Teacher)
4. NP1 + LV + ADJ
The linking verb is followed by an adjective functioning as a subjective

complement.
E.g.The cake on the table looks delicious.
NP1 LV ADJ Subject complement
The Adjectival functioning as the subjective complement may be a prepositional

phrase.
E.g.Marian looks like her mother
NP1 LV ADJ subject complement
5. NP1 + LV + NP1
The linking verb is followed by a noun functioning as a subjective complement.
E.g. At a very early age, Joan became a Buddhist
NP1 LV NP1 Subject Complement
NOTE: the second NP receives the same numerical designation as the first NP
because the second NP, the subject complement, is the same as the subject
(Joan= Buddhist)
6. NP1 + V-int

The action verb takes no different object.
E.g.In a few weeks my cousin will arrive
7. NP1 + V-tr + NP2
The action verb is followed by a direct object.
E.g. The archer shot an arrow into the target.
NP1 V-tr NP2 Direct object
NOTE: the second NP, the direct object, receives a different numerical
designation (NP2) because it is not the same as the subject (NP1)
8. NP1 + V-tr + NP2 + NP3
The action verb is followed by an indirect object and then a direct object
E.g. Smithers gave the employees a raise
NP1 V-tr NP2 Indirect object NP3

direct object
NOTE: the indirect object and the direct object each receive a new numerical
designation because each is different from the other and both are different
from the subject.
9. NP1 + V-tr + NP2 + ADJ
The action verb is followed by adirect object. The direct object is followed by
an adjective functioning as an objective complement.
E.g. The jury found the defendant guilty.
NP1 NP2 ADJ Objective

Complement

designation NP2 because it is not the same as the subject
10. NP1 + V-tr + NP2 + NP2
The action verb is followed by a direct object. The direct object is followed by a
noun functioning as an objective complement.
E.g. Most people consider Jacobsen a loyal friend
NP1 NP2 direct object NP2
Objective complement
designation because it is not the same as the subject. The third NP
receives the same numerical designation as the direct object because it is
the same as the direct object.

Chapter 2: Nouns
Nouns can be recognized by means of the following characteristics.
1. They are names of entitled person, place, thing, or idea
2. They have an inflection, the plural (es) and the possessive (sometimes called
the offensive) such inflections have nouns abstracts.
3. They may be marked by noun-forming derivational suffixes added to bases or

stems, usually belong to other parts of speech, e.g.
 added to verbs
{- age} breakage
{- ee} employee
 added to adjectives
{- ity} facility
{- ness} happiness
 added to other nouns
{-cy} advocacy
{-ian} librarian
{-ship} friendship
4. They fill certain characteristic positions in relation to other parts of speech in

phrases in sentences.
 just before a verb
Red roses bloom in my garden.

 after determiners such as articles, demonstratives, and possessive
adjectives, e.g. the examination these reviewees, my handsouts
5. Unlike other languages, gender is not an important feature of English

grammar. Gender is only marked in certain pairs of nouns, e.g. waiters/waitress,
host/hostess.
6. Certain superfixes occasionally identify nouns from other parts of speech as in:
re‘co‘rd and re‘co`rd. These two words are morphemically alike: however, we
identify the stress patern/ /as a noun.
7. Nouns can serve as heads in a noun phrase. As heads they may be preceded
by one or more single-word modifier or both thesmallstudy table in my roomwhich
my father bought.
Functions of Nouns
Subject of verbs Several items have ambiguous sterns.
Direct objects of verbs They administered the test.
Indirect objects of verbs The lecturer provided the participants handouts.
Subject noun predicates We are LET reviewers.
Predicate noun
Object noun predicates Thereviewees chose him their representative.
Object complements
Objects of prepositionsin our review class
Appositives The LET, a professional examination, is
Conducted every year.

Vocatives/nouns of address Anne, how did you find the exam?
Noun Types
1. Common: nouns referring to a kind of person, thing, or idea
 Count nouns, which take the plural inflection

 Mass/noncount nouns, which don‘t take the plural inflection
2. Proper nouns: names for unique individual or
3. Collective nouns able to take either singular or plural verbs forms, depending
on
Given to the noun, i.e. whether it is seen as a unit or as a collection of individuals
The team has won all its games.
The team have won awards in their respective events.
ARTICLES:
Articles are a subclass of determiners, which are noun-marking words. They

usually come before the nouns they modify.
a/an (indefinite articles) the (definite article) no/zero article
Only before singular. (sg) Before Identifies certain

Countable nouns (CNs) uncountable/mass nouns indefinite meanings of
(UNs) nouns
and countable plural (pl)
nouns
1 Before an unindentified (sg) Reference backward to a To refers to all
CN, one example of its N already members of a class.
class a chair [furniture] mentioned Dogs are domestic
A dog. . . and here is the animals.

dog now.
2 Before an unindentified (sg) Reference forward to an To distinguish one class

CN that is representative of identification soon to be form another
its class made, often by modifiers .Mer , not women are
A dog [a domestic animal] following a noun. protectors
The history of his town
4 Before a predicate N after a Before superlative and With plural nouns after
be verb if no determiner is before ordinal numbers be.
used ,except ordinal numbers His brothers are
… is a good neighbor used alone (first in her engineers.
batch)
The best cake I have
ever seen
The first person to fly in
space
5 Before few and little to Identification of a class, With institutions and
mean some but not many especially in a practices felt to be
generalization, followed unique.
by a noun, or an Offices open at 7
adjective. o‘clock
The youth is the hope of Dinner is usually late
the future. The physical
challenged.
6 When using proper noun to Beginning of a phrase With the set phrases,
indicate the characteristics containing an appositive usually parts
of the person named.
She is a sister of Teresa. ( a Interpret this item, the Heaven and hell
noun saintly person) one with an illustration.

7 To name a certain person With prepositional
whose name is phrases
A Mr. Alba came to see you. At rest, in danger, on

time
8 With nouns used in
headlines in
newspapers, captions in
book, signs, labels and
the like.
9 For a family name in the With common nouns
plural used as terms of
The Bases have arrived. address and therefore
capitalized.
We are ready to go,
Mother.
10 To distinguish people
who have the same
name
The Jessica Reyes who
joined the beauty
pageant is not the
Jessica Reyes who is
my cousin.
11 When the article is part
of the geographical
name
The Philippines
The United States
The Red Sea

12 When the article is
accepted as part of any
kind of proper name
The Philippine Star
The Princess of Negros
The Hilton
The University of St.
Tomas
The United Nations

Chapter 3: PRONOUNS
Most of pronouns stand for, refer to, or replaces a noun phrase within a text;
hence, they occupy the same position as a noun, or noun phrase does. The word
or words that pronoun stands for are its antecedent or reference.
My brother holds dual citizenship. He is not only a Filipino but also a

Canadian.
I and me stand for the speaker or writer.
I am a Filipino, but I am living in Australia now.
Pronouns can also be a direct reference to an outside situation (e.g.) ―What is

that?‖ in response to a sound or noise).
Kinds of Pronouns
There are many different kinds of pronouns: subject; object, possessive,

reflexive, demonstrative and others. The forms within each category are
distinguish by number (singular/plural), person ( first/second/third) gender
(masculine/feminine/neuter), and in the case of demonstratives, by number and
proximity.
Personal and Related Pronouns
Person/ Personal Possessive

Number
Singular Subject Object Noun Determiner Reflexive/
form form Replacemen /Adjective Intensive
t
+I I Me mine My Myself
+ II You You Yours Your Yourself
+ III
Masculine He Him His His Himself
Feminine She Her Hers Her Herself
Neuter It It Its Itself
Plural
+I We Us Ours Our Ourselves
+ II You You Yours Your Yourselves
+ III They Them Theirs Their Themselves
Things to Remember:
1. Animals closely related to people can be referred to by he, him, and his or she,
her and hers.
The dog loves his/her its master.
2. Use it and its to refer to inanimate objects except ships, which are always
referred as she.
3. Countries and schools are sometimes referred matter are sometimes referred
to by she or her.
4. Traditionally, the pronouns he, him, and his have been used for mixed groups
or groups in which the sex is unknown. Many people now object to this use, so
they use both the masculine and feminine forms or the plural forms to avoid the
problem.

Everybody submitted his or her assignment. (awkward)
All the students submitted their assignments. (acceptable)
5. If I, me, my or mine or their plural counterparts are part of a pair or a series,

put them last.
The Teacher confiscated his toy and mine, too.
Father helped Tony with his project, and he will help my sister and me
with ours tomorrow.
Reflexive Pronouns
1. Use the reflexive pronoun as the object of the verb form or preposition to refer
to the subject of the sentence.
The baby is able to feed itself.
Luis cut himself with a razor blade.
2. The phrase by + self or its emphatic form all by +self means alone or without
any help.
I crossed the river (all) by myself.
Intensive Pronouns
The intensive form occurs directly after the word it modifies or at the end of the
clause.
The mayor herself distributed the relief goods for herself.
The mayor distributed the relief goods herself.
Reciprocal Pronouns

1. The reciprocal pronoun forms are each other and one another. They means that
each part of the subject did the action and also received the action.
2. They must be objects of verbs forms or objects of prepositions.
3. Some prefer to use each other for two people or things and one another for more
than two.
The two finalists congratulated each other for making it to the top1.
The class members prepared surprise gifts for one another during the
Christmass party.
Demonstrative Pronouns
1. Demonstrative pronouns occur alone. They do not precede nouns.
This is my favorite movie.
2. Demonstrative pronouns can show distance or contrast not connected with

distance.
This is mine; that is yours over there. (distance).
Which ones do you prefer, these or those? (contrast)
Indefinite Pronouns
Personal None another

anyone everyone no one someone other ones
anybody everybody nobody somebody others
Non anything everything nothing something another
personal every one none other ones
others
Use singular verbs with compound pronouns and use singular pronouns to refer
to them in formal writing.
Formal: Nobody brought his book today.

Informal: Nobody brought their books today.
Question Interrogative pronouns
Who, whom, which and what can begin questions.
1. Use who, whom, whose and which to refer to persons.

2. Use what and which to refer to things and events.
3. In formal writing, use who for the subject of a clause and whom for the object of
the verb of preposition.
Relative pronouns
1. Relative pronouns (sometimes called clause markers) introduce dependent

clauses (also called relative clauses.
2. Relative pronouns used in adjective clauses are who, whose, which, and that.
3. Who, whom and whose are used for person while which is use for non-persons.
The guest who came to dinner is the governor.
The book which I bought is the best seller.
That is a natural form. It can be marked + human or – human. In other words, It

Father helped Tony with his project, and he will help my sister and me with ours
tomorrow.
4. can be a substitute for both who (-human) or which (-human)

The guest who/that came to dinner is the governor.
The book which/that I bought is a best seller.
5. In informal writing, whom is optional; in formal writing whom must be used.
Nora is the girl you saw in the party last night. (informal)
Nora is the girl whom you saw in the party last night. (formal)
6. That, which and whom are the only relative pronouns that can be left out.
The instrumental music (that) I like to hear often is that of Zamfin.

The house pests (which) I hate to see are the rodents and the cockroach.
7. Who, whom, and whose can be used in both essential and nonessential clauses.
8. That instead of which is used only in essential or restrictive clauses, so do not put
commas around clauses beginning with that.
The poster that won first prize, pleased both the judges and the viewers.
9. Use which in nonessential or nonrestrictive clauses. Separate nonessential

clauses from the rest of the sentence by commas.
Our car, which has been running for three days, should be brought to the
machine shop for check-up.
10. Relative pronouns used in noun clauses are that, what, whatever, whoever,
whomever, and whichever.
Whatever you offer will be appreciated. (noun clauses as subject)
He will be friend whoever he gets acquainted with (noun clause as direct

object.
11. Look at the antecedent of who that or which when used as subject to decide
whether the following should be singular or plural.
The painting which is exhibited is the painter‘s masterpiece.
The farmers who own orchards earn much from their harvest.
Prepositions
Prepositions are notoriously difficult for ESL learners for several reasons.

1. Several English prepositions are realized as a single form in the learner‘s first
language.
Pumunta kami sapalengke. (We went to the market).
Lumangoy kami sailog. (We swam in the river).
Sakalyeanggulo. (The commotion occurred on the street.)
Antayinmoakosakanto. ( Meet me at the street corner.)
2. The English preposition is not necessarily realized by a single word. There are
complex forms like because of and in spite of or coalesced forms like into and onto.
3. Certain prepositions co-occur with verbs, adjectives, and nouns to form clusters.
to substitute for to be afraid of
infavor of awareness of
4. English prepositions are polysemous. They bear varied meanings.
Throw the atthe wall. (space)
It rains at night. (time)
Water freezes at 0 C. (degree)
She‘s good at dancing. (idiomatic)
Meaning of Prepositions
1. Many prepositions prototypically deal with locating objects in space involving

two or more entitles.
One entity is for foregrounding while the other serves as background. The former
is the figure and the latter is the landmark. In
Throw the ball at the wall.
Figure landmark

2. Note the following figure.
From Off out of
 At, on, and in are the basic and most general place prepositions. At denotes
place as a point of reference, on denotes physical contact between the figure
and landmark, and in denotes the enclosure of the trajector in the landmark.
They met at the main gate.
Put the box in the box.
 From, off and out of are source prepositions involving the notion of
separation from place.
From denotes separation from a point of orientation, off denotes separation
from contact with line or surface, and out of separation from inside a
landmark.
We walked from the gate to the waiting shed.
The box fell off the table.
Take the ball out of the box.
1. By and with are proximity prepositions, which locate the figure in relation to a
point of orientation marked by the preposition at. By denotes the idea of
connection while with denotes both a point of orientation and the idea of
connection. In its spatial sense, with can occur only with animals nouns as
landmark.
He stood by me in all throughout the campaign.
He rides with me to our place of work.
2. Through and about requires the landmark to the seen as a surface or a
volume and are there positioned in the diagram above next to in. Through

structures space as a tunnel or channel. About denotes spatial movement in
any-direction.
Move the other side of the mountain through the tunnel.
He walked briskly about the yard for his morning exercise.
3. Under and over are vertical space preposition. Under denotes a figure at a
lower point than the landmark. Over denotes a figure that is at a higher point
than the landmark.
Don‘t keep your shoes under the table.
We watched the game over the fence.
Selected Meanings and Uses of Common Prepositions
1. at We left at 2:00 pm. (exact)
2. about We left about 2:00 pm. (approximate)
3. against to lean against the wall (contact);
4. around 2:00 (approximate)
5. by bed by the window (nearness)
By 2:00 (no later than)
6. from paper is made from wood (source)
7. of a quarter of ten (before)
8. on the wall (contact)
on Sunday, on November 8th (day, date)
on radio, TV (communication)
a round table discussion on language policy (concerning)

9. over the weekend (spanning time)
over the radio, TV (communication)
10. through the forest (penetrate)
Through thick and thin (endurance)
11. to work from 8 to 5 (until)
A quarter to 11:00 (before)
He is honest to such extent, (degree)
12. under in under an hour (less than)
Under the tree (condition)
13. with He grew smarter with the years (together)
rank with the best (equal standing or ability)
delivered his speech with ease (manner)
Variations in Use of Prepositions
1. spatial proximity a house near/by the lake
2. time/degree approximation cost about/around Php1,500.00
3. telling time a quarter of/to ten
a quarter after/past ten
4. location along something linear the houses on/along the river
5. in a time period it occurred in/during 1901
6. temporal termination studied from 8 until/till/to 5

7. location lower than something below/beneath/under/underneath the bed
8. location higher than something above/over the piano
9. location in/at the rear of something behind/in back of the cabinet
10. location adjacent next to/beside the cave
Object of a Preposition:
Accusative, dative, genitive (depending on the preposition)
1. A noun (or pronoun) connected into a sentence via a preposition is called the
object of a preposition. These nouns can never be a subject, direct object,
predicate noun. These nouns follow their preposition and always take a case
other than nominative. Prepositions in the following sentences are marked bold
face.
 She rode her bike with him.

 The monks plant lilies along the river every year.
 The cat is lying on the bed. Don‘t spend so much time gruelling over the
answer.
 I need to go to the store now. She is thinking about her new boyfriend.
2. Unfortunately, the term Object of a Preposition is very generic and gives very
little information concerning the true function of the noun. When analyzing the
function of a noun, it is more accurate to include the specific function that the
object of that preposition indicates:
 temporal (time) The merchandise will arrive in a week. (on Thursday,

within a month)
 locative (location) She wants to repair the tile over the bathtub. (under the
counter, in her kitchen)

 comitative (accompaniment) The children visited the zoo with their father.
(along with a friend)
 destinative (destination) The Martians sent their messages to Earth.
(toward Andromeda) instrumental (tool) We sent a signal with a mirror.
(by means of telepathy)
 causative (reason) They became frightened because of the lightning. (due
to the wind)
 figurative (abstract) He‘s waiting for his wife. She‘s thinking about her
husband.
3. The case of the object of a preposition is dependent on the preposition. The

student of German must simply memorize which case each preposition governs.
There is no logic or predictable pattern to this. For example, the preposition ‗mit‘
(with) governs dative, however the preposition ‗ohne‘ (without) governs
accusative.
Chapter 4: VERBS
A verb can be recognized by means of the following characteristics:
 Denotes an action (e.g.,read) or a state of being (e.g.know). Action verbs are

dynamic. State of being verbs (or stative verbs) include the copula or linking
verbs, e.g the be-verbs, remain, appear, and become.
 Has four (4) inflections
-{s} of third person singular present tense verbs
- {-ed} of simple past tense verbs
{-en} of the past participle
{-ing} of the present participle
The third person singular –s has the same allomorphs as the noun plural and the
noun possessive.
The –ed past tense inflection has three allomorphs:
- /ed/ after morphs which end in /t/ or /d/ as in planted, ralded

- /t/ after morphs that end in voiceless sounds except /t/ as in blushed,
jumped, walked.

- /d/ after morphs which end in oiced sounds except /d/ as in cleaned,
grabbed, and agreed
 Follows a subject noun and may be followed in turn by adjectives
 May fall under one more or more these types
o Intransitive verbs, which does not take an object (direct)
Flowers bloom.
o Transitive verbs, which require an object (direct)
Flowers need water and sunlight.
o Ditransitive verbs, which take two objects (direct and indirect)
Alex gave his girlfriend three red roses.
o Linking/copula verbs, where what follows the verb relates back to the
subject (subject complement- a predicate noun or a predicate adjective)
Roses are lovely Valentine‘s Day gifts.
Roses are sweet.
o Complex transitive verbs, where what follows the object (direct) relates to
the objects
They choose Nina. Muse of the team.
o Prepositional verbs, which requires a prepositional phrase to be complete
We look at the pictures taking during our graduation.
 Have tense and aspect qualities. Tense and aspect have to do with form.
TENSE is the grammatical marking on verbs that usually indicates time
preference relative to either the time of speaking or the time at which some other
situation was in force (Jacob 19995). Time reference has to do with meaning.
Events and situation are located in time, perhaps at some later time. English has
three tenses – present, past and future. The present and the past tenses have
inflectional marking; while the future is marked by the inclusion of the modals will
or shall. Simply put tense is a set of verb forms that indicate a particular point in
time or period of time in the past, present or future.
ASPECT is a general name given to verb forms used to signify certain ways in
which an event is viewed or experienced. Aspect can view an event as
completed whole (simple), or whether or not.
It has occurred earlier (perfect aspect) or is still in progress (progress)
Noel has attended the review classes. (Perfect)
Now he is studying for LET exam. (Progressive)
The tenses in combination with aspects make up the following 12 tense- aspect
categories. These make up the traditional 12 tenses.
Simple Perfect Progressive Perfect

Progressive

0 Have + -en Be + -ing Have + -en be
+ -ing
Present Dream/dreams Has/have Am/is/are Has/have been
dreamed dreaming dreaming
Eat/eats Has/have eaten Am/is/are Has/have been
eating eating
Past Dreamed Had dream Was/were Had been
dreaming dreaming
Ate Has eaten Was/were Had been
eating eating
Future Will/shall dream Will/shall dream Will/shall be Will shall have
dreaming been dreaming
Will shall eat Will/shall eaten Will/shall be Will/shall have
eating been eating
Sometimes if we want to draw attention to the time of action, we use an

ADJUNCT OF TIME, which can be an adverb, a noun group, or a prepositional
phrase, e.g.:
She‘s coming tomorrow. (Adverb)
Results of examination were release last week. (Noun group)
He will feel relieved after the exam. (Prepositional phrase)
Meanings and Common Uses of Verbs
Simple aspect: complete wholes; unchanging
1. Simple and present: the present in general

a. To talk about our thoughts and feelings at the present moment or about oue
immediate reactions in something.
I‘m terribly busy.
He looks excited
b. To talk about the settled of affairs which includes the present moment.
He lives in Sagada now.
Our teacher is very competent and considerate. We like her very much.
c. To say something is always generally true
There are 24 hours in a day.
The earth resolves around its axis.
d. To talk about something that a particular person or thing does regularly or
habitually.

I get up early to take a bath.
Every Sunday, I attend church services.
e. To discuss what happens in a book, play or film
In the movie, he places the character of Juan Tamad.
In those early chapters, he keeps himself isolated to other people in the
village.
f. To describe an event such as sports match or a ceremony at a the time it is
happening as radio and TV commentators do
Doods takes the ball then passes quickly to Alfie. Alfie turns, shoots, and
scores two points.
2. Simple Past: Stating a definite time in the past
An adjunct of time or other time expression is necessary to specify the particular
time in the past we are reforming to.
a. To say that the event is occurred or that something was the case at a
particular time in the past.
The university officials flew into Jakarta last week to sign a memorandum
of agreement with a sister school.
b. To that the situation is existed over a period of time in the past.
He lived in ancentral home in the country side during his last years.
c. To talk about an activity that took place regularly or repeatedly in the past, but
which no longer occurs
We swan in a river a great deal in my childhood.
3. Simple future: an expression on what we think might happen or what we intend

to happen
a. To say that something is planned to happen, or that we think it is likely to
happen in the future.
What do you think will Ella do to fix it?
b. To talk about general truths and to say what can be expected to happen if a
particular situation arises.
An attack of dengue fever can keep a human off work for few days. He will
earn nothing and he has trouble paying his hospital bills.
Present aspect: prior
1. Present perfect: the past in relation to the present

We cannot use adjuncts or expressions which place the action at a definite time
in the past. But we can use adjuncts of duration, e.g. forever, always.
I have watched it the other day.
I ate raw vegetables, which I always avoided and there was no other choice.
To mention something that happened in the past but we do not want to state a
specific time.
I have read the book several times.
2. Past Perfect: Events before a particular time in the past.
T o talk about the past event or situation that occurred before a particular time in
the past.
By noon, students had gathered at the quadrangle with their placards.
3. Future Perfect
To refer to something that has not happened yet, but will happen before a
particular time in the future.
By the time he graduates, his parents will already have left for New Zealand.
Progressive aspects: incomplete action: changing
1. Present progressive: Accent on the present

a. To talk about something that is happening at the moment we are speaking
I‘m already feeling bored and hungry.
b. To emphasize the present moment or to indicate that a situation is temporary
She‘s spending her summer hometown.
c. To indicate changes, trends, developments and progress.
He‘s performance in class is improving.
d. To talk about habitual ction that takes place regularly, especially one which is
new or temporary
She‘s spending a lot on clothes these days.
2. Past progressive: accent on the past

a. To talk about continued states or repeated actions which occurred in the past
He‘s body was trembling; his fever was rising.
b. To contrast a situation with an event this happened just after the situation
existed. We use the past continuous to describe the first event and the simple
past to describe the event which occurred after it.
We were standing at the main gate waiting to welcome the guest speaker.
He arrives 20 minutes later.
3. Future Progressive
a. To say something will surely happen because arrangements have been
made.
They will send their students regularly to the University for English
Proficiency Enhancement.
b. To emphasize the duration of a recent event.
She‘s been crying bitterly.
Perfect Progressive Aspect
1. Present Perfect Progressive

a. To talk about an activity or situation that started at some time in the past,
continued and is still happening now.
The economy has declining in many parts of the world.
2. Past Perfect Progressive
a. To emphasize the sentences and duration of a continuous activity which took
place before a particular time in the past.
The old woman had been living alone in that dilapidated house.
b. To say that something was expected, wished for or intended before a
particular time in the past
I had been expecting a phenomenal rise in political career.
3. Future Perfect Progressive
a. To emphasize the duration to an event at a specific time in the future
By January 2011, she will have been serving this university for 38 years.
Other concepts related to verbs
1. Verb Phrase/verb complex consists of an auxiliary + a main verb, e.g., must

work, have been reading, will be informed. The word or words in boldface are
the auxiliary or help verbs.
2. Auxiliary/helping verbs
A. Modal auxiliary and their related phrasal forms
True Modals Phrasal Modals

can, could be, able to
will, shall be going to, be about to
must have to, have got to
should, ought to be to, be supposed
would (= past habit) used
may, might be allowed to, be permitted to
Non modal auxiliary: be, do, and have verbs
Of all the auxiliaries, only the non-modals can change form.
Distinguishing characteristics between true modals and phrasal modals

True Modals Phrasal Modals
1 Do not inflect, i.e., the forms remain unchanged Inflect like other ordinary verbs
can pass am/is/are/was/were able to pass
2 Lacks tense and a resultant lack of subject-verb Subject-agreement rule applies
agreement except the form used to
We can pass the LET We are able to pass the LET
He can pass the LET He is able to pass the LET
3 Do not require an infinitive marker to precede Requires an infinitive marker to
the main verb must study hard precede the main verb
has/have/had to study hard
3. Operators/Operator verbs
 The operators is a verb that has three main functions: 1) It precede the negative
and combines with it when the negative is contracted to –n‘t 2) it is the verb that
moves around the subject to the sentence initial position in yes-no questions; and
3) it is also the verb that appears in the tag phrases of interrogative sentences or
tag questions.
My father will not approve your marriage proposal.
My father won‘t approve your marriage proposal.
Will your father approve my marriage proposal?
Will your father not approve my marriage proposal?
Won‘t your father approve my marriage proposal?
Your father will approve my marriage proposal, won‘t he?
 When a clause contains no verb eligible to be an operator, do is introduced.
He attends the graduations ball tonight.
He does attend the graduation ball tonight.
He does not attend the graduation ball tonight.
Does he attend the graduation ball tonight?
He attends the graduation ball tonight, doesn‘t she?
 If there are two auxiliary or more auxiliary verbs present in the verb phrase, the
first auxiliary serves as the operator.
He has been reading the Obama autobiography.
He has not been reading the Obama autobiography.
He has been not reading the Obama autobiography.
Has he been reading the Obama autobiography.
He has been reading the Obama autobiography, hasn‘t he?
Voice

Voice pertains to who or what serves the subject in a clause in the active voice,
the subject of a clause most often the agent, or doer, of some action. In the
passive voice the subject of a clause is the receiver or undergoes of the action.
The passive defocuses the agent.
The life guard saved the child. (Active)

The child was saved (by the life guard). (Passive)
The passive voice was limited than the active in that it requires only the transitive
verbs –verbs that have direct objects.
The passive morphology is be… -en, I.e., a form of the be verb + past participle.
Usually in the passive sentences the agent is not mentioned at all, referred to as
the agent less passive. If the agent is mentioned (=agent passive) it appears in a
prepositional phrase marked by the preposition by.
Some passive sentences have no counterparts.
Justin was born in Canada.
Advantages of the active voice.
1.) An active clause can give more information in fewer words.

2.) A active verb makes writing livelier and more vivid.
Uses of the passive voice
1. A passive contraction emphasizes the result in the impersonal style. This use is
sometimes desirable in scientific and technical writing.
A new strain of malaria was discovered.
2. A passive verb emphasizes a victim or the result of a disaster.

Active: The child broke the antique vase.
Passive: The antique vase was broken.
3. Use the passive when the agent or the actor is so unimportant or obvious that
you do not need to mention it.
Rica was born in Africa.
4. Use a passive verb if you want to hide the name of the person who is responsible
for an unpleasant decision or result.
An increase in tuition fees was proposed.
When to used the passive a present the greatest challenge to ESL learners.

Forms of the English Passive
We usually form simple passive like tense.
Paper is produced from trees. (Simple sentence)

Paper was produced from trees. (Simple past)
Here are possible forms:
1. With modals
Paper can be produced from trees.
2. With present perfect
Paper has been produced from trees.
3. With present progressive
Paper is being produced from trees.
4. With pass progressive
Papers were being produced from trees.
5. Will be going to for future
Paper is going to be produced from trees.
Chapter 5: Subject Verb Agreement
CONCORD RULES WHICH OFTEN CAUSE ERRORS
1. Collective nouns may take either a singular or plural verb inflection

depending on the meaning.
 Conceived of a one entity – takes singular verb

o Our school team has won its games.
 Conceived of as more than one entity or refers to individual membership-
takes plural verb
o Our school team have won all their games
2. Some common and proper nouns ending in –s. including –ics and
certain diseases are always conceived as single entity- take a plural
verb.
 The recent news is exciting.

 Mathematics is repelling to many students.
 Measles is a contagious disease.
3.Titles of words even when plural in form are conceived of as single

entities.
 The Ten Commandments is a beautiful movie.

 The Syntax Files is good reading for those in linguistics.
 The song Greenfields brings nostalgia to people of my generation.
4. Nouns occurring in sets of two take the singular when the noun pair is
present but take the plural when pair is absent.
 The pairof Lee jeans is expensive.

 My glasses are missing
5. fractions and percentage takes a singular verb inflection when modifying a

noncount noun and the plural verb when they modify a plural noun,.either a
singular or plural verb inflection may be used when they modify a collective
noun, depending on the speaker‘s meaning.
 More than a half of the cake is eaten.

 Twenty percent of the students are not joining the field trip.
 One-fourth of the audience is/areteachers.

6. A number normally takes the plural. The number takes the singular.
 A numbe of parents are coming for the meeting

 The number of signatorics is substantial to meet the approval of the
motion.
7. When we use "a number and a plural non to talk about two or more things,
we usually use a plural verb. We use a singular verb with ―one‖.
 Seven days make it up a week.

 One solid evidence is enough to prove his dishonestly
8.When we are talking about an amount of money or tome, or a distance,

speed or weight, we usually use a number, plural noun, and a
singular verb
 Five hundred dollar is a lot of money.

 Three weeks is a long time to walk for a family member from abroad to
cocme home.
9. Authentic operations take the singular verb because they are perceived as
reflecting a single numerical entity on both side of the equation or equal sign.
 Two plus two is/are equals four.
10. The quantifiers a lot (of), lots of, plenty of take a singular verb. If the
subject noun is noncount by plural verb if the subject head noun is
plural.
 A lot of sound views were advanced during the discussion.

 A lot of nonsense is evident from uninterested participants.
11. Traditional grammar states that when used as a subject, noneis always
singular regardless of what follows in a prepositional phrase.

 None of the boys joins the mountaineering group.
12. traditional grammar maintains that the antecedent of the relative pronoun is
the noun before.
 Alice is one of the graduate students who have finished her master‘s
degree in a short period of time.
13. For correlatives either…or, neither… nor, traditional grammars argues for a
proximity rule, I.e, subject-verb agreement should occur with the subject noun
nearest to the verb.
 Either my friend or my classmatesare expected to help me with my

project.
 Neither my classmates nor my friendvolunteers to lend support.
14. A singular noun or pronoun should take a singular verb inflection regardless
of what else occurs between the subject and the verb.
 Jimmy, along with his co-teachers, conducts a cleanliness campaign in

tne barangay.
Chapter 6: Phrasal Verbs

Phrasal verb is a group of words that functions as a verb and is made up of a
verb plus a preposition, an adverb, or both.

It is important to learn phrasal verbs because they are very common in
English, and because the meaning of a verb often changes significantly when it is
used in a phrasal verb.
For example, the verb grow usually means to become larger or increase in
amount, but the phrasal verb grow up means to become an adult or start
behaving in a mature way, as shown in these examples:
 She's letting her hair grow. (grow = increase in length)

 She wants to be a firefighter when she grows up. (grow up =
become an adult)
 It's time for him to grow up and start accepting his responsibilities.
(grow up = behave in a mature way)
These are verbs which consist of two or three words. They consist of:
1. A verb followed by an adverb;
 Go up, split over, push through
2. A verb followed by a preposition;

 Come upon, reckon with, bank on
3. A verb followed by an adverb and a preposition

 Break out of, look forward to, go along with
Just like ordinary verb, phrasal verbs may be used:
1. Transitively
Transitive verbs require an object to complete their meaning.
 The police were called to break up the fight.

 When the door is opened, it sets off an alarm.

 They pulled the house down and redeveloped the site.
2. Intransitively
Intransitive verbs cannot have a direct object after them.
 We broke up two years ago.

 They set off early to miss the traffic.
 He pulled up outside the cottage.
3. Both intransitively and transitively

Some phrasal verbs can be both transitive and intransitive.
They can be transitive in one sentence and intransitive in another sentence.
You need to be careful. Sometimes the meaning of a phrasal verb changes
depending on whether it is transitive or intransitive. Let‘s look at the following
example:
 Take off (transitive) = to remove something

 Take off (intransitive) = to leave the ground and begin to fly
 Please take off your shoes before entering the house. (transitive)
 The plane will take off in ten minutes. (intransitive)
You can see that here, there are two different meanings (or uses) of ―Take off‖.
When take off is transitive it means to remove something (that something is an
object). When take off doesn‘t have an object after it, it is intransitive and can
mean to leave the ground.
Also note that the same phrasal verb, for example take off, can have more than
one meaning (yes, even 7 or 8 different meanings).
A good dictionary will tell you whether a verb is transitive (usually vt. or tr. next to
the verb in dictionaries) or intransitive (vi. or intr.)
 A plane took off

 She took her coat off because it was warm.
Meaning
A two-word verb often has a one word synonym, which is generally more formal.
Here are some examples:
Phrasal Verb Synonym Phrasal Verb Synonym
Call up Telephone Give in/up Surrender
Keep on Continue Leave out Omit
Pick out Choose Put off Postpone
4. Separable Phrasal Verb

Object of separable phrasal verbs is movable. A pronoun object comes between
the first and second part. A short noun object can come between the two parts or
can follow the second part.
 Donna turned on the light

 You have to do this paint job over.
 You have to do over this paint job.
When the object of the following phrasal verbs is a pronoun, the two parts of the
phrasal verb must be separated:
 You have to do it over.

 Donna turned it on.
5. Inseparable phrasal verb
Object of inseparable phrasal verb cannot be separated. If there is a direct
object. It follows the phrasal verb.
With the following phrasal verbs, the lexical part of the verb (the part of the
phrasal verb that carries the "verb-meaning") cannot be separated from the
prepositions (or other parts) that accompany it.
 Who will look after my estate when I'm gone?

 Look after your baby brother
 Look after him.
6. Separable and Inseparable

Some phrasal verbs can be either separable or inseparable according to their
meanings in a certain context.
 She passed out (fainted)

 She passed the brochures out (distributed)
 The car broke down. (Stopped running)
 The police broke the door down. (Opened with force)
Separable phrasal verbs with their objects

Verb Meaning Example
blow explode The terrorists tried to blow up the railroad station.
up
bring mention a topic My mother brought up that little matter of my prison
up record again.
bring raise children It isn't easy to bring up children nowadays.
up
call off cancel They called off this afternoon's meeting

do repeat a job Do this homework over.
over
fill out complete a form Fill out this application form and mail it in.
fill up fill to capacity She filled up the grocery cart with free food.
find discover My sister found out that her husband had been planning
out a surprise party for her.
give give something to The filling station was giving away free gas.
away someone else for
free
give return an object My brother borrowed my car. I have a feeling he's not
back about to give it back.
hand submit something The students handed in their papers and left the room.
in (assignment)
hang put something on She hung up the phone before she hung up her clothes.
up hook or receiver
hold delay I hate to hold up the meeting, but I have to go to the
up bathroom.
hold rob Three masked gunmen held up the Security Bank this
up (2) afternoon.
leave omit You left out the part about the police chase down
out Asylum Avenue.
look examine, check The lawyers looked over the papers carefully before
over questioning the witness.
(They looked them overcarefully.)
look search in a list You've misspelled this word again. You'd
up better look it up.
Inseparable phrasal verbs with their objects

Verb Meaning Example

call on ask to recite in class The teacher called on students in the back row.
call on visit The old minister continued to call on his sick
(2) parishioners.
get over recover from sickness or I got over the flu, but I don't know if I'll ever get
disappointment over my broken heart.
go over review The students went over the material before the
exam. They should have gone over it twice.
go use up; consume They country went through most of its coal
through reserves in one year. Did he go through all his
money already?
look take care of My mother promised to look after my dog while I
after was gone.
look into investigate The police will look into the possibilities of
embezzlement.
run find by chance I ran across my old roommate at the college
across reunion.
run into meet Carlos ran into his English professor in the
hallway.
take resemble My second son seems to take after his mother.
after
wait on serve It seemed strange to see my old boss wait
on tables.
Adjective
Adjective is that it is a word that describes or clarifies a noun.
It describes nouns by giving some information about an object‘s size, shape,
age, color, origin or material.
 It‘s a big table. (size)

 It‘s a round table. (shape)
 It‘s an old table. (age)
 It‘s a brown table. (color)
 It‘s an English table. (origin)
 It‘s a wooden table. (material)
 It‘s a lovely table. (opinion)
 It‘s a broken table. (observation)
 It‘s a coffee table. (purpose)
When an item is defined by its purpose, that word is usually not an

adjective, but it acts as one in that situation.
 coffee table
 pool hall
 hunting cabin
 baseball player
Types of Adjectives
Articles
There are only three articles, and all of them are adjectives: a,
an, and the. Because they are used to discuss non-specific things and
people, a and an are called indefinite articles. For example:
 I‘d like a
 Let‘s go on an
Neither one of these sentences names a specific banana or a certain adventure.

Without more clarification, any banana or adventure will do.
The word the is called the definite article. It‘s the only definite article, and it is
used to indicate very specific people or things:

 Please give me a banana. I‘d like the one with the green stem.
 Let‘s go on an adventure. The Grand Canyon mule ride sounds
perfect!
Possessive Adjectives
It shows possession. They describe to whom a thing belongs. Some of the most
common possessive adjectives include:
 My — Belonging to me
 His — Belonging to him
 Her — Belonging to her
 Their — Belonging to them
 Your — Belonging to you
 Our — Belonging to us
All these adjectives, except the word his, can only be used before a noun. You
can‘t just say ―That‘s my,‖ you have to say ―That‘s my pen.‖ When you want to
leave off the noun or pronoun being modified, use these possessive adjectives
instead:
 Mine
 His
 Hers
 Theirs
 Yours
 Ours
For example, even though saying ―That‘s my‖ is incorrect, saying ―That‘s mine‖ is
perfectly fine.
 ―Whose dog is that?‖ ―He‘s mine. That‘s my dog.‖
Demonstrative Adjectives
Like the article the, demonstrative adjectives are used to indicate or demonstrate
specific people, animals, or things. These, those, this and that are
demonstrative adjectives.
 These books belong on that

 This movie is my favorite.
 Please put those cookies on the blue plate.
Coordinate Adjectives
Separated with commas or the word and, and appear one after another to
modify the same noun. The adjectives in the phrase bright, sunny day
and long and dark night are coordinate adjectives. In phrases with more than
two coordinate adjectives, the word and always appears before the last one; for
example:
 The sign had big, bold, and bright letters.
Be careful, because some adjectives that appear in a series are not coordinate.
In the phrase green delivery truck, the words green and delivery are not
separated by a comma because green modifies the phrase delivery truck.
To eliminate confusion when determining whether a pair or group of adjectives is
coordinate, just insert the word and between them. If and works, then the
adjectives are coordinate and need to be separated with a comma.
Numbers Adjectives
When they‘re used in sentences, numbers are almost always adjectives. You can
tell that a number is an adjective when it answers the question ―How many?‖
 The stagecoach was pulled by a team of six

 He ate 23 hotdogs during the contest, and was sick afterwards.

Interrogative Adjectives
There are three interrogative adjectives: which, what, and whose. Like all other
types of adjectives, interrogative adjectives modify nouns. As you probably know,
all three of these words are used to ask questions.
 Which option sounds best to you?

 What time should we go?
 Whose socks are those?
Indefinite Adjectives
Like the articles a and an, indefinite adjectives are used to discuss non-specific
things. You might recognize them, since they‘re formed from indefinite pronouns.
The most common indefinite adjectives are any, many, no, several, and few.
 Do we have any peanut butter?

 Grandfather has been retired for many
 There are no bananas in the fruit bowl.
 I usually read the first few pages of a book before I buy it.
 We looked at several cars before deciding on the best one for our
family.
The 3 Different Degrees of Adjectives
Adjectives have different degrees, as well. The three degrees of an adjective

are positive, comparative and superlative. When you use them depends on
how many things you‘re talking about:
Positive adjective
Is a normal adjective that‘s used to describe, not compare.
 ―This is good soup‖ and ―I am funny.‖

Comparative adjective
Is an adjective that‘s used to compare two things (and is often followed by the
word than).
 ―This soup is better than that salad‖ or ―I am funnier than her.‖
Superlative adjective
Is an adjective that‘s used to compare three or more things, or to state that
something is the most.
 ―This is the best soup in the whole world‖ or ―I am the funniest out
of all the other bloggers.‖
Other related concepts

1. Restrictive and Non-Restrictive Adjective
Restrictive Adjectives
A restrictive modifying clause (or essential clause) is an adjective clause that is

essential to the meaning of a sentence because it limits the thing it refers to. The
meaning of the sentence would change if the clause were deleted. Because
restrictive clauses are essential, they are not set off by commas.
 All students who do their work should pass easily.
 The car that I want is out of my price range.
 The gas company will discontinue our service unless we pay our
bills by Friday.
Non-Restrictive Adjectives

A non-restrictive modifying clause (or nonessential clause) is an adjective clause
that adds extra or nonessential information to a sentence. The meaning of the
sentence would not change if the clause were to be omitted. Nonrestrictive
modifying clauses are usually set off by commas.
 Edgar Allan Poe, who wrote "The Raven," is a great American poet.
 Puerto Rico was a Spanish colony until 1898, when it was ceded to the
United States.
2. Polarity
It refers to positive and negative contrasts in a language.
Positive Polarity Negative Polarity

Big Small, little
Old Young
Long Short
Good Bad
Fast Slow
Adjectives with positive polarity are unmarked forms because they are used
more frequently in a given language, learned earlier by children and used in
neural contexts. Adjectives or negative polarity are marked. Then are less
frequently used.
3. Gradability
Adjectives can be placed in continuum of intensity, with the intensity increasing
and decreasing depending on the intensifier chosen.
(Less intense) (More intense)

Somewhat rare, rare, quite rare, very rare, extremely rare

Adjectives that can be compared are also called gradable adjectives.
Comparative forms (adjectives marked by, -er, more, or less) show
differences/contrasts between two things or groups. Superlative forms (marked
by -est., most, or Least) show differences in three or more groups.
Comparison does not apply to absolutes such as unique, possible, impossible,
horizontal round, square, and fatal. They can co-occur with words like nearly and
almost.
 The accident was fatal

 The accident was nearly fatal
 The accident was almost fatal.

Chapter 7: CONJUNCTION OR COORDINATION
Conjunction or coordination is the process of combining ideas. Two constituents
of the same type can be put together to produce another larger constituents of
the same type. Traditional grammar calls this process compounding.
Compound sentence: The boys sang and the girls danced last night.
Compound subject: The teacher and the student will join the parade.
Compound verb: The children play and eat during recess.
Compound object: We boiled corn and cassava.
Conjoining like constituents as shown above is referred to as simple

coordination. Here are other ways of coordinating ideas:
1. Ellipsis: Omission or elision on the first verb phrase in the second and adding the
word too or either (for uninverted forms), and so or neither (for inverted forms).
Affirmative forms
My friends like to read storybooks and I, too. (uninverted)
A horse runs fast, and so does an ostrich. (Inverted)
Negative forms
Donna can‘t climb a tree, and his little brother can‘t either. (uninverted)
Ducks can‘t fly high, and neither can chickens. (Inverted)
2. Use of pro-forms, I.e the substitution of pronoun for a repeated noun.
Luis plays the guitar and he plays the harp, too.
3. Complex and correlative conjunctions like both… and…
My father is both kind and sincere.
Forms of Coordinating Conjunctions
Other that and simple coordinating conjunction include: for, nor, but, or, yet, and
so. Note the following examples.

Milk or chocolate
Small but/yet terrible
The table is big, so heavy to lift (non clausal)
He came late, so he missed the fun. (Clausal)
They accepted the verdict, for they fall to counter the charges against them.
(Clausal)
Other forms of correlative conjunction are either… or, not only… but also, and
either…nor. These pairs are used together.
Either Tony or Nico will top the test.

Anna is neither friendly nor generous.
Our teacher is not only competent but also very understanding.
Use of Coordinating Conjunction
Below is a straightforward account of the simple conjunctions:
Conjunction Meaning Conjunction Meaning

For Because Or One of the other of
two alternatives is
true
And Plus Yet Bt at the same time
Nor Conjoins two so therefore
negative sentences,
both of which are
true
But Shows contrast
A deeper and thorough study of each conjunction, however, reveals certain

properties beyond the given straightforward account. To illustrate, here are the
other meaning and uses of and.
1. As logical operator (the truth conditional meaning)

The entire conjoined statement is true so long as each conjunct makes it up is
true. If one conjunct is false, then the statement is false.
2. As marker of many meanings
 Annie is in the kitchen, and she is making doughnuts. (And there…)
 Annie fell into a deep sleep, and her facial color returned. (And during this
time…)
 The window was open and there was a draft. (And coming from it…)
 Peter married Annie, and she had a baby. (And after that…)
 Paul pounded on the stone, and he shattered it. (And thereby…)
 Give me your picture, and I‘ll give you mine. (if you give your picture I‘ll give you
mine.)
3. As inferential correlative
A reader/listener can draw an inferential connection from sentences like
Susan jumped and hurt her ankle. The use of and invites the reader/listener
to seek some other implicit relevant connection between stated conjuncts.
4. As marker of speaker continuation
In conversational discourse, sometimes a speaker uses and to signal the
utterance to follow is in the some way connected with what has come before.
This particular use of and goes beyond the usual content conjunctive use:
rather it places and into the category of discourse markers like oh and well.
Coordinating Conjunction (FANBOYS)
For
And
Nor
But
Or
Yet
So
Coordinating conjunction also joins equals to one another.
Words to words, phrases to phrases, clauses to clauses
Examples:
Word to word Most children like cookies and milk.

Phrases to phrases The gold is hidden in the beach or by the lakeside.
Clauses to clause What you say and what you do are two different things.
Coordinating conjunctions usually form looser connections than other

conjunctions do.
Examples:
Marge was late for work and she received a cut in pay. (Very loose)
Marge was late for work, so she received a cut in pay. (Loose)
Coordinating conjunctions go in between items joined, not at the beginning or the

end.
Examples:
Correct: I like the coffee, but I don‘t like tea.

Incorrect: But I don‘t like tea, I like coffee.
SUBORDINATION
Subordination means putting less important ideas in less important grammatical

structures like dependent clause. Ones means of subordination is sentence
combining or reducing.
Sentence combining
Melissa topped the test.

Melissa is late by twenty minutes.
Although late by twenty minutes, Melissa topped the test.

Dependent clause independent clause
Although late, Melissa topped the test.

Dependent clause independent clause
Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating Conjunctions do the job of connecting dependent clauses to

independent clauses. Shown below are different types.
Type Conjunction Type Conjunction

Time When, before, after, Conditional If, unless
since, while, until,
us
Purpose In order to, so that Reason Because, since, as
Result So that Concessive Although, though,
while despite
Place Where, wherever Manner As, like

Time Her father died when she was young.
Conditional If I could afford it, I would by a car.
Purpose They had to extend the session in order to discuss all concerns
raised.
Reason I couldn‘t ignore him because he was my childhood playmate.
Concessive While I did well in my class, I was poor performer at club

activities.
Place Wherever I stayed, I found trouble some neighbors.
Manner Is she often rude and cross like she‘s been this past week?
Relative Clauses
Another form of subordination involves the embedding of one clause within

another. For example:
The lady came into the room

The was small and slender
The lady [the lady came into the room] was small and slender.
The lady who came into the room was small and slender.
These words are commonly used as subordinating conjunctions.
After in order (that) why
Although insofar as till
As in that unless
As far as lest until
As soon as no matter how when
As if as though now that whenever
Because once where
Before proved wherever
Even if since whether
Even though so that while

How supposing why
If than
Inasmuch as that
In case (that) though
Subordinating conjunctions also join two clauses together, but in doing so, they
make one clause dependent (or subordinate) upon the other
Examples:
Both are independent clauses,
It is raining simple sentence.
We have an umbrella
Add because to it is raining
because it is raining This is no longer an independent clause or sentence
Put the two clauses together.
Because it is raining, we have an umbrella
OR
We have an umbrella because it is raining.
A subordinating conjunction may appear at a sentence beginning or between two

clauses in a sentence.
A subordinate conjunction usually provides a tighter connection between clauses

than coordinating conjunctions does.

Loose: It is raining, so we have an umbrella
Tight: Because it is raining, we have an umbrella.
Chapter 8: Negation
In English, negation affects words, phrases, and sentences.
Forms to Express Negation
The following forms mark negation in English (Celce-Mucia and Larsen-Freen,

an. 2001.):

Affix-negation No-negation Not-Negation
a- (atypical) no (no plans) not, n't

dis- (dishonest) nothing (I cannot/can't) play
In/Im_Ir/Il- nobody the piano.)
(Inadequate/impossible/Irrelevant/illegal) no one never (not + never)
hon- (non-formal) nowhere (My aunt has never left
un- (uncomfortable) our town)
-less (useless) neither (not + either)
-free (fat-free) nor (and + not)
Neither his brother nor
his sister helps support
him in his studies.
Negation at the Lexical or word level can simplybuse the negative affix. For
example:
Untidy untidily
impossible impossibly
inadequate inadequately
illegaly illegally
dishonest dishonestly
atypical atypically
Determining which affix to use is not always predictable. I however, the choice of
Im-, In-, Il- or Ir- is phonologically conditioned by the constant which follows it.
i.e., Im- is used if the following consonant is verbal (b, p, m), Il- goes with a stem

beginning with I, and ir- with a stem beginning with r. The prefix in- is the most
common.
Nothing, nobody, and no one re indefinite pronouns while nowhere is an adverb.
The negative items include never ( negative adverb of frequency), no (negative

coordinating conjunction, and neither . . . nor (negative correlative conjunction.
The basketball players never admitted their mistake.
They preschoolers can neither read nor write, nor can they comprehend
do mathematical computations yet.
At the phrase level, no can functions a negative determiner in a sound phrase.
No agreement has been reached yet.
No may also be followed by a genius as in no reading, no parking, or no littering
Not is used before infinitive verbs to make the phrase negative
She reminded her friends not to forget their bathing suits.
At the sentence level, not or its contractionn't is the main negative. This applies
to different sentence types
Mrs. Palma is not /isn't our teacher. (statement)
Are you not /aren't we meeting today? (Question)
Do not/don't laugh. (Command)
Was it not/wasn't it exciting? (Exclamation)
No and not are negative substitutes. No can be a negative substitute for a whole
sentence while not for a subordinate clause.
A: Is she coming with us?

B. No, She'll do library work for an hour.
Are you joining us on Friday? If not, please let me know by tomorrow
Placement of not
1.) Not usually follows the verb whether functions as a main verb (copula) or an
auxiliary/helping verb.
Surprisingly today, the birds are not noisy. (Main)
I'm wondering why they are not chirping. (Auxiliary verb)
2.) Other than be, not follows the auxiliary verb if one is present or the first
auxiliary (modal, phrasal modal, or have) I, there are two or more.
I cannot swim well.
The principal must not have been joking when he said that.
We have not been analyzing the date since we received them.
3.) With other main verbs, a do-verb is introduced before negation take place.
The cold swims in the pool. The child does swim in the pool.
The child does not swim in the pool.
In English, there are several instances where not can grammatically negate the
subject of a sentence.
For example, the following sentences are grammatical:
(1) a. Not everyone can afford a fifty dollar haircut.
b. Not many discus throwers can claim to have accomplished such a feat.

c. Not one thing was left untouched by the wrath of the tornado.
The question one might be prone to ask is, can all noun phrases be negated with
not ? Negation of the subject of a sentence with not is not syntactically valid if the
subject does not contain a quantified noun phrase1 . Thus, a sentence such as
*Not Salome came to the party is ungrammatical, whereas we have seen in (1)
above that several sentences with quantified noun phrases are in fact
grammatical. However, not all sentences containing not modifying a quantified
noun phrase subject are grammatical. Consider the following examples in (2):
(2) a. *Not some people came to my party last week.
b. *Not several events are planned for that weekend.
c. *Not each company is expected to present a quarterly report.
Now one may ask, exactly which quantified noun phrases can not negate?
Several researchers who have studied the general topic of negation have
commented on the fact that every x can be negated by not, and yet *not some x
is ungrammatical. Horn (1989) discusses the work of many linguists and
philosophers on this topic, most importantly Jespersen (1917, 1924), Sapir
(1930), Carden (1972), and Horn (1972), each of whom focus on the every/some
distinction. Within the realm of logic, it is quite easy to overlook other quantifiers
and focus on the distinctions between every and some. However, these analyses
do not take into consideration the full breadth of the issue for natural language.
Classifying Quantifiers: A Data Sample
The following table displays the behavior of not with different kinds of noun
phrases.
TABLE 1

Example sentences demonstrating when it is grammatical (or interpretable) to
negate a noun phrase with not. Note the contrasts in behavior between
determiners that are usually grouped together, such as every/each/all.
Grammatical Ungrammatical Ungrammatical
1. Not every company expects to report 10. *Not each citizen files a tax
return. increased earnings.
2. Not all of NASA‘s space-science work
will be so auspicious.
3. Not a peso is offered. 11. *Not some pesos are offered.
4. Not one thing in the house is where it is
supposed to be.
5. Not many people came to the meeting 12. *Not several people came to
the last week. meeting last week.
6. Not any person can just walk right in
there and get what they want.
7. Not more than half of the team showed 13. *Not most of the team
showed up last up last Friday.
Friday.
8. Not more than 200 people attended the 14. *Not few people left.
opening gala celebration. 15. *Not no man left.
9. Not less than one million people 16. *Not the man walked into the
store.
enjoy listening to ABBA Gold every day. 17. *Not John came on time.

The most important thing to note about Table 1 is that several determiners that
are normally grouped together in terms of their semantic behavior display opposite
trends in grammaticality when used in coordination with negation. For example, Barwise
& Cooper (1981) do not distinguish between every, each, and all, since all three share
the same values for the semantic features Barwise & Cooper have determined are
crucial for classifying the behavior of determiners (e.g., all three are +strong, indefinite,
and monotonically increasing). However, note that every x and all x can be part of a
negated noun phrase, while each x cannot be negated in this manner.
Additionally, other semantic groupings Barwise & Cooper adopt, such as some/a and
many/several, also fail to hold in terms of their ability to be negated. Perhaps most
intriguing is the fact that more than half x can be negated, while not most x is
ungrammatical.
YES/NO QUESTIONS
Inverted and In inverted Yes/No questions
YES/NO QUESTIONS a,e often defined as questions for which either "yes" or
"no" is the expected answer. That are produced with a rising intonation.
Yes/No questions are formed by inverting the subject and the operator.
Lucy is your cousin. Is Lucy your cousin?
She can speak fluently. Can she speak fluently?
She has been a consistent debater. Has she been a consistent

debater?
She loves(does love) to read opinion columns. Does she love to read
opinion columns?

Yes/no questions may have a statement word order. I,e,. the word is uninvented.
This sentence, however is likewise said with a rising intonation.
2
Lucy is your 3 cousin3
2
She can speak 3 fluently3
Answers to Yes/No Questions
Yes/no questions usually take short answers using the operator. The operator is
italicized below.
1.) Is your sister fond of sweets?
{Yes, she is.
{No, she isn't
{*Yes, she's.
2.) Can you speak Chinese?
{Yes, I can.
{No, I can't.
3.) Are we supposed to attend?
{Yes, we are.
{No, we aren't.
4.) Have they eaten?
{Yes, they have.
{No, they haven't.

5.) Does the baby wink?
{Yes, it does.
{No, it doesn't.
If the sentence contains more that on auxiliary verb, the short answer may also
contain an auxiliary verb. In addition to the operator.
6.) Will they have joined?
{Yes, they will have.
{No, they won't have.
If the second or third auxiliary is a be form, it is usually omitted.
Will she be able to pass?
{Yes, she will.
{No, she won't.
Types of questions
There are two types of questions:
Yes or no questions
Wh questions
Yes-no questions
Yes or no questions are questions whose expected answer is either "yes"

or "no".
How to form yes-no questions

In English, a special word order (Verb Subject Object) is used to form yes-
no questions.
Examples:
Affirmative Yes or No Question
They are American Are they American?
She is nice Is she nice?
The rules
1. If the main verb of the sentence is "to be", simply invert the subject and
the verb to be:
Examples:
They are American. — Are they American?
They are nice. — Are they nice?
2. If the sentence includes a main verb and another or other helping

(auxiliary) verb(s), invert the subject and the (first) helping (auxiliary) verb.
Examples:
They are visiting Paris. — Are they visiting Paris?
She has done the housework. — Has she done the housework
Nancy has been working all night long. — Has Nancy been working
all night long?
He will be reading the book. — Will he be reading the book?
3. If the sentence includes a verb which is not the verb "to be" and doesn't
include a helping (auxiliary) verb, the transformation is more complex.

a. If the verb is in the present tense, add either do or does and put the
main verb in its base form:
do if the subject is the first person singular, second person singular, first
person plural, second person plural and third person plural (I, you, we,
they)
Examples:
I like apples. — Do you like apples?
They go to a high school. — Do they go to a high school?
does if the subject is the third person singular (he, she, it).
Examples:
Nancy reads a lot. — Does Nancy read a lot?
He hates basketball. — Does he hate basketball?
b.If the verb is in the past tense, add did and put the main verb in
its base form:
Examples:
He discovered the truth. — Did he discover the truth?
She wrote a nice essay. — Did she write a nice essay?
They did the homework. — Did they do the homework
Negative Yes/No questions
Semantics problems may arise for many ESL learners who react to a negative
yes/no question in a literal manner in their language. This means that they agree
or ree with the form of the rs/no questions thus causing miscommunication.

Don't you feel sorry?
{Yes, (I don't) feel sorry.
{No. (I feel sorry)
Among native speakers of English, the expected response is:
Don't you feel sorry?
{Yes, (I feel sorry.)
{No, I don't feel sorry.
Focused Yes/No Questions.
While neutral yes/no questions, as in the preceding causes, query on the whole
state, activities or event, this query can be more focused sometimes.
Does Alex plan a foreign trip with Melly? (Or did someone else?)
Does Alex plan a foreign trip with Melly? (Or did he only suggest?)
Does Alex plan a foreign trip with Melly? (Or is it something else?)
Does Alex plan a foreign trip with Melly? (Or is it with someone else?)
The focused sentence element gets the primary sboos as shown above.
Some Versus Any in Questions
Some and Any can both occur with different question types depending on it's a
meaning.
In open or unmarked questions, any is used in question as well as in negatives.
Is there any sugar?
There Isn't any sugar.

However, some is used in questions that expect a positive response. e.g., an
offer:
Would you like some cold drink? (Encourages a "yes" answer.)
Here are questions to consider.
Is there some relief? (Expects a "yes" answer)
Is there any relief? (Neutral questions special meaning involved)
Isn't there some relief? (Surely there is.)
Isn't there any relief? {
{Hopeful that there would be)
Is there no relief? {
Other functions of Yes/No questions.
1.) Direct request: Can I borrow your notes on phonology?
2.) Less direct request: (Could I borrow your notes on phonology?
3.) Polite request: I wonder if I could borrow your notes on

phonology.
4.) Offer of invitations: Would you like to have a cup of coffee?
5.) Commands: Would you please pay attention?
6.) Reprimands: Don't you have enough sense to do such

thing?
7.) Complaints: Have you ever tried using this gadget at all?
Chapter 9: WH-QUESTIONS

WH-QUESTIONS are used to seek specific information so they are also referred
to as information questions. Excepts for how, these words begin with wh : who,
whom, what, which, where, when, why, and how.
A variety of constituents can be queried in a wh-question. Consider this

sentence:
Liza bought a beautiful house for her parents before she went to Canada.
Subject NP: Who bought a beautiful house? (Liza)
Object PN: What did Liza buy? (a beautiful house)
Object of the: or whom did Liza buy a beautiful house? (Her

parents)
Preposition: Who(m) did Liza buy a beautiful house for? (Her

parents)
Verb phrase: What did Liza do when she came home? (She bought
a beautiful house.)
Determiner: Whose parents did Liza buy a beautiful house for

when she came home? (Her parents)
Adjective: What kind of house did Liza buy? (A beautiful house)
Adverbial: When did Liza buy a beautiful house? (Before she

went to Canada.)
Adverbial: Where did Liza go? (To Canada)
WH-Questions elicit specific kinds of information.
What? The answer is nonhuman

Who? The answer will be a human
Which? The answer is one of a limited group
When? The answer will be a time or an occasion
Where? The answer will be a place or situation
Why? The answer will be reason
How? The answer will show manner, means or degree.
How much? The answer will be connected with an uncountable

noun.
How many? The answer will be connected with a countable noun.
How often? The answer will indicate frequency
Forming Wh-Questions
If who, what or which is the subject of the sentence, It is followed by the

normal word order of statement.
Statement: Grammar is exciting
Question: What is exciting?
Statement: Those big dogs chased the cat.
Question: Which dog chased the cat?
Statement: Their teacher gave a test.
Question: Who gave a test?

Whom/who what and which as objects form questions by putting the words first,
and do, does, or did next.
Statement: He planted fruit trees.
Question: What did he plant?
Statement: Mothers bathed my baby sister.
Question: Who (whom) does my mother bathe?
Statement: The children catch yellow butterflies.
Question: Which butterflies do the children catch
A modal (e.g., car) cannot be placed by do, dies or did. The do-verb
replaces the main verb
Statement: My three year-old sister can read.
Question: What can my sister do?
Social Uses of WH-Questions
Certain fixed formulaic WH-Questions serve social functions (Croce Murcia and
Larsen Freeman 2001)
Among them are:
Introductions: How do you do?
Greetings: How are you? How have you been? What's

up?
Eliciting personal reactions: How was the test?
Making suggestions: Why don't you seek advice? How about a trip?
Responding positively: Why not?

to a suggestion:
Expressing exasperation: What now?
Seeking another's opinion: How about you? What do you think?
Challenging's another opinion: What for? How come? Since when?
Expressing perplexity: What to do?
Asking for clarification/expansion:What about it?
Wh- Question Formation
Look at these five wh- questions. What information is being sought? How are
the questions formed--and how are they alike or different from each other in their
formation? Analyze each for subject and predicate.
Example Wh- Questions
1. Who plans to take SLA this summer?
2. What causes students to select particular majors?
3. Who will John ask for information about summer courses?
4. When can we register for graduation?
5. Where do we go to register for graduation?
What do you see in example #1? The subject is who, and the predicate is
everything else. The question is formed by putting the wh- word who into the
subject position. The question is about the subject of the sentence. The speaker
knows everything--someone plans to take SLA this summer, but doesn't know
who.
What do you see in example #2? The subject is what, and the predicate is
everything else. The question is about the subject of the sentence: something

causes students to select particular majors. The question is formed by putting
the wh- word what into the subject position. No other changes are needed to
make a question--other than the question mark, of course.
What about example #3? The subject of the sentence is John. The predicate is
will ask someone for information about summer courses. The total sentence that
lies behind the question: John will ask someone for information about summer
courses. The unknown information is the direct object of the verb will ask. The
formation gets more complicated in this situation:
Step #1 Insert the wh- word into the sentence: John will ask who for information
about summer courses?
Step #2 Move the wh- word to the beginning of the sentence: Who John will ask
for information about summer courses?
Step #3 Move the operator in front of the subject: Who will John ask for
information about summer courses?
Why didn't I use whom? That's super formal and unlikely to be used in asking a
question like this one. In fact, it's a bit hard to imagine any native speaker or truly
fluent NNS using whom in this type of question.
What about example #4? The subject of the sentence is we. The predicate is
can register for graduation some time. The whole sentence that lies behind the
question: We can register for graduation some time. The question is about the
adverbial of time. The speaker knows everything but the time/date. Again, the
formation is more complicated than in examples #1 and #2; the process is the
same as for example #3.
Step #1 Insert the wh- word into the sentence: We can register for graduation
when?

Step #2 Move the wh- word to the beginning of the sentence: When we can
register for graduation?
Step #3 Move the operator in front of the subject: When can we register for
graduation?
What about example #5? The subject of the sentence is we. The predicate is go
somewhere to register for graduation. The question is about the adverbial of
location/place. The whole sentence that lies behind the question: We go
somewhere to register for graduation. For this example, the process in examples
#3 and #4 is followed but with another complication because of the missing
operator.
Step #1 Insert the wh- word into the sentence: We go where to register for
graduation?
Step #2 Move the wh- word to the beginning of the sentence: Where we go to
register for graduation?
Step #3 Move the operator in front of the subject: But...there's no operator to

move!
Step #3a: Insert do to be the operator. Where we do go to register for

graduation?
Step #3b: Move the operator in front of the subject: Where do we go to register
for graduation?
What generalizations can we take away from these examples?
1. Wh- questions are formed by inserting a wh- word into a sentence in the place
of missing information.
2. Wh- questions focus on particular parts of sentences--not generally on the

whole sentence the way that yes-no questions do.

3. Wh- questions about the subject of a sentence have simplier grammar than
wh- questions about anything in the predicate.
4. Wh- questions about the subject of a sentence just insert who or what and
keep the same word order.
5. Wh- questions about anything in the predicate insert a wh- word and then
manipulate the word order by moving that wh- word to the beginning and moving
the operator in front of the subject.
6. If there's no operator in the verb phrase, then one has to be added. Like yes-
no questions and negatives with not in the verb phrase, wh- questions that need
to add an operator use do/does/did.
7. Wh- questions about subjects are simplier than wh- questions about the
predicate. The word order is simplier; only two word are needed--who or what.
8. Wh- questions about anything in the predicate are more complicated than wh-
questions about subjects. The syntax requires not just insertion of the wh- word
but also manipulation of the word order. More words are needed, too: who, what,
when, where, why, and others.
ADVERBS
Adverbs modify or change the meaning of the other words such as verbs,
adjectives, another adverb, or even a whole sentence.
The athlete can run fast. (Verb modifier)
Sailboats are really beautiful to watch. ( adjective modifier)
The athlete can run very fast. ( advef modifier)
Perhaps, Nena's family will give a party. ( sentence modifier)
Adverbs or adverbials vary in form as follows:

Adverbial clause:
The child cried because he was hungry.
Adverbial phrase: Diane sang very sweetly.
Prepositional phrase: She sang during our class reunion.
Word:
We eagerly look forward to your graduation.
Adverbs can be readily recognized through certain affixes. For example:
1.) Suffix -lu
2.) Prefix s-
3.) Suffix -wise
4.) Suffix –wards
Types of Adverbs
1.) Adverbs of frequency Answer the question how often?
(Always, never, usually, rarely)
2.) Adverbs of relative time Can be used with all senses as meaning
permits
(Just, still, already, lately)
3.) Adverbs of manner Answer the question how? How was?
(Carefully, eagerly, clearly, quickly)
4.) Adverbs of place Answer the question where?
(Here, in the sky)

5.) Adverb of time Answer the question when?
(Today, on April 5th)
6.) Adverb of emphasize Only and even
Here we put only makes a big change in the meaning or a clause. To illustrate:
1.) Only hr (no one else) invited Alex to join the team this year.
2.) He only invited Alex to join the team this year.
3.) He invited only Alex (no one but Alex) to join the team this year.
4.) He invited Alex only to join the team this year. (To join not to do
anything else)
5.) He invited Alex to join the tram only this year. (Before the adverb of
time, only means as recently as or at no other time.
In studying English, there are many things to be known in advance, one of

which is part of the spoken word or in English are called Parts of Speech.
In the grammar (grammar) English, Parts of Speech are classified into
eight types of words are classified according to what he showed the noun
(noun), pronoun (pronoun), adjective (adj), verb (noun), adverb (adverb),
preposition (preposition / prepositions), conjunction (the conjunction /
liaison) and interjection (interjection). However, in this paper will only
discuss about the ―adverb‖ in accordance with a predetermined scope.
Adverb or adverb is a word that gives an explanation of where, when and

how an activity or event occurred. Example: here, now, softly, loudly,
tomorrow, again, twice, never, etc..

Adverb is also defined as words that describe verbs (verbs), adjectives
(adjective), preposition (preposition) and any other word except nouns
(noun) and pronoun (pronoun)
Example:
A. I am working now.
(now the word in the sentence is a description that describes the

verb time working).
B. Andi speaks loudly.
(said loudly in a sentence explaining how to talk Hendi).
C. Wenny never comes before dinner.
(words in a sentence is never a description of the instructions

frequencies / frequency).
A. Adverb of Time.
An adverb which states the time of a task, action or event. Example:

afterwards (later, sesuadah it, then), already (already), before (first,
before), frequently (often), now (now), today (today), soon (soon),
Immediately (immediately) , lately (lately), yesterday (yesterday), etc..
Examples of applications in the sentence:
I‘am stydying english now. (I‘m learning English now).
To help demonstrate the adverb of Time, we can ask the question

with the word ―when‖ (when).

B. Adverb of Place.
Is an adverb that indicates where the occurrence of an act, action or

event. Example: The above (above), back (behind), below (below), around
(around), here (here), somewhere (somewhere), everywhere
(everywhere), there (there) , and so on.
She studies English here. (He learned English here).
To help demonstrate the adverb of Place, we can ask the question

with the word ―where‖ (in which).
C. Adverb of Manner.
Is an adverb that expresses how a job is performed or an event that

occurred. Example: carefully (carefully), fluently (smoothly), hard (hard),
fast (fast), SLOWLY (slowly, slowly), Suddenly (suddenly), together (co-
same), etc..
They worked hard. (They work hard).
To help demonstrate the adverb of Manner, we can ask the

question with the word ―how‖ (how).
D. Adverb of Degree.
Is an adverb that expresses to what extent (or degree level) of a situation

or event. Typically explain / modify the adjective / adjective or adverb
itself. Example: almost (almost) enough (enough), fairly (bit / used for a
positive statement), rather (somewhat / used for negative statements),
nearly (almost), very (very), too (too), only (only ), quite (really), etc..

1) She is very pretty girl. (He was a very sweet girl).
Adjective adverb describes very pretty.
2) I quite understand. (I really understand).
E. Adverb of frequency.
An adverb which states the amount or how much of a job, the act or event
occurs.
1) an adverb of quantity.
Usually to determine the adverb of quantity we ask the questionwith

the word ―how Often‖.
Example: always (always), usually (usually), never (never), ever

(ever), Sometimes (sometimes), seldom (rarely), Generally
(generally), and so on.
Andi always drinks milk every night. (Andi always drink milk
every night).
2) adverb of number.
Usually to determine the adverb of our number asking the question with
the word ―how many times‖ (how many times).
Example: once (once), twice (twice), Thrice (three times), half

(half), Twofold (two times), etc..
He eats twice every day. (He ate twice a day).

F. Adverb of Affirmation.
Is an adverb that express affirmation, emphasis or yes answer. Example:

Certainly (surely), naturally (of course), surely (surely), of course (surely),
absolutely (absolutely), etc..
Of course she can speak English. (Of course he can speak

English).
Another term for the adverb of Affirmation is an adverb of certainty.
G. Interrogative adverb.
Is an adverb that helped shape the questions. Each kind of adverb is

associated with another adverb.
example:
1) How did he go?
How is the interrogative adverb of manner.
2) Where did he go?
Where is the interrogative adverb of place.
H. Relative adverb.
Is an adverb that serves as a liaison of two clauses in a sentence. His

words were the same as the interrogative adverb, the difference lies only
in its position, the relative adverb is usually placed in the middle of a
sentence (between the two clauses), while the interrogative adverb at the
beginning of the sentence.

example:
1) I asked him how he went.
How is the relative adverb of manner.
2) I asked him where he went.
Where is the relative adverb of place.
Conditions of Adverbials
At some adverbials are fixed in their positions in the sentence, other are
movable. They can occur in sentence initially, medially, or finally.
Sentence-initial: Doubtlessly, we must conclude that the findings are

correct.
Sentence -medial: We, doubtlessly, must conclude that the findings are
correct.
Sentence-final: We must conclude that the findings are correct,

doubtlessly.
Set of adverbials.
(Two or more adverbials co-occur in final position. In the same sentence,

ordering should be moved.
+position <> manner + time <> frequency + (purpose)
(reason)
He walks home leisurely everyday because he wants to feel relaxed

Chapter 10:Prefix
Prefixes are added to the beginning of an existing word in order to create a new
word with a different meaning.
A Short List of Prefixes:
PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLES
de- from, down, away reverse, opposite decode, decrease
dis- not, opposite, reverse, away disagree, disappear
ex- out of, away from, lacking, former exhale, explosion
il- not illegal, illogical
im- not, without impossible, improper
in- not, without inaction, invisible
mis- bad, wrong mislead, misplace
non- not nonfiction, nonsense
pre- before prefix, prehistory
pro- for, forward, before proactive, profess, program
re- again, back react, reappear
un- against, not, opposite undo, unequal, unusual
Suffix
Suffixes are added to the end of an existing word.
A Short List of Suffixes:
SUFFIX MEANING EXAMPLES
-able able to, having the quality of comfortable, portable
-al relating to annual, comical

-er Comparative bigger, stronger
-est Superlative strongest, tiniest
-ful full of beautiful, grateful
-ible forming an adjective reversible, terrible
-ily forming an adverb eerily, happily, lazily
-ing denoting an action, a material, or a gerund acting, showing
-less without, not affected by friendless, tireless
-ly forming an adjective clearly, hourly
-ness denoting a state or condition kindness, wilderness
-y full of, denoting a condition, or a diminutive glory, messy, victory,


EDSENG3: Structure of English Ms. Oharrah Mae Bernardez Officer-in-Charge, College of Education

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

EDSENG3: Structure of English Ms. Oharrah Mae Bernardez Officer-in-Charge, College of Education

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Basic Sentence Pattern 3

 The Ten Sentence Pattern 5

Chapter 2: Nouns and Article 10

Chapter 3: Pronouns and Prepositions 17

Chapter 4: Verbs and Voice 34

 Meanings and Common Uses of Verbs 36

Chapter 5: Subject-Verb Agreement 44

Concord rules which often cause errors 44

Chapter 6: Phrasal Verbs and Adjectives 48

Meaning of Phrasal Verb 50

 Separable Phrasal Verbs with their Objects 52

EDSENG3: Structure of English

 Forms of Coordinating Conjunctions 66

Chapter 8: Negation and Yes/No Questions 76

Chapter 9: WH-Questions and Adverbs 94

Chapter 10: Prefix and Suffix 111

EDSENG3: Structure of English

Is are was were has been had been

Smell taste look feel seem become appear grow

See jump embrace write imagine buy plummet think etc.

 NP= noun phrase

Thv-is abbreviation refers to a headword noun and its modifiers functioning as a

Numbers in sequential order are used with each NP to designate its

EDSENG3: Structure of English

THE TEN SENTENCE PATTERNS

1. NP1 + V-be + ADV/TP

The verb is being followed by an adverb indicating where or when.

E.g.My friends are here.

NP1 V-be ADV/TP

The adverb indicating where or when may be a prepositional phrase.

E.g. My friends are at the library

NP1 V-be ADV/TP

2. NP1 + V-be + ADJ

The verb is being followed by an adjective that functions as the subjective

E.g. His clear tenor voice was quite lovely.

NP1 v-be ADJ

3. NP1 + V-be + NP1

The verb is being followed by a noun that functions as the subjective

EDSENG3: Structure of English

NOTE: thesecond NP receives the same numerical designation as the first NP

The linking verb is followed by an adjective functioning as a subjective

E.g.The cake on the table looks delicious.

NP1 LV ADJ Subject complement

The Adjectival functioning as the subjective complement may be a prepositional

E.g.Marian looks like her mother

NP1 LV ADJ subject complement

The linking verb is followed by a noun functioning as a subjective complement.

E.g. At a very early age, Joan became a Buddhist

NP1 LV NP1 Subject Complement

EDSENG3: Structure of English

E.g.In a few weeks my cousin will arrive

7. NP1 + V-tr + NP2

The action verb is followed by a direct object.

E.g. The archer shot an arrow into the target.

NP1 V-tr NP2 Direct object

8. NP1 + V-tr + NP2 + NP3

E.g. Smithers gave the employees a raise

NP1 V-tr NP2 Indirect object NP3

9. NP1 + V-tr + NP2 + ADJ

E.g. The jury found the defendant guilty.

NP1 NP2 ADJ Objective