Carbon Fibres

What are carbon fibres?

Carbon fibre dates back to 1879, when Thomas Alva Edison baked cotton threads
or bamboo silvers, which carbonized them into an all-carbon fibre filament. By
1958, high performance carbon fibres were invented just outside of Cleveland.
Although they were inefficient, these fibres contained amost 20%carbon and had
low strength and stiffness properties.

In 1963, a new manufacturing process was developed at British Research Centre,

which is where carbon fibre’s strength potential was realized.

Modern day carbon fibres are polymers about 5–10 micrometres in diameter and
composed mostly of carbon atoms. They are made of thin, strong, crystalline
filaments of carbon that are used to strengthen material. They can be thinner than a
strand of human hair and get their strength when twisted together like yarn. Then
they can be woven together to form cloth and if needed to take a permanent shape,
carbon fibre can be laid over a mold and coated in resin or plastic.

Properties:

 Very strong, five times stronger than steel and twice as tough.
 Very lightweight
 High tensile strength
 Low weight to strength ratio
 High chemical resistance
 Temperature tolerant to excessive heat
 Low coefficient of thermal expansion

Uses:

Because of the aforementioned properties, carbon fibre is used in a number of

industries like aerospace, automobile, military, ceramics, etc. Following is a short
list of things that have already been manufactured using carbon fibres.
  Bike frames
 Aircraft wings
 Automobile drive shafts
 Tubing
 Containers
 Propeller blades
 Car components

Structure:

• The atomic structure of carbon fibres is similar to that of graphite,

consisting of sheets of carbon atoms arranged in a regular hexagonal
pattern, the difference being in the way these sheets interlock.

• Graphite is a crystalline material in which the sheets are stacked parallel to

one another in regular fashion. The intermolecular forces between the sheets
are relatively weak Van der Waals forces, giving graphite its soft and brittle
characteristics.

• Depending upon the precursor to make the fibre, carbon fibre may be
turbostratic or graphitic, or have a hybrid structure with both graphitic and
turbostratic parts present.

• In turbostratic carbon fibre the sheets of carbon atoms are haphazardly

folded, or crumpled, together. Carbon fibres derived from polyacrylonitrile
(PAN) are turbostratic, whereas carbon fibres derived
from mesophase pitch are graphitic after heat treatment at temperatures
exceeding 2200 °C. Turbostratic carbon fibres tend to have high tensile
strength, whereas heat-treated mesophase-pitch-derived carbon fibres have
high Young's modulus and high thermal conductivity.
The carbon fibre manufacturing process:

The raw material used to make carbon fiber is called the precursor. About 90%
of the carbon fibers produced are made from polyacrylonitrile (PAN). The
remaining 10% are made from rayon or petroleum pitch. All of these materials
are organic polymers, characterized by long strings of molecules bound together
by carbon atoms.

The process for making carbon fibers is part chemical and part mechanical. The
precursor is drawn into long strands or fibers and then heated to a very high
temperature without allowing it to come in contact with oxygen. Without
oxygen, the fiber cannot burn. Instead, the high temperature causes the atoms in
the fiber to vibrate violently until most of the non-carbon atoms are expelled.
This process is called carbonization and leaves a fiber composed of long, tightly
interlocked chains of carbon atoms with only a few non-carbon atoms
remaining.

Following are the four major steps involved:

i) Stabilizing
Before the fibers are carbonized, they need to be chemically altered to
convert their linear atomic bonding to a more thermally stable ladder
bonding. This is accomplished by heating the fibers in air to about 390-
590° F (200-300° C) for 30-120 minutes. This causes the fibers to pick
up oxygen molecules from the air and rearrange their atomic bonding
pattern. The stabilizing chemical reactions are complex and involve
several steps, some of which occur simultaneously. They also generate
their own heat, which must be controlled to avoid overheating the fibers.
Commercially, the stabilization process uses a variety of equipment and
techniques. In some processes, the fibers are drawn through a series of
heated chambers. In others, the fibers pass over hot rollers and through
beds of loose materials held in suspension by a flow of hot air. Some
processes use heated air mixed with certain gases that chemically
accelerate the stabilization.

ii) Carbonizing
Once the fibers are stabilized, they are heated to a temperature of about
1,830-5,500° F (1,000-3,000° C) for several minutes in a furnace filled
 with a gas mixture that does not contain oxygen. The lack of oxygen
prevents the fibers from burning in the very high temperatures. The gas
pressure inside the furnace is kept higher than the outside air pressure and
the points where the fibers enter and exit the furnace are sealed to keep
oxygen from entering. As the fibers are heated, they begin to lose their
non-carbon atoms, plus a few carbon atoms, in the form of various gases
including water vapor, ammonia, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen, nitrogen, and others. As the non-carbon atoms are expelled, the
remaining carbon atoms form tightly bonded carbon crystals that are
aligned more or less parallel to the long axis of the fiber. In some
processes, two furnaces operating at two different temperatures are used
to better control the rate of heating during carbonization.

iii) Treating the surface

After carbonizing, the fibers have a surface that does not bond well with
the epoxies and other materials used in composite materials. To give the
fibers better bonding properties, their surface is slightly oxidized. The
addition of oxygen atoms to the surface provides better chemical bonding
properties and also etches and roughens the surface for better mechanical
bonding properties. Oxidation can be achieved by immersing the fibers in
various gases such as air, carbon dioxide, or ozone; or in various liquids
such as sodium hypochlorite or nitric acid. The fibers can also be coated
electrolytically by making the fibers the positive terminal in a bath filled
with various electrically conductive materials. The surface treatment
process must be carefully controlled to avoid forming tiny surface defects,
such as pits, which could cause fiber failure.

iv) Sizing

After the surface treatment, the fibers are coated to protect them from
damage during winding or weaving. This process is called sizing. Coating
materials are chosen to be compatible with the adhesive used to form
composite materials. Typical coating materials include epoxy, polyester,
nylon, urethane, and others.

The coated fibers are wound onto cylinders called bobbins. The bobbins
are loaded into a spinning machine and the fibers are twisted into yarns of
various sizes.
 Fact file

Most car components are made up of steel. Replacing steel components

with carbon fiber would reduce the weight of cars by almost 60%. That
60% drop in weight would, in turn, reduce the car’s fuel consumption by
30%. And cut green house gases and other harmful emissions by 10-20%.
That’s huge fuel saving, even without changing the car’s engine. With a
lighter carbon fiber body, car makers could build cars with smaller, more
efficient engines, or increase the use of electric engines, resulting in even
more fuel savings. Reducing weight, increasing fuel efficiency and
allowing for development of different kinds of engines: That’s how
carbon fibers can solve the oil crisis.

Ceramic matrix composites:

• Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) are a subgroup of composite materials

as well as a subgroup of ceramics. They consist of ceramic fibres embedded
in a ceramic matrix.

• They differ from conventional ceramics in the following properties,

presented in more detail below:

• High mechanical strength even at high temperatures;

• High thermal shock resistance;

• High stiffness;

• High toughness;

• High thermal stability;

• Low density;

• High corrosion resistance even at high temperature

Uses of CMCs:

• Heat shield systems for space vehicles, which are needed during the re-entry
phase, where high temperatures, thermal shock conditions and heavy
vibration loads take place.
 • Components for high-temperature gas turbines such as combustion
chambers, stator vanes and turbine blades.

• Components for burners, flame holders, and hot gas ducts, where the use of
oxide CMCs has found its way.

• Brake disks and brake system components, which experience extreme

thermal shock (greater than throwing a glowing part of any material into
water).

Recycling of carbon fibers:

The process from manufacturing carbon fiber to production of finished

components is wasteful; it is estimated that more than 30% of produced carbon
fiber ends up as waste at some point in the process. Where the carbon fiber
composites industry most differs from other industries that produce high
proportions of waste is that it lacks an effective recycling solution. This is not to
say that we cannot recycle carbon fiber. Several companies have developed cost-
effective means of recovering carbon fibers from manufacturing waste and end-of-
life components without significantly degrading fiber properties.

Why should we do this? From an economic standpoint, recycled carbon fiber

products can reduce the cost of lightweighting, used either on their own or in
conjunction with virgin carbon fibers. In fact, making lightweighting
strategies affordable must be a primary goal if we are to see increasing use of
carbon fiber in high-volume applications. If we address this challenge, then we can
increase the total use of carbon fiber in these developing markets. From the
environmental standpoint, reducing waste and reusing materials that have a high
embedded energy, and which can be recycled in an energy-efficient manner, is the
right thing to do, from a social responsibility point of view. It also is a legislative
requirement in some countries.

In summary, a number of companies across the globe have developed cost-

effective solutions to carbon fiber recycling, and an initial range of products now
available for the compounding and composites industries. The time is right for the
industry to work together, to move recycling from the fringes to its rightful place
as an integral part of the carbon fiber market. In doing so, we improve the cost and
the environmental footprint of our businesses, create additional and sustainable
supply chains for critical raw materials, and help the overall carbon fiber
composites industry grow.

Carbon fibers and human health:

The principal health hazards of carbon fibre handling are due to mechanical
irritation and abrasion similar to that of glass fibres. Carbon fibres are easily
broken by stretching (by less than 2% elongation); the fibers can easily become a
fine dust during cutting, machining or mechanical finishing and can then be
released into the surrounding atmosphere. These micro fibres if uncontrolled have
a potential to stick into human skin or the mucous membranes causing irritation.

Most fibres have a coating (called a 'sizing' which is often an epoxy or other resin)
that can also cause chemical irritation. Many of the solvents used in advanced
composite processes are volatile, flammable and irritating to skin and eyes. Health
effects typical of these chemicals include irritation of the eyes and upper
respiratory tract, dizziness, drowsiness, nausea, and vomiting. Visual disturbances
may also occur. Repeated or prolonged skin contact with these liquids may cause
dermatitis.

Risk Management:

After curing, fibres become very rigid and may protrude from poorly machined or
fractured surfaces. Such surfaces should be handled with care, due to the potential
for laceration and impregnation of fibre splinters into the skin. Heavy style gloves
should always be worn when handling materials to protect against penetration of
these fibres as well as contact with resins
Protection of eyes and throat from carbon fibre dust is paramount. Users must wear
full goggles and a dust mask to prevent dust inhalation. Dust particulate masks
must be fit tested to the individual. Protective clothing should be worn whenever
dust is created (such as while machining). The use of elastic cuffs on the protective
clothing will keep dust from getting inside protective suits.
Carbon fibres are electrically conductive and dust or waste can cause short-circuits
within electrical equipment. Specific vacuum cleaners (designed specifically for
extraction of conductive substances) should be used in conjunction with a suitable
HEPA filter.

Future of Carbon Fibres:

• Fuel Efficient Vehicles-While carbon Fibres is currently used in small batches

of high performance vehicles and automobiles, the automotive industry is
starting to increase their production of cars with carbon Fibres features.
Replacing steel components with carbon Fibres would reduce the weight of
most cars by 60%, reducing fuel consumption by 30%.

• Automotive Parts and Repairs-Ultra lightweight carbon Fibres composites offer

great benefits to the automotive industry, including those related to fuel-
economy and carbon-emissions. Originally confined to race cars, luxury cars,
and show cars, carbon Fibres composites may soon be found in more of our
everyday vehicles.

• Alternative Energy-Carbon Fibres and composites are commonly used to help

build structures that produce alternate energy. Because it’s light weight and
strong, carbon Fibres is often used in the production of wind turbines,
compressed natural gas storage and transportation, and fuel cells.

• Oil Exploration-Carbon Fibres and its composites can also provide assistance
with the creation of deep sea drilling platforms, drill pipes, and other oil
exploration equipment. Incentives for using composites in oil exploration are
substantial because of the corrosion resistance and light weight.

• Construction and Infrastructure-Carbon Fibres and its lightweight, but strong

properties provide alternatives to traditional steel, aluminum and Fibre glass
materials, helping create lightweight, pre-cast concrete, as well as earthquake
protection in buildings and structures of all types.
References:

http://www.innovativecomposite.com/what-is-carbon-fiber/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fibers

http://zoltek.com/carbon-fiber/how-is-carbon-fiber-made/

Video References:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xgVWRn12qL4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4t1pBvTDNXE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aKpDyfJnxQQ

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FTUw0OWWMLU

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sRH-hskYlxQ

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=666VH25FeG0