Vibration Sensors

Mechanical Vibration Fundamental Training Course
Table of Contents
PAGE
S.N TOPICS
No.
1 Mechanical Vibration Introduction 1
2 Types Of Maintenance Programs 1-2
3 The Predictive Maintenance Program 3-5
4 Basics Of Vibration 6-12
5 Vibration Units ISO ( Metric ) 13 -14
6 Machine Categories in Process Plant 15 -16
7 Vibration Measurement 16
8 Vibration Transducers 17- 20
9 Probe Location and Orientation 21- 22
10 Vibration Transducers Choice 23-25
11 Permanent Vibration Monitoring System 26 - 30
12 Filters 31-33
13 Vibration Measurement Standards 34 - 36
14 Phase Measurement 37- 40
Machine Dynamic Classes and Vibration
15 41- 42
Severity Standards
16 Vibration Analysis 43-44
17 Source of Vibration in Rotating Machines 45-46
Vibration Diagnosis tools
 Frequency spectrum plot
 Orbit plot
18  Bode plot 46-59
 Polar plot
 Cascade plot
 Acceptance Region plot
19 Phase Analysis 60-63
20 Some Common Machine Problems 64-67
21 Detection of Specific Machine Faults 68-77
22 Advanced Diagnosis of Some Machine Faults 78-86
23 Fundamentals of Balancing 86-93
1
Mechanical Vibration
Introduction
Types of Maintenance Programs

In general, there are three ways to maintain machinery:
1. Breakdown maintenance
2. Scheduled or "preventive" maintenance
3. Predictive maintenance
Breakdown Maintenance
Breakdown maintenance is essentially no maintenance at all. The machine is
simply allowed to run until complete failure, inefficiency or product spoilage
forces a shutdown. Although many machines are maintained this way,
breakdown maintenance has several disadvantages. First, failures can be
most untimely and, there is little one can do beforehand to anticipate the
tools, personnel and replacement parts that will be needed to return the
machine to service. Secondly, machines allowed to run to failure generally
require more extensive repair than would have been necessary if the problem
had been detected and corrected early. Some failures can be catastrophic,
requiring total replacement of the machine. It is estimated that, on the
average, it costs approximately three times more to repair or replace a
machine that has been allowed to run to total failure compared to the cost to
repair a machine before failure. Catastrophic machine failure can also pose a
safety problem for plant personnel. And, the added cost of lost production
while the machine is out of service can be staggering.
2
Scheduled or Preventive Maintenance

Compared to breakdown maintenance, a program of periodic disassembly,
inspection and replacement of worn parts has the distinct advantage of
lessening the frequency of breakdown repairs and also permits scheduled
shutdown. Under this program, each critical machine is shut down after a
specified period of operation and partially or completely dismantled for a
thorough inspection and replacement of worn parts, if any. This approach to
machinery maintenance, too, has disadvantages. First, to periodically
dismantle every critical piece of equipment in the plant can be expensive and
time consuming. Second, the interval between periodic inspections is difficult
to predict. If the program is so successful that no machinery failures occur, it
may be that the interval is too short and money and production is being
wasted. If the interval is too long, costly failures may still occur.
Predictive Maintenance
Predictive maintenance involves the trending and analysis of machinery
performance parameters to detect and identify developing problems before
failure and extensive damage can occur. On-line detection and diagnosis of
problems is obviously the most desirable way to maintain machinery. If
problems can be detected early, when defects are minor and do not affect
performance, and if the nature of the problem can be identified while the
machine runs:
1. Shutdown for repairs can be scheduled for a convenient time.
2. A work schedule, together with the requirements for personnel, tools and
replacement parts can be prepared before the shutdown.
3. Extensive damage to the machine resulting from forced failure can be

avoided.
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4. Repair time can be kept to a minimum, resulting in reduced machinery

downtime.
5. Costly trial-and-error approaches to solve a problem can be avoided since

analysis identifies the nature of the problem.
6. Machines in good operating condition can continue to run as long as no

problems develop. Time and money are not wasted dismantling machines
that are already operating properly.
In addition, machinery performance characteristics such as flow rates and

pressures can also be monitored to detect problems. In the case of machine
tools, the inability to produce a quality product in terms of surface finish or
dimensional tolerances is usually an indication of problems. All of these
techniques have value and merit. However, the one characteristic that is
common to practically all machines is VIBRATION.
The Vibration Predictive Maintenance Program

A vibration predictive maintenance program consists of three logical steps:
 DETECTION
 ANALYSIS
 CORRECTION
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Comparison of Maintenance Strategies
Run-to-breakdown Preventive Predictive
Method Failure based Time based Condition Based
Lower maintenance
costs.
- Fewer Machine failures .
Planned - Less repair downtime .
Advantages No maintenance cost
maintenance - Reduced inventory
- Increased production
- Improved operator
safety
High spare parts -Failure may occur
inventory before scheduled
- High machine downtime maintenance
- High overtime labor -Maintenance may -Initial investment in
Disadvantages costs be performed equipment .
- Low production unnecessarily .
availability -Maintenance may
cause failure .
Used only on cheap ,
Used on all
Use abundant and
machines
Used on all machines
insignificant components
Predictive Maintenance Techniques
 Lube. Oil analysis .

 Infrared thermography .
 Electrical motor diagnostic .
 Vibration Monitoring and diagnostics .
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Parameters Used for Detection of machine faults
Machine Failure Analysis

Machine Potential Failures Analysis
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Basics of Vibration
 What is vibration?
 How to measures?
 Where to measure?
 Units of vibrations?
What is mechanical vibration?

Mechanical vibration is a phenomena of unstable state of a specific
mass ( body ) that describes a hesitated motion between two
terminal locations and during this state a quantity of potential
energy transfers into kinetic energy, then it reverses again into
potential energy then repeats the cycle again and so on , this
process continues while the mass is looking for an equilibrium state.
Motion Domain
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Characteristic Of Vibration
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Signal level descriptors
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Vibration Units ISO (metric)
Displacement μm, mm
Velocity mm/s, m/s
Acceleration mm/s2, ‘g’
Amplitude :
Peak- peak = 2 x Peak
Rms = 0.7.7 x Peak
Average = 0.636 x Peak
1 g = 980.6 mm/s2
Frequency :
1 cpm = 1 cycle per min
1 Hz = 1 cycle/sec = 60 cycle/min
60 Hz = 60 cps = 3600 cpm (RPM)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 mil = 0.001 in = 25.4 um
1 um = 10-6m
1mm/s = 0.039 IPS
1IPS = 1In/Sec (25.4 mm/s)
1g = 9.81 m/s2
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Machine Categories in Process Plant
Process machineries can be divided into three groups:
• Critical machines:
• Essential machines:
• General purpose machines:
Critical machines
• Very high cost

• No stand-by & any problem results into
plant S/d
• High power & speed
• Typically equipped with permanently installed vibration transducer,
bearing tempt pickup and automatic trip features for machine
protection.
Example: Compressors, turbines etc
Semi Critical machines
• Second major group of machines

• Physically smaller than critical machines with low horsepower rating
• There are backup/ standby units and if one unit fails, plant is not stopped.
Example: Boiler feed water pumps, feed water circulation pump, ID/FD Fans
etc
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General Purpose machines
• Moderate cost.
• These are physically smaller
• Generally one or two stand-by
• equipped with rolling element bearings
• No close monitoring
• Non critical to process.
Example: process water pump, effluent pump etc,
Vibration measurement
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Vibration Transducers
The different types of transducer
A- Mechanical levers .
B- Eddy Current Proximity probe .
C- Velocity pickup .
D- Accelerometer .
Mechanical Lever
Application :
Obsolete , but still found in a few old power stations .
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Eddy Current Proximity Probes
Velocity pickup
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Vibration Transducer (accelerometer)
Non-contact Transducer (Proximity pick-up)
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Probe Location and Orientation
Vibration Transducers Range
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Comparison among vibration transducers
Probe Type Advantages Disadvantages

- Measures directly the
motion of the shaft. Sensitive to observed
- Measures without surface defects or non-
contacting the surface. homogeneous shaft material
- Solid stalls, no moving (gives mechanical run out).
parts. Also vibrating surface must
-Simultaneously measures be electrically conductive.
Proximity both dynamic motions and - Calibration varies with
avg. position. target material.
probes - Can also be used as rotor - Require external power
speed, sensor and phase source always.
reference. - Installation is difficult
- Small size and excellent possible only when machine
frequency response. is shutdown.
- Accurate low frequency
amplitude & phase angle.
Easy to install outside of Relatively large and heavy.
machine, - Relatively narrow
on bearing housing. frequency response with
- Strong signal in the mid amplitude and phase errors
frequency ranges. at low Frequency.
Velocity - Work well with portable -It is a mechanical device,
instruments. with limited life of moving
Transducers - Suitable to relatively high parts.
temperature areas. -Measures only external
- No external power is motion,
required. impedance between shaft
&casing is ignored.
Easy to install on the Not suitable to low freq of
machine. vibration.
- Good frequency response, -Comparatively expensive
covers all machines. and difficult to calibrate.
-Small and light in weight, no -Requires external power
moving parts hence durable. source/charge amplifier.
Accelerometers - Suitable for high - Measures only casing
temperature areas. motion, impedance between
- Strong signal in high shaft & casing is ignored.
frequency ranges.
- High sensitivity to mass
ratio.
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Permanent Vibration Monitoring System
Critical machines like turbine, generator, compressor, need to be

monitored around the clock Proximity Transducers are installed.
Proximity probe installation & setting
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Dual channel proximity probe & orbit
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Proximity Transducers- (Permanently installed)
1) Radial vibration
- ac signal output from the probe gives shaft vibration it is shaft relative
vibration (true Pk-Pk) and vibration amplitude shall not exceed half of the
bearing diametric clearance.
2) Radial position of Shaft

- DC signal of the proximity probe gives direct Gap volts, indicator of shaft
radial position in the bearing. If there is any preloading on the shaft (coupling /
Bearing misalignment, bearing wear, piping forces etc) shaft center-line radial
position within the bearing clearance will change, indicated by gap volt
change.
3) Dynamic motion of the shaft (Orbit Plot)

- Locus of the traces of both the probes gives dynamic motion of the shaft
with respect the bearing
4) Axial position of the shaft ( Axial displacement)

- Observe the shaft’s thrust collar or any other axial surface on the shaft and
gives continuously the axial movement of the shaft in mm. Also monitor DC
gap output.
5) Key Phaser
- proximity transducer observes the radial shaft surface that contains a once-
per-turn discontinuity (a single notch/ projection). It provides voltage pulse
with every shaft rotation & thus indicates shaft rotational speed. This signal is
also used as timing pulse for vibration phase angle measurement.
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6) Machinery Diagnosis
- proximity probes are not only the transducers for basic machine protection
on turbine/compressor, but they also are the best transducers for machinery
diagnosis i.e. detection of machine faults/malfunctions.
Key-phasor
• The Key-phasor is a transducer installed on a machine train observing a
once-per-turn event (e.g. keyway) on a rotating shaft providing a voltage

pulse that occur once-per-revolution of the shaft.
• The key-phasor pulse provides a reference for data taken on a machine

train . It is a reference mark and timer for speed, phase angle, frequency
measurements and all data acquisition.
• The keyphasor is a very valuable tool when trying to diagnose and correct
specific malfunctions of rotating machinery.
• The pulse provided by the key-phasor transducer is normally input into

instruments such as tachometer, Vector filter phase meters, or other
instruments requiring a timing pulse.
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Key-Phasor signal
Transducer Response
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FILTERS
A FILTER IS A DATA ACQUISITION TOOL THAT CAN BE USED TO :
• Remove noise from vibration signals.

• Determine frequency components of the vibration signals.
• Determine amplitude level of the frequency component.
• ALSO :
Aid in classification of machine malfunctions when used with other
data acquisition instrumentation such as oscilloscopes and
recorders.
FILTER TYPES
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Different Types of Filters
• Band pass filter

• Tunable filter
• Sweep filter
• Tracking filter
Basic parameters for P/M of Rotating Machines (Critical)
a) Dynamic Motion (vibration) parameters

Vibration amplitude
Frequency
Phase angle
Vibration waveform
Vibration mode shape
b) Position Measurement
Eccentricity position
Axial Thrust position
Case expansion
Alignment
c) Other parameters
Speed
Temperature- Bearing, Lube oil, casing
Process parameters
( Flow, pressure, tempt, valve lift etc )
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How to measure overall vibration
Measurement
DATE DATE DATE
point
M.D.E H
V
A
P.D.E H
V
A
Guidelines For Overall Vibration Measurement
• Use same frequency range

• Use same scale factor: pk or pk-pk or rms
• Use same location, points
• Measure in three directions H,V,Ax
• Mount sensor always perpendicular to surface
• Make measurement at optimum, steady state process condition
• Trend overall values & compare recent data with previous

readings
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ISO 10816 (1995) Standard
• Vibration Measurement
1. Measurement Parameters
1.1 Measuring Position: Should be taken on bearing housing or
nearest to the nearing housing. At the structures which significantly
respond to the dynamic forces.
1.2 Measurement Quantity: Vibration displacement-μm
Vibration Velocity: mm/s
Vibration Acceleration: m/s2
1.3 Vibration Magnitude: at specific measuring point &
direction.
Vibration velocity- mm/s, rms as RMS velo can be related to vib
energy.
1.4 Frequency Range: usually 1---5X. Shall be broad band.
1.5 Vibration Severity: the maximum broad-band magnitude

value considered as vibration severity.
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ISO 10816 (1995)
• Vibration Measurement
2. Acceptance Test
2.1 In situ test i.e. at actual foundation & / or installed m/c support
structure.
2.2 In test facility (at shop floor, test bed, different support
structure): note that natural frequency of the test arrangement do
not coincide with the rotational frequency of the m/c.
3. Evaluation Criteria
• Specifies general criteria & principles of the evaluation of m/c
vibration. Applicable to both operational monitoring & acceptable
testing
• Applicable to the vibration produced by the m/c itself & not to
vibration transmitted from outside.
• ISO-10896- Casing celocity is complimented by other guidelines.
ISO 7979-1 (shaft vibration)
• Four different zones (Zone A, B, C, D) : Gibes quantitative
assessment of vibration on a given m/c & provide guideline for
possible actions.
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ISO 10816 (1995)
Vibration Measurement
3.2 Change in vibration magnitude:

*Change w.r.t. reference/ base value- Applicable under steady
state condition
-Vibration magnitude 2X or 3X change should be investigated
3.3 Operational Limits:
* Establish over all vibration limits.
• I alarm- Vibration reached to defined value where remedial
action may be necessary ( investigate for reasons for change
in vibration)
• II alarm (trip): Vibration level beyond which machine damage
can occur. If trip value exceeds, immediate action is required
to reduce the vibration or m/c should be stopped. (it relates to
the mechanical integrity of the m/c)
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Phase Measurement
Here we will illustrate how we can use Phase to detect some
vibration faults .
To do that , we must to know first the answers of the following
questions :
* What is Phase ?
* What can it be used for ?
* How can it be measured ?
* How can it be used ?
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What are Phase Measurements used for ?
 Diagnosis of faults , e.g. unbalance and misalignment , by

measuring the relative phase between two points .
 Balancing of rotors by measuring the phase and level of
vibration .
 Monitoring shaft integrity , e.g. shaft cracking , by monitoring
phase changes .
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Measuring Phase
Measuring Phase with a Stroboscope
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Considerations when Measuring Phase
 Transducer Orientation .
 Direction of Shaft Rotation .
 Repeatable Measurement .
 Rigid and Flexible Rotors .
Transducer Orientation effect
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ISO 10816 Vibration Severity Standards

ISO 10816 Vibration Severity Standards
ISO 2372 (10816) Standards provide guidance for evaluating

vibration severity in machines operating in the 10 to 200Hz (600 to
12,000 RPM) frequency range. Examples of these types of
machines are small, direct-coupled, electric motors and pumps,
production motors, medium motors, generators, steam and gas
turbines, turbo-compressors, turbo-pumps and fans. Some of these
machines can be coupled rigidly or flexibly, or connected though
gears. The axis of the rotating shaft may be horizontal, vertical or
inclined at any angle. Use the chart below combined with additional
factors described in this manual to judge the overall vibration
severity of your equipment.
SEVERITY GUIDELINES ( Machine Dynamic Classes )
Range: 10 Hz to 200 Hz Shaft Speed

Vibration Bandwidth: 10 Hz to 1000 Hz
Class I Machines. Small machines to 15 kW

Class II Machines. 15-75 kW on light foundations
15-300 kW on heavy foundations
Class III Machines Above 300 kW on heavy and rigid
foundations
Class IV Machines Above 300 kW on flexible foundations (soft
mount)
 Classes V and VI are not listed, they belongs to
reciprocating machines
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Vibration Analysis
 All rotating equipment vibrate.

 Behavior of two machines are not similar as every machine is
manufactured differently, installed differently, operated under
different conditions and maintained differently
 Vibration can be accurately measured and analyzed for faults.
the operating machine is talking to us in its own language telling us all about
its internal condition. we should listen and interpret what it is saying. this is
where instruments help. a machine’s vibration signature is like a heartbeat.
figure depicts a doctor with a motor on the examining table. a vibration
analyst performs the same diagnostic service on machinery that a medical
doctor performs on a human patient.
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Problem Solving & analysis Philosophy
 Problems are solved one at a time.

 Problems have causes. Identify the cause before trying to
solve the problem
 Before doing something, know what you want to accomplish.
 Problems do occur. It’s better to plan for them than to be
surprised.
When You are investigating the “Unknown” You do not know

what you Will find.
☼ ODR- (operation- driven reliability) is neglected in many industries.

Operators are the People who are closest to plant machinery on a daily basis,
& typically they are the first to notice the smallest changes in the machine
operations.
☼ There are three job functions in any plant:
§ Operating the machinery

§ Maintaining the “
§ Technical procurement of the machinery
Unless these three functions work together, the machines will not function
reliably.
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Sources of Vibration in Rotating machines.

Dynamic forces act on each machine which in turn generates noise,
vibration and the defects as well. These defects change the
features of the forces and hence the characteristics of the noise and
vibration. The main dynamic forces that act in a rotating machine
are:
Type Force Source
Centrifugal Rotor unbalance
Kinematic Surface roughness
Mechanical Nature Shaft, bearing & other unit’s rigidity

Parametric
fluctuation
Frictional forces Rolling and slide friction units
Shocks Faulted friction surfaces
Air gap volume fluctuation in the magnetic

Magnetic conductor
Electric & Variable components of current and

Magnetic Nature Electro-dynamic
magnetic flux
Magneto- Magneto-strictive effect in the magnetic
strictive conductor
Movement of as blade in an irregular flow
Lifting flow or a group of non- uniform blades in
uniform flow
Flow dynamics
Boundary between the flow and fixed
Friction forces
parts
Pressure Flow turbulence, bubbles, Cavitation
pulsations
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Actual example of frequency spectrum of a turbine shaft vibration
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Orbit Analysis
Basically it is a display of shaft- observing X-Y proximity probes and

indicates the dynamic path of the shaft centerline within the radial
bearing clearance.
The time wave display shows the two signals waveform which is
used to form an orbit. The shape & size of the orbit is important
indication of the problem as orbit like ‘figure B’ indicates
misalignment.
This plot gives good information about the pre-loading of the
bearing & coupling and is useful to ascertain the behavior of Roto
dynamic motion (forward or reverse).
Polar plot
Polar plot is a co-ordinate representation of the locus of 1x vector at a

specific lateral shaft location with the shaft rotational speed as a parameter.
The polar plot is generated by in-phase and quadratic signals, usually
during machine start-up or coast down (transient data).
Basically it is a combination of three variables; phase, amplitude and speed
into a single plot. 2x vector polar plot can be used for cracked shaft
detection. Polar plot is also called as Nyquist plot and is used for studying
the rotor dynamic response.
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Bode Plot
The Bode plot consists of two separate cartesian plot - amplitude verses
RPM and Phase lag verses RPM. When a machine passes through a natural
frequency during a coast down or start-up, the Bode plot will display
i) the amplitude plot with a peak

ii) the phase plot will show a 180 deg phase shift (with a phase shift of 90
deg right at the natural frequency).
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The Bode plots are used to identify natural frequency or resonance of the
Rotor.
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Cascade/ Water Fall Plot
A Cascade plot is basically a spectrum plot (amplitude Vs. frequency) that

is placed in another frame of reference i.e. time. Final plot is actually
Amplitude vs. Frequency vs. Time. Cascade plot gives the analyst a view
of the machine vibration characteristics relative to operating speed or the
actual running time.
The cascade plot graphically displays resonant events, rotor rub, oil whirl,
oil whip, beat frequency events and other mechanical faults in a series of
frequency spectra which are generated as the machine changes speed, or as
time progresses
Acceptance Region Plot
Trend information of the 1x or 2x vibration vectors (amplitude and phase)

presented in polar format, or the shaft average centerline position in
cartesian format.
The user defines the normal Acceptance Region for each shaft radial
vibration or position measurement on the machine, based on historical data
for the machine under all normal operating conditions.
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Mode shape analysis
A mode shape is the resultant deflected shape of a structure when

forcing frequencies coincide with natural frequency of the structure
(i.e. condition of resonance). Mode shape shows how a rotor
(supported between bearings), deflects as it passes through its first,
second and third critical speeds.
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There will be maximum deflection at the center of the roll when it

passes through its first critical speed and it will have minimum
displacement at each end where the bearings are located. There
will be distinctly different mode shape as the roll enters its second
critical.
Note that the center point is a point of minimum deflection. These

points of minimum deflection are called as “Nodal points”. Motion
immediately on either side of a node is approximately 180 deg out
of phase. Node points may readily change location along the shaft
axis due to changes in residual unbalance or due to a change in
restraint such as an increased bearing clearance. Thus mode
shape analysis provides an estimate of the internal clearances
between the Rotor and Stator elements of the machine as well as
estimate of the Nodal points along the rotor shaft.
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Mode Forms At Different Speeds ( Frequencies )
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Vibration fault analysis / diagnosis plots
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Phase analysis
 Phase is a position of a part, at any instance, with respect to a

fixed point.
 It’s a measurement of timing relationship between two signal, or
between a specific event
 Phase reference- a signal used in rotating machinery
measurements, generated by a sensor observing a once-per
revolution event.
 Phase angle- the angular measurement from the leading edge of
key phasor pulse to the following positive peak of the 1x vibration
signal.
 Phase analysis is one of the most important tools to identify
specific fault. Too many defects have similar spectral patterns,
phase can help to determine the exact problem with a machine.
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Problems Normally Associated With High

Speed
Turbines / Compressors
Improper float of gear couplings gear coupling lock up wear out of

gear coupling high axial shift of rotors clogging of drains balancing
drum not functioning effectively balancing line choked damage of
thrust / journal bearings. due to static electricity pitting of the thrust
collar piping pulls on compressor barrel / turbine cylinder wear out
of turbine / compressor seals, improper radial clearance between
impeller / diffuser
lifting of turbine front pedestal & washers becoming tight total float
of rotor malfunctioning of governing systems malfunctioning of anti
surge valve stalling of the compressors rotor unbalance / residual
unbalance present beyond limits
Misalignment
impeller / diffuser vane passing frequency excitations gear boxes –
less problems high run – out on rotor / thrust collar high axial phase
run – out on thrust collar
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Problems Normally Associated With

Gas Turbines
generator rotor unbalance sometimes skid structure – resonance

associated / looseness
Alignment problems because of thermal growth bearing problems
Exciter rotor problems because of high swing values
Thermal problems with turbine rotors
Turbine – gear box gear coupling problems
Fans
generally unbalance problems
bearing damages
pedestal / structural looseness
aerodynamic excitations
mechanical / electrical problems associated with motors
Misalignment
When the geometric axes of 2 coupled objects are not in one line---
it is known as misalignment . It could be axial or radial or both.
In case of gear drives or belt drives the axes should be parallel &
not skew. Bearings can also have internal misalignments with
housing. Forces due to “misalignment” produce typically 1X, 2X &
3X components in the spectrum.
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Oil Whirl problem in Turbo-machinery
The high speed machines like turbines & compressors face one
typical kind of instability called "oil whirl". Though the mechanism of
this phenomenon is still not clearly known, there are various
parameters like oil temperature, oil pressure, bearing clearances,
floating seal condition, oil groove condition etc. which can affect the
stability of rotor & cause oil whirl.
 Oil whirl can be caused by increase in bearing clearances.
 Oil whirl can also be observed if there is any change in oil
viscosity or oil flow.
 Oil whirl can be easily detected by it's typical characteristics of
sudden rise & fall in vibration level.
 The dominant frequency of vibration is in the range of 0.42 to
0.46 X rpm. Even if the bearing clearances are OK, the rigidity
in the "seals" can also cause oil whirl.
Oil whirl vibrations can be eliminate d:
1. Reducing the RPM,

2. Changing the oil pressure ( reduce or increase).
3.Lub oil temperature can be increased.
4.Checking bearings & cleaning the oil passages.
5. Using "tilting pad bearings". 6.Keeping the seals "truly floating".
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Resonance/ critical speed
The frequency of vibration matches with any “natural frequency” of

the component, the component vibrates heavily & this is called as
“Resonance”.
It is always having 1X RPM as dominant frequency. The vibration
amplitude is very high. We need to eliminate the exciting force to
minimize the vibrations.
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DETECTION OF SPECIFIC MACHINE FALUTS
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Advanced diagnosis of some machine

faults
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Electric motor Monitoring

In electric motors mostly two types of faults/ problems are
encountered Electrically generated faults Mechanical faults
Vibration analysis can pin point the mechanical problems. For motor
faults (Rotor related faults & Stator related faults), Motor current
signature analysis (MCSA) is used based on the electrical
properties of AC current.
§ Broken rotor bars -- decreases the efficiency of the motor --
Is a potential for catastrophic failure
§ High resistance
§ Cracked or broken end rings
Three techniques are widely used:

Temperature survey -- identify hot spots & overheating Current
analysis – use clamp-on ac current transformers Or Flux coils Stray
shaft voltages -- grounding problem
Temperature Measurement:
Temperature is a main factor responsible for shortening motor life.
Abnormal temperature rise is a potential problem due to:
Hot spots in the stator (shorted laminations, shorted winding),

Unbalanced voltage
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Current analysis:
Collect current signature analysis and notice various peaks in the

spectra:
Side band of line freq ( 0-80 hz)

I ) LSB1 = Lf – (Np x SF) Lf – line frequency
SF = (2 * Lf/Np) – Fr Np – No of poles
SF – slip freq
II ) n = 2R/ 10 (Δ dB/20) + Np LSB1 – lower slip sideband of line

frequency
n - no of broken rotor bars
Δ dB - dB amplitude diff bet n Lf & LSB1
R - no of rotor bars/slots
Flux coil measurement:

Provide electrical quality signature, characteristic of motor (Flux
spectrum) All electric motor produces a magnetic flux and any small
unbalance in magnetic or electric field effectively changes axially
transmitted fluxes.
Broken rotor bars
Rotor eccentricity
Unbalance between phases
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Shaft current:
Unwanted stray current leads the premature Bearing failure.
Magnetically –induced currents circulate between the motor rotor &
the stator frame and are interfaced at the motor bearings. Measure
both ac & dc current from shaft to ground with proper shaft
probe/whiskers
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Condition Monitoring of Reciprocating

Machines
Monitoring Methods:
1. Check Vibration Displacement, acceleration

2. Check Temperature of valves, cylinders
3. Check Noise
4. Check Process parameters
On-line monitoring with alarm/ trip
 P-V Diagram [ Pressure vs stroke volume]

 Rod drop signal [use proximity sensors]
§ Loose piston rod connection
§ Piston rider ring wear
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Thrust monitoring of Turbo machines
 Design thrust load on thrust bearing should not exceed 200-

psig active Babbitt pressure.
 At full load, thrust bearing metal temperature should not
exceed 88 C at the TC/RTD position. Most bearings are
designed for 49 C oil inlet temperature. Very few thrust
bearings can survive 120 C.
 If rotor cold bump thrust floats are in the 0.38- 0.43 mm (15-
17) mil range, adopt a unit standard of + 8 mils (0.2 mm),
active as a normal range, let the inactive side float
 Oil recirculation is a high contributor to bad thrust brgs
lubrication designs. Oil should get in and get out smoothly.
 Don’t use multiple thin shims to set thrust bearings for float
(thin shim in oil can deflect). Better single thick shims must be
used.
 For thick Babbitt (0.76 mm, > 30mils) thrust bearings, an active
deflection of 0.38 mm (15 mils) is proven to be good level for
alarm and 0.64 mm (25 mils) deflection as tripping.
 A machine with 3 times clearance increase on a balance
piston has failed thrust bearings.
 Sudden liquid ingress or wet steam in turbines can
momentarily deflect a thrust bearing 0.38 mm (15 mils) and still
recover without damage the babbitt. Also a compressor in
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surge condition can fail thrust bearing due to Cavitation (fast

repetitive establishing of oil film if axial oscillation occur).
 Frosting on thrust bearings can occur due to improper welding
procedures around machine. Electricity will follow the closest
clearance path for electromagnetic charge to dissipate to
earth.
 Self-leveling links on which pads rest are generally designed
for 5-7 times the Babbitt thrust rating; they should be inspected
at each available incident.
Heat Exchanger Tube Vibration
Excessive flow-induced vibration in tube bundles causes costly

tube failures by fatigue or fretting wear. This is a common condition
in many shell and tube heat exchangers. However designers can’t
plan for phenomenon that they don’t Understand to avoid cross-
flows vibration damage,
 The designer must determine the Flow behavior effect on tube
bundle’s under these conditions:
Two phase cross-flow vibration does cause tube / tube bundle

failure and cross -flows forces that affect exchanger tubes are:
1. OIDE – fraction on added mass and fluid damping
2. Vortex - induced vibration - air bundles
3. Fluid excitation force and tube response – pressure fluctuations
& drag & lift forces on tube
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Flow Induced Vibration, involves nature & behavior (density, mass

flux, void fraction ) of two phase flow in tube bundle.
 Two- phase flow vibration on tube bundle is more complicated

than the single phase-flow . Two phase flow parameters are :
void fraction, flow regime & mass flux and these affect flow
induced vibration mechanisms .
 Local void fractions around a tube in a tube bundle and it’s
fluctuations around the tube and it’s frequency spectra
practically cannot be measured .
Fundamentals of Balancing
 Introduction to Balancing
 What is Unbalance .
 Principle of Balancing
 Balancing Calculation by using Vector diagram .
 Balancing Calculation by using Balancing programes .
What is Unbalance ?
 Unbalance occurs in the rotating machines when the center of

mass differs from the center of rotation .
 Unbalance causes a centrifugal force and due to this force the
entire rotor is being pulled in the direction of the centrifugal
force and finally causes high vibration
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Mechanical Vibration Fundamental Training Course

Types of Maintenance Programs

Scheduled or Preventive Maintenance

1. Shutdown for repairs can be scheduled for a convenient time.

3. Extensive damage to the machine resulting from forced failure can be

4. Repair time can be kept to a minimum, resulting in reduced machinery

5. Costly trial-and-error approaches to solve a problem can be avoided since

6. Machines in good operating condition can continue to run as long as no

In addition, machinery performance characteristics such as flow rates and

The Vibration Predictive Maintenance Program

Comparison of Maintenance Strategies

Run-to-breakdown Preventive Predictive

Method Failure based Time based Condition Based

Predictive Maintenance Techniques

 Lube. Oil analysis .

Parameters Used for Detection of machine faults

Machine Failure Analysis

What is mechanical vibration?

Signal level descriptors

Vibration Units ISO (metric)

Machine Categories in Process Plant

Process machineries can be divided into three groups:

• Very high cost

Semi Critical machines

• Second major group of machines

General Purpose machines

The different types of transducer

Eddy Current Proximity Probes

Vibration Transducer (accelerometer)

Non-contact Transducer (Proximity pick-up)

Probe Location and Orientation

Vibration Transducers Range

Comparison among vibration transducers

Probe Type Advantages Disadvantages

Permanent Vibration Monitoring System

Critical machines like turbine, generator, compressor, need to be

Proximity probe installation & setting

Dual channel proximity probe & orbit

Proximity Transducers- (Permanently installed)

2) Radial position of Shaft

3) Dynamic motion of the shaft (Orbit Plot)

4) Axial position of the shaft ( Axial displacement)

• The Key-phasor is a transducer installed on a machine train observing a

once-per-turn event (e.g. keyway) on a rotating shaft providing a voltage

• The key-phasor pulse provides a reference for data taken on a machine

• The pulse provided by the key-phasor transducer is normally input into

A FILTER IS A DATA ACQUISITION TOOL THAT CAN BE USED TO :

• Remove noise from vibration signals.

Different Types of Filters

• Band pass filter

a) Dynamic Motion (vibration) parameters

How to measure overall vibration

Guidelines For Overall Vibration Measurement

• Use same frequency range

• Trend overall values & compare recent data with previous

ISO 10816 (1995) Standard

1.4 Frequency Range: usually 1---5X. Shall be broad band.

1.5 Vibration Severity: the maximum broad-band magnitude