Chapter 6 showed that the increase in the vertical stress in soil caused by a load applied over a

limited area decreases with depth z measured from the ground surface down- ward. Hence, to
estimate the one-dimensional settlement of a foundation, we can use Eq. (7.14), (7.16), or (7.17).
However, the increase of effective stress in these equa- tions should be the average increase
below the center of the foundation.

where v ¼ discharge velocity, D ¼ average diameter of the pores, ρw ¼ density of water (1000
kg/m3), and μw ¼ dynamic viscosity of water (1.002 10 3 N s/m2)

Standard penetration tests (SPT) were carried out in soil within boreholes to determine strength
characteristics of soil. This test was performed in accordance with IS: 2131: Part 3. SPTs were
conducted at regular depth intervals of 1.50m to 2.00m till up to specified depth or refusal
strata. Some of the SPTs were replaced with undisturbed sampling where the soil is soft to medium
stiff clay. The number of blows required to drive the standard split spoon sampler of length 450 mm
by a 63.5 kg hammer falling freely from a height of 750 mm will be recorded. The first 150 mm of
drive will be considered as seating drive. The total blows required for the second and third 150
mm penetration will be termed as the penetration resistance N. is recorded as “N” Value. The
SPT is subjected to terminate if the sampler not fully penetrating into soil or the number of blows for
any 150mm penetration exceeded 50 or total number of blows exceeded 100 or rebound observed.
The SPT N values results are covered in field bore logs presented in Annexure 2. The typical SPT rig
set-up and self-releasing SPT hammer is shown in Figure 2.

In the field, however, when load is applied over a limited area on the ground surface, this
assumption will not be correct. Consider the case of a circular founda- tion on a clay layer as shown
in Figure 7.26. The vertical and the horizontal stress increases at a point in the clay layer immediately
below the center of the foundation are (1) and (3), respectively. For a saturated clay, the
pore water pressure

The permeability of cohesive soils can be anisotropic, where it is generally larger in the horizontal
direction than in the vertical direction. In special case of loess deposits, the vertical permeability can
be larger than the horizontal permeability (Harr 1962). The ratio kh/kv reported in the literature is
generally less than 2 for most soils. Fukushima and Ishii (1986) showed that for a weathered granite,
compacted at different water contents, this ratio to be quite high, sometimes exceeding 10. In
varved clays and stratified fluvial deposits, this ratio can easily exceed 10 (Casagrande and Poulos
1969; Tavenas and Leroueil 1987; Wu et al. 1978). Some anisotropic behavior of natural clays
reported by Tavenas and

Pore water pressure can be negative. For example, when there is capillary effect, the soil is
subjected to suction and the pore water pressure is negative. Dynamic loads such as earthquakes or
pile driving can increase the pore water pressures temporarily, while the total stress remains the
same. Here, the effective stress is temporarily reduced [see Eq. (2.34)]. Such dynamic loads can
induce liquefaction of the soil.