UNIT 21: Learning Aim A

CONTINUITY
The purpose of editing
effects : to add the effects that aren't possible while filming, on screen graphics, background music, sound effects, corrections - audio
colour brightness and contrast.

Effects audience: creates and effect of the audience evokes emotion, shapes our response, audience positioning - viewer victim
violator, thought provoking creates enigma

shots : editing and show a variety of shots to interest the audience, transitions for the change of location and audience positioning,
transitions dissolve fade soft focus and hard focus.

Narrative: to slow or speed up a shot, plot on off screen including text

time : to slow or speed up a shot, to change the order of shots, to add flashbacks or flash forwards, shot/sequence duration
Miller and the sweep
Miller and the sweep was released in 1897 and was one of the first film productions. At the time they filmed this they had
the best technology of the time. The film uses destructive editing this means if there is any mistakes while editing they
would have to refilm the entire film all over again this is why george albert smith shot the film with one camera but with
several takes. In the first scene of the film the man in white brings the action to the camera by walking towards the camera.

The film would have been like a performance for the viewer's as there would have been a piano playing in the background
and this would have been because of the technology they had at the time. The scene shows that they used the 180 degree
rule and this rule was established by keeping the camera in front of the line of vision if they did break the rule the viewer's
wouldn't be able to see the windmill in the background. Binary oppositions are also used as the george albert smith uses
the good guy in white to be the good guy and the guy in black is portrayed as the bad guy.
 Trip to the Moon
A trip to the moon is a 1902 french silent film. It was released the 1st of
september 1902.Georges Melies was a French illusionist and film director he
was a innovator in the use of special effects he was also one of the first film
makers to use a storyboard. When making a trip to the moon Georges Melies
had to use destructive editing which is where the tape is cut and spliced
together this also gives a dissolve effect. This intrigues the audience making
them continue to watch.

In 1902 George Melies also established the 30 degree rule as he found that if
the rule was broken a jump cut would occur and there is a risk that the
audience could be distracted by the editing technique. George Melies also
displayed the first attempted at special effects. By editing clips of the same
framing and with the same angle after changing the scene between shots to
make it look like there was no cut at all, he used this when making one of the
aliens found on the moon disappear.
The jump cut with the moon was effective as it was able to speed up the
narrative as they go from being on there way to the moon to actually being
there to the audience this would have looked amazing as it was the first
version of special effects.
The narrative is hard to follow as there is no dialogue to help the audience
understand whats going on. The film uses different sets and this helps for the
audience to travel with the characters.
The Great Train Robbery (1903)
The Great Train Robbery was produced and directed by Edwin S. Porter in 1903.
Edwin S.Porter also breaks the 30 degree rule in order to make a jump cut in the
action scene where one of the robbers throw a man off the train. In 1903 porter didn't
have the technology to make dialogue so they had someone play the piano at the front
of the theater while the film was playing, this is similar to A trip to the moon and birth of
a nation.
In the film the camera is always static as the camera wasn't mobile at the time so they
had to bring the action to the camera. The camera porter used was lighter than the
ones used previously as there are closer shot types and they were able to move the
camera onto the train, this means technology was starting to evolve. The idea of there
being more action with no sound would make a film easier to follow.
The Great Train Robbery used closer shots so that the audience could clearly see and
understand the action scenes.

Crosscutting was also used in The Great Train Robbery to show scenes happening
simultaneously this is known as parallel editing.

At the end of the film Edwin S. Porter shows a close up of the leader of the bandits
emptying his pistol into the camera. At the time this would have been terrifying for first
time moviegoers as they realised the extreme realism of the ending shot.
Birth of a Nation
Birth of a Nation released in 1915, directed and co
produced by D.W. Griffith. This film was undeniably
racist. The birth of a nation was the combination of all of
Griffiths techniques. The use of clear text in Birth of a
nation made it even more clear to the audience to what
was happening and made it so that the audience could
understand what was happening without seeing a scene
which showed what the text was talking about.
Griffith shows a flash black by changing the colour of the
scene and using a iris lens highlighting the importance
and significance of the scene. Griffith also uses cross
cutting to show two narratives at once. It cut between two
men reading a letter and a women playing with a cat in
the background, this develops the plot by showing the
audience the letter and telling them what's going on,
The Birth of a nation also uses a eyeline match to create
a feeling of involvement in what is being read. Also the
film uses an iris shot to focus in on a certain character.

Overall birth of a nation was effective as griffith created

was to keep the audience entertained away from the
actual plot by creating the shot reverse shot and other
different camera techniques it made the experience out of
this world for the audience at the time.
 Moviola
Moviola is a cutting machine developed in the 1920s and was the first of its kind allowing film editors to see the film while
editing, invented by Iwan Serrurier.

Initially it was a good idea but it had a hard sell as it cost $600 in the 1920s which would be around $20,000 in current day
and only three were sold. The moviola whoever allowed edits to incorporate sound for the first time.

High profile filmmakers continue to prefer the moviola such as editor michael khan who got an academy award for best film
edit in 2005 for his work on steven spielberg's munich which was edited with a moviola.
 Citizen Kane 1941 (Opening Scene)

Citizen Kane is a 1941 American mystery drama film by Orson Welles, its producer, co screenwriter, director and star. The film
begins showing us a rags to riches story, Orson Welles uses dissolves to show the progress that ‘Citizen Kane’ went through
showing the stages of his life going from being in a position where he is being kept out to the position where he is able to keep
people away from his accomplishments. Welles also uses a graphic match to take us through Kane’s domaine, the mansion in
the background is used to show the power that ‘Citizen Kane’ has achieved. The opening also creates enigma as we travel
deeper into the unknown, the opening brings us into a character's home but leaves the viewer wondering who the character is
and why we are focusing on this character. Orson welles uses a fisheye shot at the end of the opening sequence, he uses the
fisheye shot when the man who dies drops the snow globe and looking though it from a low angle of the nurse who was looking
after the man. This could suggest the development of the cameras as there is a high and low shots. The opening scene consists
of ellipsis editing as there is a lot of dissolves and fades which change the atmosphere.
Citizen kane - susan alexander kane
This scene begins with a picture of the protagonist Susan Alexander Kane, a once beautiful and happy women. The camera
then tilts and tracks up to a sign on the outside sign of the el rancho club displaying her name, this also implies that she is a
singer and performs nightly. Her name on the sign doesn't light up as the bulbs seem to have blown suggesting she isn't as
famous as she once was. This is an emotional scene creating empathy with the character. The innovative use of lighting
and shadows was considered the beginning of the film noir genre.

The camera takes the audience through the sign and then through the shattered skylight of the club, where welles uses a
dissolve cutting to a long shot. The shattered glass and cracked walls symbolise the death of dreams. When the waiter
introduces ms alexander to mr thompson, there are lots of shadows around in the darkish room which suggests something
bad has happened.
Citizen kane - kane and Emily scene
In this scene a montage is used to condense time showing kane and emily’s marriage disintegrating over time, using shot
reverse shot to focus on each character when they are talking. This also show the change in positioning such as facial
expressions, body language and their costumes. This scenes focus is to provide a backstory for the audience about his past
marriage and rise to fame.

A curtain swipe is used in the scene to speed up the time of the scene, this also is effective in showing how their
personalities have changed as emily had become more confident as she in now able to challenge her husband more and
kane has become more dismissive and self absorbed. This flashback or flash forward only shows some of the narrative
keeping information back from the viewer building suspense.

This scene is effective as it gives the film more depth allowing the audience to come up with questions which then engages
them even more.
1953 The Steinbeck Flatbed Editor
A Flatbed editor is a type of machine used to edit film for a motion
picture. Picture and sound rolls load onto separate motorized disks,
called "plates." Each set of plates moves forward or backward
separately, or locked together to maintain synchronization between
picture and sound. Americans preferred the steinbeck flatbed
compared to the sewing kit.

The steinbeck was created by Mr Wilhelm steinbeck in 1953. The Flatbed

editor is a destructive editing technique meaning when the film is cut it can
never be replaced, The Flatbed is also a linear editing technique as they
have to put the film in order to be able to add things like fades wipes and
dissolves, this is very time consuming as they have to through the entire
film.
LINEAR VS NONLINEAR

Linear editing is the process of selecting and modifying images this is used when using
videotape as a videotape cannot be cut and spliced together, the editor would have to record
each clip onto a master tape. A disadvantage of linear editing would be that you cannot delete
or insert scenes from the master videotape and also when something is deleted if you want
the scene back you would have to record it again. Because of overdubbing the clips must be
the same length in order to replace a current clip with a new one. Linear editing is still being
used but not as much as non linear editing as computer video editing software has now been
adopted throughout the industry. Linear editing is still common in tv news and medium sized
production facilities, tv news departments still use linear editing so they can start editing tapes
and feeds as soon as they receive them.

Nonlinear editing was developed in the 90s and meant that you could access any clip you
want whenever you want meaning you could edit out of order.A disadvantage of using
nonlinear editing is the cost, the computers and hard drives needed are very expensive. The
term non linear editing came about in 1991 from the published guide michael rubins nonlinear:
A guide to digital film and video editing. The non linear video editing method is random access
editing meaning you get instant access to any clip you want. In non linear video editing the
original source files do not get lost or modified while your editing the film as there is always
copies and back ups.
 1990s Trainspotting
Trainspotting was released in 1996 at this point film had come a long way as we were now able to break the rules of editing. In trainspotting
the 30 degree rule is broken during the interview scene where the editor has used jump cuts, using slightly shifted to show how the drugs
have affected him. The 180 degree rule is kept in this scene to show the transition from each side of the conversation showing how the people
see the character and how the character sees other people. The first scene is a fast shot reverse shot to condense time and to pick up the
pace of the film this also keeps the tension flowing to keep the audience on edge. There is a action match of spud as he gets up to say thank
you to the interviewers, the camera cuts from when he gets up from the chair to when spud is shaking hands with the interviewers creating
tension as we as the viewer's know he is on drugs and the interviewers don't look impressed.

This scene is effective as it is entertaining and breaks the 30 degree rule in this scene you can see that the director is creative and uses
different creative ways to entertain his audience even if it means breaking rules.
CGI - Saving Private Ryan
CGI (computer-generated imagery) is the creation of still or animated visual content with imaging software. CGI is used to
produce images for many purposes including visual art, advertising, anatomical modeling, architectural design, engineering,
television shows, video game art and film special effects, as well as augmented reality and virtual reality applications.CGI
is accomplished through various methods. The use of algorithms to generate fractals, for example, can produce complex
visual patterns. Other methods include painting in a 2D pixel-based image editor and creating shapes to make images, as in
a vector-based image editor.

In saving private ryan Cgi is used to recreate world war 2 for the audience to experience, this process is done with a
minimum amount of actors and props, the editors layer over each scene making it seem like there is more than what there
is. The end result is believable as the audience aren't able to tell what parts are added and what is actually filmed.
 Motion Capture
With Motion picture films are able to turn humans into animals or different creatures by syncing the movements of a human
body and the movement of whatever creature they are trying to create. The actor must then act out the movements of the
creature/animal and is almost controlling and animated image of this creature. CGI has developed from people creating
characters or creatures and adding them into fim to people actually acting as creatures of fictional characters such as in planet
of the apes where caesar is played by Andy Serkis.

For example to capture the facial expressions of the actors and sync it with the animals they play as in the film they put high
speed cameras in a helmet which record detailed expressions and exact timing.
NON CONTINUITY/ MONTAGE
Kuleshov
was a Russian and Soviet filmmaker and film theorist, one of the founders of the world's first film school, the Moscow Film
School. He was given the title People's Artist of the RSFSR in 1969. He was intimately involved in development of the style of
filmmaking known as Soviet montage. For Kuleshov, the essence of the cinema was editing, the juxtaposition of one shot with
another. To illustrate this principle, he created what has come to be known as the Kuleshov Effect. In this now-famous editing
exercise

Kuleshov believed that the viewers brought their own emotional reaction to a sequence. kuleshov edited a short film where
shots of a expressionless person is alternated with various other shots, the film was shown to an audience and they believed
that the expression on the person’s face was different each time he appeared this all depended on what he was looking at at
that whether it was a plate of soup, the girl in the coffin or the woman on the divan showing different expressions such as
hunger, grief and desire, it turned out that actually the footage was the same every time. This then made kuleshov believe that
images coming together can create meaning and can create different meanings depending on what order you put the footage
in.
Eisenstein
Sergei Eisenstein was born on the 18th of january 1898. His first film was glumovs
diary, but his first full length film was The Battleship Potemkin in 1925, he argued
that montage was the essence of cinema and came up with the idea that an idea
should come from the juxtaposition of two shots, he came up with methods of
montage being metric montage, rhythmic montage, tonal montage, overtonal
montage and intellectual montage.
Metric

A Metric Montage is when the editing follows

a specific number of frames, this is based on
the nature of time cutting to the next shot no
matter what is happening within the image
this is to get an emotional reaction from the
audience.

Eisenstein’s uses mythical time, slowing

down the time in which the baby falls
creating intensity.
 Rhythmic montage

This is used to keep the pace of the film but

also for visual continuity and example of
this is the car chase scene in the french
connection.

The rhythm of the soldiers feet on the steps

creates tension and fear for the people, the
sound also creates tension for the
audience as they wait to see the outcome.
Tonal Montage
tonal montage relates to the
emotions that the editing creates
instead of focusing on
manipulating time length or its
rhythmical characteristics. In the
Odessa steps sequence
Eisenstein creates the emotions
of fear by the use of lights,
shadows and framing.
Overtonal
Overtonal montage is the use
of metric, rhythmic and tonal
montages in one montage.
Each element from each
montage is used together to
help create an effect from the
audience, by doing this the
audience should become more
emotionally attached to the
scene.
Intellectual Montage
An intellectual montage is used in the scene where the statue of a lion is shown
rising symbolising the uprising of the people against the soldiers.

An intellectual montage is used to form thoughts in the viewer’s minds and can be
used for propaganda. Concepts such as this began to arise around the first half of
the 20th century for example imagism in poetry.
Pudovkin
Pudovkin was Kuleshov’s most outstanding student and established 5 montage
editing techniques:

1. Contrast
2. Parallelism
3. Symbolism
4. Leitmotif - the visual or audio associated with the reappearance of character,
object or situation.
Baptism Sequence Godfather - Contrast
With Contrast cutting from one shot to a completely different shot
can force the viewer to compare two opposing scenes.

In the Baptism sequence in the godfather there is a scene where a

character attends the christening of his nephew while at the same
time he has ordered his men to kill the heads of the other new york
crime families, cutting back and forth from the christening where he
says he renounces satan and the act of murder that he has
commanded leading the viewer to suggest that perhaps he has
doesn’t renounce satan and is actually a evil man who is trying to
hide his sins. The scenes cutting back and forth perhaps suggests
that his sins cannot be hidden from God who he will one day stand
before and also contrasts between good and evil. This scene also
provides the audience with the information that michael has not
changed his bad ways which engages the viewer.
 a l l el i sm
Par
Parallelism is a way of connecting two scenes
visually by matching elements in the scene.

In a space odyssey (1968) there is a scene where

an ape throws a bone into the sky and then it
dissolves into the next scene of a space satellite
suggesting that humanity has evolved drastically.
Also in hugo the graphic match of the inner
mechanics of a clock and the mechanics of 1930s
Paris.

Also in the opening scene of jurassic park there is a

scene where a women screams and the shot then
cuts to a man yawning as a train is screeching at
the station. This juxtaposition creates suspense by
withholding information about the women's
character.
Simultaneity
Simultaneity is actions occurring at the same in two different locations.This is used
in films such as silence of the lambs where the film has been edited to cut back
and forth from a swat team preparing to raid the house of a killer, while the killer is
inside trying to rescue his dog from the woman he’s kept imprisoned in his
basement, we then realise that the cross cutting has tricked us into thinking that
the swat team was outside his house but actually they were at the wrong house.
Symbolism
Symbolism is the use of an object or action to represent something else. This is
used in lawrence of arabia, where lawrence tries to convince a man to let him go
out to the desert, he holds up a match and as he blows out the match the film cuts
to a shot of the sun rising the juxtaposition between the match and the sun relate
to the fiery heat and harshness of the environment. Also Hitchcock uses
symbolism in psycho where it shows blood going down the drain and cuts to the
eye of the murdered character symbolising a life gone down the drain.
Leitmotif
A leitmotif is a theme repeated to associate with a particular idea, character or
situation, such as the indiana jones theme. In this case the Pudovkin uses it in in a
visual sense describing a recurring shot or scene that has a certain meaning or
symbolism. This is used in jaws 1975 where the motif of the underwater point of
view shot is used and every time you see the underwater point of view the viewer
knows the shark is nearby. This is effective as it creates suspense during the film
and leaves and lasting effect after the film as films can be known because of it.
Hollywood's use of montage
1960 Hitchcock’s ‘Psycho’ shower scene
At the beginning of the scene dramatic irony is being used to
create a tension filled atmosphere for the audience this would also
make the audience shocked as the main protagonist is about to be
stabbed.

The editor uses a graphic match of the killer looking down at the
woman, the close up on the blood going down the drain is part of
the intellectual montage which perhaps suggests that it is a life
down the drain, a waste of a life, there is also a graphic match of
the drain and her eye which supports my belief that it was used as
if to say that it was a life down the drain. After the death of the
character an extreme close of the characters eye is used to show
was used to verify to the viewers that she had actually died. The
cross cut to the shower still running perhaps suggests that even
though she has died everything else around her continues as if she
was still alive, her death has had no affect on her surroundings.
1970’S Rocky 1 training montage
The montage shown in Rocky 1 is used to condense time,
it shows us the stages of his training throughout the year in
a short amount of time, it also shows the results of his
training at the end of the montage being that he is finally
able to jog to the top of the stairs when at the start we
knew that he couldn’t. It also shows the members of the
public take more interest in rocky over time which suggest
they are supporting him in his training. The montage
develops the drama of the main character creating
empathy as the audience want him to do well.

The leitmotif of rocky's theme tune is used throughout the

scene to build pace and create excitement. The viewer's
follow rocky through his journey to him becoming strong
and can relate to the crowd cheering him on.
Intellectual Montage ‘’Bowling For Columbine’’
The Bowling For Columbine montage was used at the beginning to show the viewer how
dangerous american culture was, the montage shows us this by talking of and showing the viewer
typical things that americans are expected to love and do. The bowling for columbine montage is
able to show america's history in a short amount of time and by doing this and showing the
negative effects of what they do and like it makes the view think and believe that something
should be changed about their ideologies. The edit features juxtaposition of black and white old
footage against the new footage, this suggest that the new society of america has changed vastly.
However from the shot of the bombing it shows that america have been made to know fear
meaning the need to buy a gun has increased. Bowling for columbine was created to bring
awareness to the the action of murder that took place in a high school, the montage doesn't
address the actual event but shows how easy it is for anyone in america to buy which raises a
huge issue.
2000’s Montage Of Parody ‘’Team America’’
In the 1980s montage became overused everyone began using this to transition time.
Eventually montage was parodied in comic situations as seen in 2004s team america. The
whole scene is a parody of a stereotypical training montage and they use shots used in
movies such as karate kid and rocky to show the development of a character. They do this
by taking quick shots of the character while the are practising and then take shots of the
character improving.

The soundtrack used in the whole scene sequence is mocking the uses of montage for
showing the development of a character perhaps suggesting that the idea of a character
getting stronger or developing a character within seconds or minutes is stupid. Also the
general public now had access to computers and video cameras and was able to create
their own versions of a training montage and it no long was special.
Hip hop montage In a hip hop montage fast cutting is used which uses several different
shots for a short amount of time which is then able to convey a lot of
information in a short amount of time. Fast cutting is also used to
show energy or to portray chaos it can also be used in character
conversation changing the viewer’s perspective highlighting the
reactions of the characters or the non verbal actions of the speaking
character. Sound effects are usually used during a hip hop montage.

In this scene show the characters taking drugs. The hip hop montage
gives the after effect of taking drugs over time. Repeating shots
shows the addiction the characters have to their drugs. Through the
use of fast editing this makes the audience feel like the effects are all
happening at once but in reality it would be happening over hours or
days. The use of split screen makes you look at both images at once
which could be suggesting that's how the character feels while on
drugs.
EDITING USED IN TELEVISION
Captain Video
The use of a voiceover is commonly used in tv programmes that have a narrative continuation. It was used to inform the
audience where the story has got up to allowing them to understand the narrative in a short space of time., technology was
not as advanced as current day so voiceovers could only remind the audience of what has already happened.
The special effects and staging shown by the establishing shot contribute to the sci-fi genre of the TV show since the set
was a futuristic stage. Captain Video was a live production so a vision mixer would have been used to add special effects
by compositing several shots together.

The use of cross cutting when the hijackers were communicating with their peers and dissolves to their peers creates a
clear narrative for the audience since this is an example of continuity editing, It allows us to gain an insight of what they are
planning to do.

Cameras in the 50s would have been very large and hard to move which would be why most of the shots were static.
1970s Dr who - continuity & montage
In Dr who 1970s Green screen is used setting the location in outer space. The iconography in Dr who is very accurate to
what the viewer would expect in real life making the show feel more realistic The diegetic sounds set the sci-fi genre as well
as the costumes, colours and other props as they are representations of the experience of space.Cross cutting is used
moving from one place to another such as when the camera goes from showing a man in a studio to the perspective of
someone watching the live broadcast on the Tv. Backstory is also told through the news reporter as usual a non diegetic
voice over would be presented to give the backstory.In camera editing is also used when Dr who was transported from his
ship. The show also breaks the 30 degree rule with the news reader. The structure and style of Dr.Who is different to
Captain Video as Dr Who has short episodes spread across several seasons whereas Captain Video is one long,
continuous show. The main difference with the backstory in Dr.Who compared to Captain Video is that it is being told
directly in the scene by the news reporter live rather than being edited in.

In-camera editing was used in the scene with Doctor Who and Liz where they both vanish which is represented by the
cameraman stopping and starting the camera.
 Farscape(1999) begins with an extreme close up of an alien eye which is
Farscape(1999) different as at the time people would have expected aliens to have been the bad
guys. The extreme close up also creates enigma as we do not know who the
character is.The show also uses a blue character instead of a filter to symbolise
that the show would be in the sci fi genre.

Farscape uses a dissolve for the opening scene which also included a montage.

The non diegetic sounds used also helps to create tension in the scene when
they enter a ship which they call a ‘’tomb’’ not knowing what awaits them. In this
scene they also use low key lighting which creates enigma.

Farscape uses CGI to create characters which cannot be created in real life, by
doing this it makes the CGI characters look more realistic as alien beings in the
show.

Cross cutting is used to show the different scenes happening in each ship, also a
shot reverse shot is used to show characters conversations. An action match is
used in the scene where the human characters are shown walking through the
door in the enemy spaceship.

This is effective as everything adds to the genre of sci fi and would have kept it's
audience entertained.
Battlestar galactica
Battlestar galactica begins with an establishing shot of the spaceship introducing
where the episode will take place. A eyeline match is used to show the lack of time
before the next attack on the ship, it also highlights the character making the decision
on whether to leave behind his comrade who is currently on earth while this is
happening. They use a low angle shot when showing the rush of soldiers and pilots as
the ship is attacked showing the panic and shock of everyone on the battleship.
Battlestar galactica uses a timeline showing a fantasy dream world of life on earth, a
character uses this to manipulate the another character into believing that destroying
earth was the correct thing to do, it shows the battle with his conscience and the guilt
of the situation. The show uses cross cutting showing the pilot in the battleship and
the people within the command ship. The show also uses a high angle when the
general dies to verify to the viewers that he is actually dead.
 The iconography of the Earth, rockets, spaceships and spacesuits
contribute to the sci-fi genre which is a common similarity of all sci-fi
Startrek shows/montags.

The graphic match cutting to the Earth represents the development

of the world and how significantly it has changed over time. Several
space technology has been shown which also represents how
humans have evolved from the advanced technology that have been
produced. This has also been shown through the multiple uses of
dissolves over time.

The short duration of each shot represents the rapid pace that Earth
has changed. The use of excessive CGI and special effects from the
explosions and rockets is more sophisticated which differs to
previous sci-fi shows and montages such as Farscape.

The music was used to accompany the montage and it also gives a
positive view for the future of humans and the world. It shows
humans exist to not give up and always aim to reach all their goals
which is why they’ve developed successfully.
The dissolves also show how as a human race we have become
smarter and more willing to explore the unknown showing the fact
that we started off with the sea and developed to exploring space.
Battlestar galactica opening
Battlestar galacticas opening scene uses short duration shots to create
enigma to the viewer as it shows what will happen in the series but gives
no detail to why or when. The opening also uses these short duration
shots to build suspense along side the non diegetic music, which
marinates with the chaos and destruction that is briefly shown. The
opening quickly establishes the genre using blue tints and the use of
ships and explosions.