Gene transfer in bacteria

Horizontal gene transfer

- It allows the cell to gain new characteristics which will allow for an increased in
metabolic diversity. (quick process)
- It faces 3 fates:
1. It may be degraded by recipient cells restriction enzymes or other DNA
destruction systems
2. It may replicate by itself
3. It may recombine with recipient cells chromosome

Genetic recombination
- It is the physical exchange of DNA between genetic elements.
- Homologous recombination: DNA sequences that have the same sequence and thus
they can pair over an extended length of the 2 DNA molecules to facilitate exchange.

Transformation
- It is the genetic transfer process by which free DNA is incorporated into a recipient
cell and brings about genetic change
- Many organisms are naturally transformable inc. species that have gram positive
bacteria and some species of Archaea.
- The DNA in a prokaryotic cell is present as a large single molecule, and so when a
cell is lysed, its DNA pours out.
- The size of bacterial chromosomes are so long, and this is what causes them to break
so east. E.g. B. subtilis
- A cell that is able to take up DNA and be transformed is known as Competent. A
certain bacteria can exhibit competence, a state in which cells are able to take up
free DNA released by other bacteria.

Transduction
- In transduction, a bacterial virus transfers DNA from 1 cell to another. Viruses can
transfer host genes in 2 ways
o Generalised transduction: the bacterial donor genes cannot replicate
independently and are not apart of a viral genome. Therefore the donor
genes must recombine with the recipient bacterial chromosomes so the
donor isn’t lost.
o Specialised transduction: homologous transduction does occur but because
the donor bacterial DNA is actually a part of a temperature phage genome, it
may be integrated into the host chromosome during lysogeny.

Conjugation
- Form of both gram pos and negative bacteria that requires cell-to-cell
mating/contact. It is a plasmid-enclosed mechanism that can mediate between cells
that are closely related
- It requires a donor cell that has a conjugative plasmid and a recipient cell that
doesn’t. If a genetic element cannot be mobilised, conjugation can transfer them
(this can be either other plasmids or host chromosome).
Transposons and insertion sequences
- They are genetic elements that can move from one location on a host DNA molecule
to another by transposition. Transposition can be either replicative or conservative
and carry genes that encode antibiotic resistance.

Antibiotics and microbial growth

Antibiotics
- Antimicrobial agents that are produced by microorganisms. They can either kill or
inhibit the growth of bacteria aswell as target all processes that are important to
growth and survival.

Target to molecular processes

- All steps within the central dogma (the flow of genetic info) are important for growth
and antibiotics can target the enzymes that catalyse DNA replication, RNA synthesis
and translation.
- Quinolones such as ciprofloxacin target DNA? Gyrase in gram negative bacteria and
topoisomerase IV in gram pos bacteria. This then leads to cell death by interfering
with DNA and unwinding for replication.
- Many antibiotics inhibit bacterial growth via targeting some aspect of protein
synthesis.

Antibiotics that target the cell membrane and wall

- Dapto-mycin is a lipopeptide produced by Streptomyces that specifically binds to
phosphatidylglycerol residues of the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane – this then
leads to pore formation and depolarisation of the membrane and thus cell death.
- Some antibiotics target gram-negative cell outer membrane
- B-lactams penicillin targets the synthesis of peptidoglycan in bacteria by inhibiting
the growth by interfering with proteins that catalyse transpeptidation.
- Vanomycin inhibits peptidoglycan synthesis in gram positive bacteria by binding to
pentapeptide precursors and preventing the formation of peptide interbridges.

Antibiotic resistance
- If bacteria is to survive even though antibiotics are produced by other microbes or
simply from their own antibiotics if they are a antibiotic producing organism, they
require assistance mechanisms of one sort or another.
- There are 4 classes
1. Modification of the drug target
2. Enzymatic inactivation
3. Removal from the cell via efflux pumps
4. Metabolic bypasses
- Chromosomal mutations can lead to antibiotic resistance i.e. e. coli or other bacteria
resistant to the antibiotic rifampin which inhibits the activity of RNA polymerase and
can be obtained simply by exposing a large cell population to the antibiotic.
- Resistance genes can exist on mobile genetic elements and such genes can be readily
transmitted between bacteria of the same or different species by horizontal gene
flow. Mobile genetic elements as such can alter its structure either through chemical
modification or actual cleavage as they encode enzymes that do this.