Subsection 2.

8
System Design for Efficient Low-Load Cooling

The Measures in this Subsection are INDEX OF MEASURES

major changes to the chiller plant that increase 2.8.1 Install chillers and auxiliary equipment of
cooling efficiency at low cooling loads. The appropriate size to avoid extended operation at
three Measures are alternative approaches to low load.
this goal. Some of the Measures in other 2.8.2 Install local cooling units to allow shutting
Sections can improve the part-load efficiency down the central chiller plant during periods of
of a chiller system, but they are usually less low load.
effective.
2.8.3 If a facility has several chiller plants,
In most applications, the cooling load is provide cross connections that allow shutting
much lower than the peak load for most of the down the least efficient chillers.
cooling season. To achieve good efficiency
under all load conditions, you need chillers that RELATED MEASURES
are sized so that no chiller is forced to linger • Subsection 2.1, for controls and procedures that
at an inefficiently low load. In addition, you optimize the use of chiller plant equipment
may want a chiller of a separate type to satisfy • Measures 2.2.1 ff, chilled water temperature
low loads. reset, which improves chiller efficiency at
reduced loads
One class of energy waste that results from low-
• Measures 2.4.1 ff, improving condenser cooling
load operation is inefficiency of the chillers and their fan modulation
auxiliary equipment. Unfortunately, the types of
chillers that are most efficient at full load (centrifugal • Measure 2.5.2, variable-flow chilled water
and screw compressor types) suffer serious loss of pumping
efficiency at reduced loads. While modern versions • Measure 2.6.2, replacing the existing compressor
of these chiller types have greatly improved part-load with a compressor that has better low-load
performance, many machines that are presently efficiency
installed have poor part-load efficiency. (See • Measure 2.6.3, installing variable-speed drives on
Reference Note 32, Compression Cooling, for more existing compressors
about chiller efficiency characteristics.)
Another class of low-load energy waste is false
loading. This is done to avoid cycling chillers on and
off when the cooling load is less than their minimum
capacities. False loading throws away the portion of
the chiller output that is not required. This is an
extremely wasteful way of dealing with reduced
cooling loads. It is often encountered with centrifugal
chillers, because of their inability to operate at low
output. Especially with older centrifugal chillers, the
minimum load is a large fraction of full load. False
loading is also encountered with cooling machines
having other types of compressors, including screw
and reciprocating compressors.

© D. R. Wulfinghoff 1999. All Rights Reserved.

356 2. CHILLER PLANT
Chillers can be false-loaded internally, which
is done by using hot gas bypass. Or, chillers can be
false-loaded externally, by adding unnecessary
cooling load. For example, chillers can be loaded
by increasing reheat in air handling systems, by
increasing outside air quantities, or by cooling
vacant spaces.
Defects in the chiller may restrict throttling
ability, raising the load at which false loading is
employed. For example, if the external linkage that
actuates the inlet guide vanes of a centrifugal chiller
is not adjusted properly, the vanes may not close
fully, limiting turndown. Another problem is
instability of the control system, so that the chiller
output oscillates wastefully at low load. This can
result from play in linkages, improper control
installation, improper charge, and other causes.
If some parts of a facility continue to require
cooling outside the normal cooling season, cooling
ENERGY EFFICIENCY MANUAL
efficiency will be especially low during this period.
For example, chillers that serve multizone units
must operate continuously in order to maintain a
constant cold deck temperature in the air handling
units. You may be able to eliminate such waste by
modifying the application. For example, Subsection
4.6 recommends modifications of multizone air
handling units that eliminate the need for continuous
chiller operation.
Inefficient chiller operation at low load reduces
the benefit of energy conservation measures that
you accomplish to reduce the cooling load. For
example, if you add expensive sun shades to reduce
solar load, they provide no economic benefit during
periods when false loading is used. When the
cooling load rises above this minimum, the
conservation benefit of the sun shades is limited to
the difference between the actual cooling load and
the false loading level.
 2.8 SYSTEM DESIGN FOR EFFICIENT LOW-LOAD COOLING
MEASURE 2.8.1 Install chillers and auxiliary
equipment of appropriate size to avoid extended
operation at low load.
Your primary method of avoiding inefficient
operation at low loads is to select the chiller sizes
carefully, and to match the sizing of the chiller auxiliary
equipment to the individual chillers. Your goal is to
select a combination of chiller sizes that allow the plant
to operate efficiently under every level of cooling load
that may occur for a significant length of time.
For example, if the chiller plant provides air
conditioning, it should be able to handle spring and fall
loads as efficiently as summer loads, and it should handle
nighttime loads as efficiently as daytime loads. This
may seem obvious, but you probably don’t have to travel
far to find a chiller plant that violates this principle.
Commonly, you will find a plant that has two enormous
chillers. One is sized for the peak cooling load, plus a
large margin. The second chiller, identical to the first,
sits there as a standby unit. For most of its operating
hours, the one chiller that runs is operating at greatly
reduced efficiency.
In both new construction and retrofits, you face a
dilemma when selecting chiller sizes: the chiller types
that are more efficient at full load tend to be most limited
in their ability to operate efficiently at low load. This
conflict between full-load and part-load efficiency is
most severe with centrifugal chillers, and it is also
significant with screw compressors. The best of the
newer models of centrifugal and screw chillers have
greatly improved their part-load efficiency, but this factor
is still important.
In new construction, you can usually select an
efficient combination of chiller sizes and types without
adding much to the cost of the plant. You can typically
maintain efficient chiller performance with only one or
two chiller sizes. In a large plant with a highly variable
load profile, you may wish to use three chiller sizes.
You may actually save some money by using a
combination of sizes. This is because you need less
reserve capacity if you combine chiller sizes
intelligently.
Retrofit applications are more challenging. You
probably already have all the chiller capacity you need.
The cost of installing another chiller to handle low loads
is high. Cost usually limits you to one additional chiller.
This chiller will usually be smaller than the existing
chillers. It must be small enough to handle the lowest
loads efficiently, but large enough to avoid operating an
existing chiller at inefficiently low load. Modern chillers
are substantially more efficient than older units. If the
existing chillers are old, you want to make the new chiller
larger so that it carry more of the cooling load.
© D. R. Wulfinghoff 1999. All Rights Reserved.
357
RATINGS
New Facilities Retrofit O&M
A C
SUMMARY
Avoids a major cause of inefficiency with
centrifugal, screw, and absorption chillers.
May also reduce maintenance and labor costs.
May cost nothing in new construction.
Expensive as a retrofit.
SELECTION SCORECARD
Savings Potential ...................
Rate of Return, New Facilities
Rate of Return, Retrofit .........
Reliability ...............................
Ease of Retrofit ......................
In a group of chillers, the one that operates first is
called the “lead” unit. This chiller is the most efficient
at the low loads that it serves. It is usually the smallest
unit in the plant. As the cooling load increases to the
point that the lead chiller cannot carry the load alone,
another chiller starts. The best distribution of the cooling
load between the chillers depends on their relative
efficiency characteristics. See Measure 2.1.1 for details.
Base Your Decision on the Future, Not the Past
In retrofit applications, an apparent disadvantage of
this Measure is that it keeps more of the original chiller
capacity idle. This is a matter of psychology rather than
engineering or economics. There is a natural inhibition
against correcting a chiller sizing mistake if the original
equipment remains as a monument to the mistake.
However, from a purely economic standpoint, the
correct approach is to view the original investment as a
sunk cost, and to consider only the economics of the
new investment. Your economic analysis should
consider the salvage value of any chillers that you may
be able to sell as a result of adding the new lead chiller.
Efficiency Features of the Main Chiller Types
See Reference Note 32, Compression Cooling, and
Reference Note 33, Absorption Cooling, for the
characteristics of different types of chillers. The
following discussion deals primarily with the chiller
characteristics that matter when selecting chiller sizes
to maximize efficiency.
Although the chiller type is the main factor in part-
load efficiency, there are major differences among
different models of a given type. Pay attention to the
358 2. CHILLER PLANT
differences between different models. Be specific about
acceptable model numbers when acquiring a chiller by
using a bid specification. Otherwise, contractors or
suppliers may substitute cheaper equipment that is less
desirable in efficiency, features, or reliability.
Centrifugal Chillers as Lead Chillers
Some centrifugal chillers now combine variable-
speed drives with conventional inlet guide vane
throttling. This substantially improves their COP at
partial loads. This improved part-load performance may
make a centrifugal chiller appropriate for use as a lead
chiller, if it is small enough in relation to typical low
loads. Centrifugal chillers are available in sizes as small
as 100 tons, although their cost per ton is high in small
sizes.
Screw Compressor Chillers as Lead Chillers
The peak efficiency of screw compressor chillers is
less than the peak efficiency of centrifugal machines,
but they are able to operate at reduced loads with less
loss of efficiency. Furthermore, most modern screw
chillers are tolerant of cycling on and off at minimum
load, unlike centrifugal machines. Screw machines are
available in sizes as small as about 25 tons, although
their cost per ton is relatively high in smaller sizes.
Reciprocating Chillers as Lead Chillers
The full-load efficiency of reciprocating chillers is
substantially less than that of centrifugal and screw
compressor machines. This difference in efficiency
exists for fundamental physical reasons, and it will
probably widen as centrifugal and screw chillers become
more efficient. Reciprocating chillers unload more
efficiently than centrifugal chillers, but even their
advantage at low load is disappearing. The remaining
niche for reciprocating chillers is small cooling loads,
less than about 100 tons. Most reciprocating chillers
tolerate cycling well, and they lose relatively little
efficiency down to zero load.
A difficult control problem arises if a reciprocating
chiller is used as the lead chiller with centrifugal chillers
or screw compressor units. Reciprocating chillers use
step control of capacity, so their output is usually
controlled by sensing return water temperature. In
contrast, centrifugal and screw chillers typically control
output by sensing supply water temperature.
One way to use a reciprocating chiller as a lead unit
is to shut down the reciprocating chiller when a larger
non-reciprocating chiller is started. However, this
approach makes the lead chiller useless for carrying part
of the load in the event that one of the larger chillers
should fail.
Another approach is to use supply water temperature
control with the reciprocating chiller. This requires the
control system to anticipate the changes in supply chilled
water temperature as the compressor stages. This is a
touchy method of control for reciprocating chillers,
ENERGY EFFICIENCY MANUAL
especially if they are operating in parallel with other
types of chillers.
Scroll Compressor Chillers as Lead Chillers
Chillers that use scroll compressors control output
by cycling on and off. They are presently similar to
reciprocating chillers in efficiency. They may gain an
advantage in the future because they do not have all the
inherent efficiency limitations of reciprocating units.
Like reciprocating chillers, they generally control output
based on return water temperature, and therefore they
have the same problems in operating in parallel with
throttling types of chillers. At present, scroll
compressors occupy the bottom end of the size range,
but they can be ganged together to achieve any desired
capacity.
Absorption Chillers
Absorption chillers are unsuitable as lead units in
most applications. Start-up and shutdown is slow, and
requires a careful sequence to avoid crystallizing the
salt absorbing solution, as well as to avoid other troubles.
Absorption chillers are best used to exploit an
inexpensive source of heat, and to minimize electricity
demand charges.
Exploit Low Condensing Temperatures
Chiller efficiency improves radically at lower
condensing temperatures, provided that the chiller is
designed to exploit low condensing temperature. This
feature is especially important for chillers that operate
at low loads, because low loads typically occur at times
when the outside air temperature is low. Make this an
important factor in selecting your lead chiller. Be aware
that chillers typically have limitations in their ability to
exploit reduced condensing temperature. See Measure
2.2.2 for details.
How to Select Chiller Size
Sizing is most critical for the lead chiller, because
it operates at the lowest percentages of load. If the lead
chiller is a throttling type and if it is too large, it too will
operate inefficiently at low loads. If the lead chiller is
too small, the next chiller may operate at inefficiently
low load when it starts. Consider these factors in sizing
a lead chiller:
• cooling load profile. Analyze the cooling load
profile in detail, and match it to the part-load
efficiency profiles of the chiller types you are
considering. In existing facilities, measure the
cooling load profile with hourly measurements of
chiller load over the course of a cooling season.
The cooling load pattern varies from one season to
another, so try to get data from several years. If
the plant is new, or if you do not have load data,
you have to calculate the load profile. In most cases,
you should use an energy analysis computer
program for this.
 2.8 SYSTEM DESIGN FOR EFFICIENT LOW-LOAD COOLING
• reserve capacity requirements. In an existing
chiller plant, adding a small lead chiller always
increases reserve capacity. If you are installing a
new chiller plant, cost limitations may force you to
compromise between part-load efficiency and
reserve capacity.
For example, with a design load of 2,000 tons, it
would be common to install three 1,000 ton chillers,
one of which is a spare unit. In contrast, a
combination of a 400 ton lead chiller and two 1,000
ton units would be considerably more efficient, and
it would cost less. The disadvantage is that failure
of one of the 1,000 ton chillers would reduce the
available capacity to 1,400 tons. However, with a
typical load profile, this capacity would suffice most
of the time. Even if a chiller failure occurred during
a peak load period, capacity would probably be
adequate to keep the facility operating while the
failed chiller is repaired.
• other cooling conservation activities. Consider the
effect of other energy conservation measures on the
cooling load, especially measures that reduce
cooling load during low-load conditions. For
example, eliminating reheat in air handling systems
(see Section 4) and window treatment (see
Section 8) dramatically reduce the cooling load
during mild weather. These improvements reduce
the total plant capacity requirement and provide
more freedom in selecting the lead chiller for
efficient part-load performance.
• efficiency of the other chillers. When sizing a lead
chiller for an existing facility, consider which chiller
will be started second. It might be the smallest of
the original chillers, or a different one that is more
efficient. Select the relative sizing of the first and
second chillers so that both can operate efficiently
at the point where the second chiller starts, or the
second can operate efficiently if the first is turned
off. If one or more of the original chillers is
especially inefficient, consider increasing the size
of the new lead chiller to allow the inefficient
machine(s) to be placed out of service either
permanently or on a seasonal basis.
Ability to Reduce Auxiliary Load
In retrofit applications, adding a smaller lead chiller
may or may not give you an opportunity to reduce the
energy consumption of auxiliary equipment. It depends
on these factors:
• chilled water pumping. You can reduce chilled
water pumping energy only if one of the chilled
water pump is sized to match the capacity of the
lead chiller. Also, the end-use equipment needs to
use throttling control valves instead of bypass
valves. See Measure 2.5.2 for more about this.
© D. R. Wulfinghoff 1999. All Rights Reserved.
359
• condenser water pumping. If the new lead chiller
has a water-cooled condenser that is served by an
existing cooling tower and condenser water system,
you can save pumping energy by installing a
condenser water pump sized specifically for the new
chiller.
• condenser cooling fans. If the condensers are
cooled by water, the fan energy used by the cooling
towers is proportional to the cooling load. So,
adding a lead chiller probably will not save much
fan power. However, if you improve fan capacity
modulation (see Measures 2.4.1 ff) when you install
the lead chiller, this will save fan energy.
Base Your Decisions on Detailed Calculations
The cooling load fluctuates continuously in most
applications. Dealing with this accurately requires you
to calculate the moment-to-moment energy consumption
of the plant over the course of a year. Repeat the
calculation for different chiller size combinations to find
the most economical combination. In a retrofit
application, calculate how a system with a lead chiller
would compare to the existing system. To simplify these
tedious calculations, use an appropriate computer
program. See Reference Note 17, Energy Analysis
Computer Programs, about these programs.
Control the Chiller Loading Efficiently
Clever equipment sizing will not provide the
expected benefit unless you arrange to start and stop
the chillers in the sequence that satisfies the cooling load
most efficiently. Doing this reliably requires operator
training, effective documentation of procedures, and
continuing supervision. Or, it requires reliable controls.
In plants that have a variety of chiller types and/or sizes,
you need to decide the proper sequence in terms of the
percentage of load at which each chiller is turned on or
off. See Measures 2.1.1 ff for details.
Consider Using the Lead Chiller for Heat Recovery
You may be able to use some of the heat that is
rejected by the chillers. Sometimes, this is done with a
small chiller that has special characteristics for heat
recovery. The heat recovery chiller is usually loaded
ahead of the other chillers, so consider combining the
functions of a lead chiller and a heat recovery chiller.
See Measure 2.10.3 about chiller heat recovery.
Comparison to Measure 2.8.2
Measure 2.8.2 deals with a particular situation in
which a chiller plant is kept in operation at inefficiently
low loads to serve a few small applications. To deal
with this situation, it may be more efficient to shut down
the chiller plant entirely during periods of low loads,
and to provide local cooling units for the small
360 2. CHILLER PLANT
applications. For a comparison of the two approaches,
see Measure 2.8.2.
ECONOMICS
SAVINGS POTENTIAL: 5 to 20 percent of chiller plant
operating cost, in typical applications. Savings are
greatest if false loading is presently used to reduce chiller
output.
COST: In new facilities, selecting chiller sizes for
optimum efficiency may cost little or nothing extra. In
retrofit applications, an additional chiller costs from $300
to $1,000 per ton of capacity, including design, auxiliary
equipment, and installation.
PAYBACK PERIOD: In new facilities, the payback period
may be short. In existing facilities, the payback period
ranges from several years to many years. The payback
period may be immediate if a new lead chiller replaces
a chiller that needs to be replaced.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY MANUAL
TRAPS & TRICKS
PLANNING: The design procedures are routine, but
you need to make an exceptionally thorough analysis to
select the optimum chiller sizes. If you combine different
types of chillers, be sure that you can control them to
operate together efficiently. Design the auxiliary
equipment to minimize the auxiliary load.
SELECTING THE EQUIPMENT: Select the lead
chiller(s) with an emphasis on high turndown ratio. Invest
in efficiency options.
TRAINING AND FOLLOWUP: The benefit of this major
aspect of plant design may be lost if the plant operators
do not understand how to sequence the chillers
efficiently. Make sure that they are properly trained. Put
clear instructions in the plant operating manual. Check
the chiller plant log periodically to verify that the chillers
are being sequenced and loaded efficiently. Review
Measures 2.1.1 ff.
 2.8 SYSTEM DESIGN FOR EFFICIENT LOW-LOAD COOLING
MEASURE 2.8.2 Install local cooling units to allow
shutting down the central chiller plant during
periods of low load.
A common problem is that a few small cooling
applications require the operation of a large chiller for
long periods of time while the rest of the facility is shut
down. For example, the computer rooms in an office
complex typically need continuous cooling, even though
most of the complex is shut down more than half the
time.
The same problem occurs on a larger scale if a
central chiller plant serves an extended facility, such as
a college campus or a military base. For example, if a
college campus is mostly shut down during the hot
summer months, the chiller plant may still have to
operate to serve one administrative building.
In such cases, consider installing separate small
cooling units to serve the applications that operate on
longer schedules. This allows you to shut down the
central chiller plant entirely for a large part of the time.
Potential for Energy and Cost Savings
The benefit of this Measure is based on marginal
differences in efficiency and energy costs. When you
calculate the potential benefit, take the following factors
into account.
Relative Energy and Demand Costs
The energy used by local cooling units may not cost
the same as the energy used by the central plant. Even
if the central chillers and the local cooling units both
use electricity, the electricity cost may differ if the local
cooling units are not served by the same electricity meter.
The cost difference is greatest if the different meters
are subject to different rate schedules. For example, a
central chiller plant may be served under a lower rate
than the other buildings in a complex.
Even if the rate is the same, differences in the
amount of electricity consumed through each meter may
affect the average cost. This effect does not occur if the
consumption through all meters is consolidated before
the rate is applied.
If the central chillers and the local cooling units use
different energy sources, the energy costs are certain to
be different. The most common example of this situation
is that the central plant uses absorption chillers that are
direct-fired or operated by steam.
Another possibility is that the local cooling units
use an energy source other than electricity. For example,
small cooling units operated by fuel-fired reciprocating
engines have gone through several episodes of popularity
in recent decades.
Comparing the cost of electricity and other energy
sources is complicated by electricity demand charges,
© D. R. Wulfinghoff 1999. All Rights Reserved.
361
RATINGS
New Facilities Retrofit O&M
B C
SUMMARY
Appropriate where the duration of chiller
operation is extended substantially to serve
lesser cooling requirements. Improves overall
efficiency, and may significantly reduce chiller
plant overhead costs.
SELECTION SCORECARD
Savings Potential ...................
Rate of Return, New Facilities
Rate of Return, Retrofit .........
Reliability ...............................
Ease of Retrofit ......................
which differ by hour, day, and month. Reference Note
21, Electricity Pricing, explains demand charges. To
account for the fluctuations in electricity prices, you may
need to use an energy analysis computer program to
calculate your total yearly costs. These programs are
explained in Reference Note 17, Energy Analysis
Computer Programs. Even then, you face the possibility
of large future changes in the relative cost of electricity
and other energy sources.
Relative Efficiencies of Central and
Local Cooling
To calculate the comparative performance of central
and localized cooling, you have to know the detailed
efficiency characteristics of both sets of equipment.
Smaller, standard cooling units made in the United
States and some other countries are rated for efficiency.
See Reference Note 31, How Cooling Efficiency is
Expressed, about the types of ratings being used. Be
clear about the energy consumption that is covered by
the efficiency ratings of local cooling units. For example,
the Seasonal Energy Efficiency Rating of a split system
may or may not include the energy consumption of the
condenser cooling fans. Include the energy needed for
any external equipment, for example, for a separate
condenser cooling water system.
For larger, engineered cooling systems, don’t depend
on the efficiency figures in the catalogs. Require
certified performance data from the manufacturer.
Remember that the COP’s given for large chillers apply
only to the chiller itself. They do not include energy
requirements for separate condenser cooling equipment,
for chilled water distribution, or for the end-use
equipment, such as air handling units and fan-coil units.
362 2. CHILLER PLANT
These are large energy loads, so be sure to include them
in your calculation. For example, with a central chiller
plant, the saving in chilled water pumping may be the
major factor that justifies installing local cooling units.
In retrofit applications, you may or may not be able
to get reliable chiller efficiency information from the
manufacturer. Reliable data may not be available for
older chillers, and older machines may have lost
efficiency for a variety of reasons. Since a lot of money
is at stake, make the effort to measure the efficiency of
installed chillers. Install an accurate BTU meter in the
chilled water output, and use a reliable method of
measuring the energy input. See Reference Note 16 for
methods of measuring energy output, and Measure 2.1.1
for various methods of measuring chiller energy input.
The efficiency of chillers varies with load, especially
if they have modulating control. To calculate the energy
consumptions of both system configurations over a
yearly cycle of operation, you may need to use an energy
analysis computer program.
Ability to Reduce Central Plant Operating Cost
Shutting down the central plant may eliminate most
of its non-salary overhead costs, including chiller
maintenance, water treatment, and housekeeping energy
consumption, such as lighting and ventilation.
Labor is usually the largest overhead cost. It is
difficult to get skilled plant operators on a seasonal basis,
so the chiller plant staff may have to be kept on the
payroll all year. One possible way of reducing labor
cost is to reassign chiller operators to seasonal duties
that normally would require other personnel.
How to Select Local Cooling Units
See Measure 5.5.3 for tips on selecting local cooling
units for efficiency. See Reference Notes 32 and 33 for
details of different types of cooling equipment.
For most applications, local cooling units are so
small that they are limited to reciprocating or scroll
compressors. In extended facilities where even the local
loads are large, it may be appropriate to use a screw
chiller or even a centrifugal chiller to carry local cooling
loads. In this case, see Measure 2.8.1 about installing
smaller chillers to serve low loads.
Installation Considerations for Local Cooling Units
Central chiller plants are popular because localized
cooling units have a number of disadvantages, or at least,
they are more bother. If you install local cooling units,
minimize the potential problems. Consider the following
points.
Ability to Control the Operation of Local Units
It takes more effort to monitor efficient operation
of a number of distributed cooling units. Local units
are less apparent to the physical plant staff, so they may
ENERGY EFFICIENCY MANUAL
operate unnecessarily for long periods of time. This
can dissipate much of the potential savings. Therefore,
provide reliable controls to limit operation of the local
units to times when they are needed. Refer to Subsection
5.1 for methods of controlling local units.
Even cooling units that are supplied by a central
chiller plant can operate when they are not needed.
However, units served by the central plant cannot waste
energy when the plant is not operating, whereas local
cooling units can waste energy at all times.
Ability to Provide Condenser Cooling
Any local cooling unit requires an external
condenser or heat rejection unit. Simple split systems
are usually satisfactory if the cooled space is located a
short distance from a suitable condenser location. For
longer distances, consider water-cooled units that are
served by a small cooling tower. This configuration
has the advantage that a single cooling tower can serve
any number of local cooling units.
In extreme cases, you may have to cool condensers
using domestic water. This requires about 50 gallons of
domestic water per ton-hour. If you use this method,
try to save water cost by recovering the used water for
further use. Even better, try to exploit the heat collected
in the water. See Measure 5.5.9 for details.
Space and Appearance
Local cooling units take up space and affect the
decor. A large variety of units are available that may
minimize the space requirement, or even avoid it. For
example, some units are made for installation in ceiling
plenums. Others are available with attractive evaporator
enclosures that are mounted on the wall above the
working level. Another possibility is installing the
cooling unit in an adjacent vacant space, and ducting
air into the cooled space.
Noise
The compressor makes most of the noise, so try to
select units that keep the compressor out of the occupied
space. Great strides have been made in reducing the
noise levels of condenser and evaporator fans, so shop
for a quiet unit.
Wiring Amperage
Cooling units are large users of electricity compared
to other equipment in the spaces they serve, so you may
have to increase the amperage capacity of the wiring
that serves the area you plan to cool locally.
Distribution of Local Units
It there is more than one candidate for localized
cooling within an area, there may be several ways to
provide the cooling. For example, there may be a choice
between installing a number of small air conditioning
units for individual spaces, or installing a larger local
unit to serve several spaces.
 2.8 SYSTEM DESIGN FOR EFFICIENT LOW-LOAD COOLING
Comparison to Measure 2.8.1
In many cases, this Measure is an alternative to
installing a small lead chiller in the central plant, as
recommended in Measure 2.8.1. In deciding between
the two approaches, consider these issues:
• how much the efficiency of the central plant will
be improved during the main cooling season.
Careful chiller sizing (Measure 2.8.1) can virtually
eliminate inefficiency caused by operation at low
loading. If you shut down the chiller plant for
extended periods, such as the winter season, the
chillers may still operate at inefficiently low loads,
although not as long. This is because periods of
low load occur even during the seasons of heavy
cooling. Furthermore, removing some of the load
from the central chiller plant (Measure 2.8.2)
worsens the mismatch between the capacity of the
chillers and the cooling load they serve.
• relative cooling efficiency during the low-load
season. Measure 2.8.2 eliminates chilled water
pumping power, distribution losses, and auxiliary
equipment energy consumption during the chiller
plant shutdown period. On the other hand, the local
cooling units may or may not be more efficient than
the central plant chillers when they are operating
at low load. If the local cooling units are less
efficient than the central chillers, this is not
important if the local cooling units are small and
the low-load energy losses of the chiller plant are
large. It may be important if a substantial fraction
of the cooling load is converted to localized cooling.
• relative cost. If you need only a small number of
local cooling units to shut down the central plant
during low-load periods, this Measure may be much
less expensive than Measure 2.8.1.
These factors balance in a complex way, so that it
may not be obvious which Measure is better. Use the
© D. R. Wulfinghoff 1999. All Rights Reserved.
363
same computer program discussed previously to
compare the two approaches.
ECONOMICS
SAVINGS POTENTIAL: 5 to 30 percent of total cooling
energy consumption. There may also be significant
savings in central plant maintenance and labor costs.
COST: The cost of local cooling units ranges from $5 to
$15 per square foot ($50 to $150 per square meter) of
conditioned space, for common applications. In new
construction, local cooling reduces the capacity
requirement of the central chiller plant, which partially
offsets the cost of the local cooling units.
PAYBACK PERIOD: Less than one year, to many years,
depending on the amount of local cooling equipment
that has to be installed.
TRAPS & TRICKS
DESIGN: It may take lot of thought and analysis to get
the most out of this approach. Investigate conditions at
each of the locations where you would install local
cooling units, do load calculations for each location, and
figure out the best method of installing the new
equipment. Consider whether the units should also have
heating capability, and coordinate this with Measure
1.12.2.
SELECTING THE EQUIPMENT: There is a wider range
of efficiencies in small cooling units than in large central
chillers. Shop the market thoroughly. Stress efficiency,
along with other important characteristics, such as noise
level and control features.
OPERATION: This activity increases the number of units
that need to be controlled, and hides them from the
physical plant staff. Provide reliable controls to prevent
unnecessary operation. Use the appropriate control
Measures from Subsection 5.1.
364 2. CHILLER PLANT
MEASURE 2.8.3 If a facility has several chiller plants,
provide cross connections that allow shutting down
the least efficient chillers.
Larger facilities may be served by several
independent chiller plants. In new facilities, this may
be done to allow separate areas to operate independently,
or to reduce distribution cost. In existing facilities,
separate plants may have been built as the facility
expanded at different times, perhaps with insufficient
regard to the equipment that already existed.
In all these cases, interconnecting the separate plants
may save energy by:
• allowing the most efficient chillers in any plant to
serve the whole facility
• allowing large chillers to operate at higher, more
efficient loading during periods of low cooling load
• reducing the total energy required for condenser
cooling and plant overhead.
The savings potential of the first two points is
covered in Measure 2.8.1. The savings potential of the
third point is covered in Measure 2.8.2.
On the negative side, interconnecting the plants
requires extending the distribution piping. This may
require additional chilled water pump power, and it may
increase heat loss.
An Example
Consider a facility that has two separate chiller
plants. One plant has two centrifugal chillers rated at
1,000 tons each, and the other plant has two centrifugal
chillers rated at 500 tons each. Both chiller plants
operate efficiently during the peak cooling season.
However, during the transitional season, the larger plant
has an average load of only 200 tons, and the smaller
plant has an average load of only 100 tons. These loads
are inefficient for both plants.
If the plants are connected, the total average
transition season load of 300 tons is combined to become
an efficient load for one of the 500-ton chillers. The
larger chiller plant can be shut down for the entire
transition season, saving a considerable amount of plant
auxiliary and overhead cost.
During the warmest part of the year, you may be
able to shut down the small chiller plant except during
peak days, and to serve the entire facility with the larger
plant alone. If the plant sizes and other conditions are
favorable, a single chiller plant crew might shuttle
between the two plants as the seasons change.
Piping Design Issues
The major expense of interconnecting chillers is the
cost of the piping, which in many installations can rival
the cost of chillers themselves. Pipe diameter is the
ENERGY EFFICIENCY MANUAL
RATINGS
New Facilities Retrofit O&M
C C
SUMMARY
Improves overall efficiency, especially at low
cooling loads. May reduce maintenance,
reduce staffing costs, increase reliability, and/
or avoid the need to purchase additional
chillers. Usually very expensive, unless it
avoids the need to purchase additional chiller
capacity.
SELECTION SCORECARD
Savings Potential ...................
Rate of Return, New Facilities
Rate of Return, Retrofit .........
Reliability ...............................
Ease of Retrofit ......................
dominant factor in the cost of piping. Both material
and installation costs of piping are high.
Design the interconnection to minimize pump
power. It is pointless to save energy in the chillers only
to lose it in the pumps. Pumps have a hunger for energy
that is insidious because they are small and operate
quietly. If a pumping system operates at full flow under
all load conditions, pump energy consumption can
become a major part of total plant energy consumption.
Pump energy consumption in distribution systems can
be reduced by using variable-flow pumping, which is
recommended by Measure 2.5.2.
The pump power needed to overcome the resistance
of the added piping is sensitive to the pipe diameter.
Bigger pipe allows smaller pumps. The cost saving with
smaller pumps may substantially offset the higher cost
of larger pipe. Do enough sketching and calculating to
find the best balance between pump power and piping
cost.
Use these techniques to minimize piping cost:
• be selective about the interconnections. In
facilities where there are several chiller plants, you
may be able to interconnect them in various ways.
If cost were no object, the best approach would be
to create a large loop header that allows chilled
water from any chiller plant to flow to any user.
This may be an unnecessary extravagance. Most
of the benefit of this Measure occurs under low-
load conditions, so the connections can be
optimized to transmit water from the low-load
chillers to the low-load applications.
 2.8 SYSTEM DESIGN FOR EFFICIENT LOW-LOAD COOLING
• limit the use of the interconnections to periods of
low cooling load, i.e., to periods when some of the
chillers are turned off. Pressure losses increase
rapidly as the flow rate increases, so consider
limiting operation of the interconnections to times
when flow rates are low. This is a practical
approach because the interconnections typically are
not needed during periods of high load, when all
the chiller plants are operating. However, this
strategy adds control complications that may be
difficult for plant operators to understand.
• minimize average flow velocity with variable-flow
pumping. The higher cost of larger pipe is a strong
motivation to reduce the average flow rate.
Variable-flow pumping is an effective way of doing
this. See Measure 2.5.2 for details.
In retrofit applications, if the connections are fairly
short, you may be able to use the existing chilled water
pumps to push water through the connecting lines.
Resistance to chilled water flow comes from the end-
use coils, control valves, chiller evaporators, and piping.
The resistance of straight pipe is relatively low. If you
use variable-flow chilled water pumping, the piping
resistance drops when the cooling load is low, because
the resistance is proportional to the square of the flow
rate.
Pipe resistance becomes a major factor if the
connections are long, especially if the connections are
used when the cooling load is high. In this case, you
may need additional pumps. Consider adding variable-
flow pumping, especially if chilled water pump
modifications are required. This may substantially
reduce the average pump power.
Exploit Interconnections to Improve Reliability
and Capacity
In deciding how to design the interconnections,
consider the value of improving the facility’s overall
reliability and capacity. If you foresee a need for
additional cooling capacity, interconnection may be a
less expensive alternative to purchasing new chillers.
This possibility is enhanced if there is diversity of
cooling loads, so that an interconnected system needs
less total chiller capacity than isolated chiller plants.
Interconnections provide reserve capacity in the
event of a chiller failure in any of the connected plants.
This reserve capacity is limited by the capacity of the
interconnections. This may argue in favor of larger pipe
sizes.
Optimize Control of the Entire System
Interconnection requires more sophisticated control
of chiller operation. Instead of simply starting chillers
and letting them run, operators will have to continually
start and stop chillers and control the interconnections
in a manner that optimizes overall efficiency. Failure
© D. R. Wulfinghoff 1999. All Rights Reserved.
365
of the operators to control the flow of energy between
plants will reduce or negate the purpose of the
modification. For this reason, proper training of plant
operators is a vital part of this activity.
Automatic controls are better than people at
“remembering” repetitive functions. Use them wherever
it is practical to do so. Subsection 2.1 presents automatic
methods of sequencing chiller plant equipment.
However, using automatic controls does not relieve
managers of the responsibility of understanding the
control functions and ensuring that they are
accomplished. Automatic controls that are not
understood will be overridden by plant operators.
Try to Reduce Central Plant Operating Cost
Shutting down a central plant eliminates most of its
non-salary overhead cost. These include chiller
maintenance, water treatment, and housekeeping energy
consumption, such as lighting and ventilation. Labor is
usually the largest overhead cost. Shutting down a chiller
plant provides a saving in labor cost only if the size of
the staff can be reduced, or if the staff can be assigned
to other duties during the period of time that plants are
shut down.
Base Your Decisions on Accurate Calculations
This modification is very expensive, and it produces
its benefit by marginal improvements in efficiency.
These improvements depend on the load profiles of the
facilities served by all the chiller plants, on the efficiency
profiles of all the chillers, and on the other factors
discussed here. Calculations that include all these factors
are complex. To get the most accurate analysis, use a
computer program of the type covered by Reference
Note 17, Energy Analysis Computer Programs. Most
of those programs are not designed to handle separate
chiller plants serving a distributed load, so you may need
ingenuity to get the program to model this configuration
with acceptable accuracy.
ECONOMICS
SAVINGS POTENTIAL: 5 to 20 percent of total chiller
plant energy consumption.
COST: Varies widely, from tens of thousands of dollars
for short interconnections to millions of dollars for large
facilities. This Measure may offer an immediate net
saving if it provides an alternative to installing new
chillers.
PAYBACK PERIOD: Several years or longer, except in
especially favorable situations.
TRAPS & TRICKS
PLANNING AND DESIGN: Although the concept is
simple, it is easy to be too hasty and overlook
366 2. CHILLER PLANT

opportunities for improving efficiency and reducing cost.
A lot of money is at stake, so take your time.
TRAINING AND OPERATION: For this expensive
modification to be successful, chillers and system valves
at different sites must be sequenced in a precisely
defined manner. Operators in different locations must
be well trained, coordinated, and alert. Automate the
controls wherever it is practical to do so. Review the
methods of Measures 2.1.1 ff.
EXPLAIN IT: Make it easy for system operators to
understand how the system is laid out and controlled.
Install a large, well rendered diagram of the system at
each operator stations. Install well designed placards
on the cross connection valves and controls.

ENERGY EFFICIENCY MANUAL