Student Handouts: COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Communication Process
The communication is a dynamic process that begins with the conceptualizing of ideas by the
sender who then transmits the message through a channel to the receiver, who in turn gives the
feedback in the form of some message or signal within the given time frame. Thus, there are Seven
major elements of communication process:

1. Sender: The sender or the communicator is the person who initiates the conversation and has
conceptualized the idea that he intends to convey it to others.
2. Encoding: The sender begins with the encoding process wherein he uses certain words or non-
verbal methods such as symbols, signs, body gestures, etc. to translate the information into a
message. The sender’s knowledge, skills, perception, background, competencies, etc. has a great
impact on the success of the message.
3. Message: Once the encoding is finished, the sender gets the message that he intends to convey. The
message can be written, oral, symbolic or non-verbal such as body gestures, silence, sighs, sounds,
etc. or any other signal that triggers the response of a receiver.
4. Communication Channel: The Sender chooses the medium through which he wants to convey his
message to the recipient. It must be selected carefully in order to make the message effective and
correctly interpreted by the recipient. The choice of medium depends on the interpersonal
relationships between the sender and the receiver and also on the urgency of the message being
sent. Oral, virtual, written, sound, gesture, etc. are some of the commonly used communication
mediums.
5. Receiver: The receiver is the person for whom the message is intended or targeted. He tries to
comprehend it in the best possible manner such that the communication objective is attained. The
degree to which the receiver decodes the message depends on his knowledge of the subject matter,
experience, trust and relationship with the sender.
6. Decoding: Here, the receiver interprets the sender’s message and tries to understand it in the best
possible manner. An effective communication occurs only if the receiver understands the message
in exactly the same way as it was intended by the sender.
7. Feedback: The Feedback is the final step of the process that ensures the receiver has received the
message and interpreted it correctly as it was intended by the sender. It increases the effectiveness
of the communication as it permits the sender to know the efficacy of his message. The response of
the receiver can be verbal or non-verbal.

Note: The Noise shows the barriers in communications. There are chances when the message sent
by the sender is not received by the recipient.

What’s stopping you from communicating effectively?

Common barriers to effective communication include:
Stress and out-of-control emotion. When you’re stressed or emotionally overwhelmed,
you’re more likely to misread other people, send confusing or off-putting nonverbal signals,
and lapse into unhealthy knee-jerk patterns of behaviour. To avoid conflict and
misunderstandings, you can learn how to quickly calm down before continuing a
conversation.
Lack of focus. You can’t communicate effectively when you’re multitasking. If you’re
checking your phone, planning what you’re going to say next, or daydreaming you’re
almost certain to miss nonverbal cues in the conversation. To communicate effectively,
you need to avoid distractions and stay focused.
Inconsistent body language. Nonverbal communication should reinforce what is being
said, not contradict it. If you say one thing, but your body language says something else,
your listener will likely feel you’re being dishonest. For example, you can’t say “yes” while
shaking your head no.
Negative body language. If you disagree with or dislike what’s being said, you may use
negative body language to rebuff the other person’s message, such as crossing your
arms, avoiding eye contact, or tapping your feet. You don’t have to agree, or even like
what’s being said, but to communicate effectively and not make the other person
defensive, it’s important to avoid sending negative signals.
Effective communication
Effective communication sounds like it should be instinctive. But all too often, when we try
to communicate with others something goes astray. We say one thing, the other person
hears something else, and misunderstandings, frustration, and conflicts ensue. This can
cause problems in your home, school, and work relationships. For many of us,
communicating more clearly and effectively requires learning some important skills.
Effective communication is about more than just exchanging information. It's about
understanding the emotion and intentions behind the information. As well as being able to
clearly convey a message, you need to also listen in a way that gains the full meaning of
what’s being said and makes the other person feel heard and understood.
More than just the words you use, effective communication combines a set of 4 skills:
1. Engaged listening
2. Nonverbal communication
3. Managing stress in the moment
4. Asserting yourself in a respectful way

While these are learned skills, communication is more effective when it becomes
spontaneous rather than formulaic. A speech that is read, for example, rarely has the
same impact as a speech that’s delivered (or appears to be delivered) spontaneously. Of
course, it takes time and effort to develop these skills. The more effort and practice you
put in, the more instinctive and effective your communication skills will become.

Effective communication skill 1: Become an engaged listener

When communicating with others, we often focus on what we should say. However,
effective communication is less about talking and more about listening. Listening well
means not just understanding the words or the information being communicated, but also
understanding the emotions, the speaker is trying to communicate.
There’s a big difference between engaged listening and simply hearing. When you really
listen—when you’re engaged with what’s being said—you’ll hear the subtle intonations in
someone’s voice that tell you how that person is feeling and the emotions they’re trying to
communicate. When you’re an engaged listener, not only will you better understand the
other person, you’ll also make that person feel heard and understood, which can help build
a stronger, deeper connection between you.
By communicating in this way, you’ll also experience a process that lowers stress
(/articles/stress/stress-management.htm) and supports physical and emotional well-being.
If the person you’re talking to is calm, for example, listening in an engaged way will help to
calm you, too. Similarly, if the person is agitated, you can help calm them by listening in an
attentive way and making the person feel understood.
If your goal is to fully understand and connect with the other person, listening in an
engaged way will often come naturally. If it doesn’t, try the following tips. The more you
practice them, the more satisfying and rewarding your interactions with others will become.

Tips for becoming an engaged listener

Focus fully on the speaker. You can’t listen in an engaged way if you’re constantly
checking your phone (/articles/addictions/smartphone-addiction.htm) or thinking about
something else. You need to stay focused on the moment-to-moment experience in order
to pick up the subtle nuances and important nonverbal cues in a conversation. If you find it
hard to concentrate on some speakers, try repeating their words over in your head—it’ll
reinforce their message and help you stay focused.
Favour your right ear. As strange as it sounds, the left side of the brain contains the
primary processing centres for both speech comprehension and emotions. Since the left
side of the brain is connected to the right side of the body, favouring your right ear can help
you better detect the emotional nuances of what someone is saying.
Avoid interrupting or trying to redirect the conversation to your concerns by saying
something like, “If you think that’s bad, let me tell you what happened to me.” Listening is
not the same as waiting for your turn to talk. You can’t concentrate on what someone’s
saying if you’re forming what you’re going to say next. Often, the speaker can read your
facial expressions and know that your mind’s elsewhere.
Show your interest in what's being said. Nod occasionally, smile at the person, and
make sure your posture is open and inviting. Encourage the speaker to continue with small
verbal comments like “yes” or “uh huh.”
Try to set aside judgment. In order to communicate effectively with someone, you don’t
have to like them or agree with their ideas, values, or opinions. However, you do need to
set aside your judgment and withhold blame and criticism in order to fully understand
them. The most difficult communication, when successfully executed, can often lead to an
unlikely connection with someone.
Provide feedback. If there seems to be a disconnect, reflect what has been said by
paraphrasing. "What I'm hearing is…," or "Sounds like you are saying…," are great ways
to reflect back. Don’t simply repeat what the speaker has said verbatim, though—you’ll
sound insincere or unintelligent. Instead, express what the speaker’s words mean to you.
Ask questions to clarify certain points: "What do you mean when you say..." or "Is this
what you mean?"
Hear the emotion behind the words
It’s the higher frequencies of human speech that impart emotion. You can become
more attuned to these frequencies—and thus better able to understand what others
are really saying—by exercising the tiny muscles of your middle ear (the smallest in
the body). You can do this by singing, playing a wind instrument, or listening to certain
types of high-frequency music (a Mozart symphony or violin concerto, for example,
rather than low-frequency rock, pop, or hip-hop).

Effective communication Skill 2: Pay attention to nonverbal signals

The way you look, listen, move, and react to another person tells them more about how
you’re feeling than words alone ever can. Nonverbal communication, or body language,
includes facial expressions, body movement and gestures, eye contact, posture, the tone
of your voice, and even your muscle tension and breathing.
Developing the ability to understand and use nonverbal communication can help you
connect with others, express what you really mean, navigate challenging situations, and
build better relationships at home and work.
  You can enhance effective communication by using open body language—arms uncrossed,
standing with an open stance or sitting on the edge of your seat, and maintaining eye
contact with the person you’re talking to.
 You can also use body language to emphasize or enhance your verbal message—patting a
friend on the back while complimenting him on his success, for example, or pounding your
fists to underline your message.

IMPROVE HOW YOU READ NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

Be aware of individual differences. People from different countries and cultures tend to use
different nonverbal communication gestures, so it’s important to take age, culture, religion, gender,
and emotional state into account when reading body language signals. An American teen, a grieving
widow, and an Asian businessman, for example, are likely to use nonverbal signals differently.
Look at nonverbal communication signals as a group. Don’t read too much into a single gesture
or nonverbal cue. Consider all of the nonverbal signals you receive, from eye contact to tone of
voice to body language. Anyone can slip up occasionally and let eye contact go, for example, or
briefly cross their arms without meaning to. Consider the signals as a whole to get a better “read”
on a person.
IMPROVE HOW YOU DELIVER NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
Use nonverbal signals that match up with your words rather than contradict them. If you say one
thing, but your body language says something else, your listener will feel confused or suspect that
you’re being dishonest. For example, sitting with your arms crossed and shaking your head doesn’t
match words telling the other person that you agree with what they’re saying.
Adjust your nonverbal signals according to the context. The tone of your voice, for example,
should be different when you’re addressing a child than when you’re addressing a group of adults.
Similarly, take into account the emotional state and cultural background of the person you’re
interacting with.
Avoid negative body language. Instead, use body language to convey positive feelings, even when
you’re not actually experiencing them. If you’re nervous about a situation—a job interview,
important presentation, or first date, for example—you can use positive body language to signal
confidence, even though you’re not feeling it. Instead of tentatively entering a room with your head
down, eyes averted, and sliding into a chair, try standing tall with your shoulders back, smiling and
maintaining eye contact, and delivering a firm handshake. It will make you feel more self-confident
and help to put the other person at ease.

Effective communication Skill 3: Keep stress in check

How many times have you felt stressed during a disagreement with your spouse, kids, boss, friends,
or co-workers and then said or done something you later regretted? If you can quickly relieve stress
and return to a calm state, you’ll not only avoid such regrets, but in many cases you’ll also help to
calm the other person as well. It’s only when you’re in a calm, relaxed state that you’ll be able to
know whether the situation requires a response, or whether the other person’s signals indicate it
would be better to remain silent.
In situations such as a job interview, business presentation, high-pressure meeting, or introduction
to a loved one’s family, for example, it’s important to manage your emotions, think on your feet,
and effectively communicate under pressure.

Communicate effectively by staying calm under pressure: Quick stress relief for effective
communication
When a conversation starts to get heated, you need something quick and immediate to bring down
the emotional intensity. By learning to quickly reduce stress in the moment, you can safely take
stock of any strong emotions you’re experiencing, regulate your feelings, and behave appropriately.
Recognize when you’re becoming stressed. Your body will let you know if you’re stressed as you
communicate. Are your muscles or stomach tight? Are your hands clenched? Is your breath
shallow? Are you “forgetting” to breathe?
Take a moment to calm down before deciding to continue a conversation or postpone it.
Bring your senses to the rescue. The best way to rapidly and reliably relieve stress is through the
senses—sight, sound, touch, taste, smell—or movement. For example, you could pop a peppermint
in your mouth, squeeze a stress ball in your pocket, take a few deep breaths, clench and relax your
muscles, or simply recall a soothing, sensory-rich image. Each person responds differently to
sensory input, so you need to find a coping mechanism that is soothing to you.
Look for humour in the situation. When used appropriately, humor is a great way to relieve stress
when communicating. When you or those around you start taking things too seriously, find a way to
lighten the mood by sharing a joke or an amusing story.
Be willing to compromise. Sometimes, if you can both bend a little, you’ll be able to find a happy
middle ground that reduces the stress levels for everyone concerned. If you realize that the other
person cares much more about an issue than you do, compromise may be easier for you and a good
investment for the future of the relationship.
Agree to disagree, if necessary, and take time away from the situation so everyone can calm down.
Go for a stroll outside if possible, or spend a few minutes meditating. Physical movement or finding
a quiet place to regain your balance can quickly reduce stress.

Effective communication Skill 4: Assert yourself

Direct, assertive expression makes for clear communication and can help boost your self-esteem
and decision-making skills. Being assertive means expressing your thoughts, feelings, and needs in
an open and honest way, while standing up for yourself and respecting others. It does NOT mean
being hostile, aggressive, or demanding. Effective communication is always about understanding
the other person, not about winning an argument or forcing your opinions on others.

To improve your assertiveness: Developing assertive communication techniques

Empathetic assertion conveys sensitivity to the other person. First, recognize the other person’s
situation or feelings, then state your needs or opinion. “I know you’ve been very busy at work, but I
want you to make time for us as well.”
Escalating assertion can be employed when your first attempts are not successful. You become
increasingly firm as time progresses, which may include outlining consequences if your needs are
not met. For example, “If you don’t abide by the contract, I’ll be forced to pursue legal action.”
Practice assertiveness in lower risk situations to help build up your confidence. Or ask friends or
family if you can practice assertiveness techniques on them first.

THE COMMUNICATION CYCLE

The Communication Cycle is a six-step process that helps you develop and refine your message. It
helps you ensure that you don't forget anything essential the first time you present it, and it helps
you maximize its impact in the times that follow. By putting the process into the form of a cycle,
this approach encourages you to use the feedback you receive to improve your communications in
the future.
The Communication Cycle (shown below in Figure 1) provides a checklist that helps you
communicate effectively with your audience.
How to Use the Communication Cycle
Follow these steps to use the cycle:
Step 1: Clarify Your Aim
Organize your thoughts about the message that you want to communicate by answering these
questions:
 To whom am I communicating?
 What message am I trying to send, and what am I trying to achieve with it?
 Why do I want to send this message? Do I need to send it at all?
 What do I want my audience to feel?
 What does my audience need or desire from this message?
 What do I want my audience to do with this information?
Step 2: Compose/Encode
Now that you've organized your thoughts with the questions in Step 1, start crafting your message.
Think about:
 What is the best way to communicate this message?
 What level/type of language should I use?
 Does the audience have any background information on my topic?
 Will my audience need any additional resources to understand my message?
 Am I expressing emotions in my message? If so, which emotions?
 Will the audience assume anything about me or my motives that will hurt
communication?
Step 3: Transmit/Deliver
The way that you communicate your message is vital to ensuring that your audience receives it
effectively. Ask yourself:
 Is this the right time to send this message?
 What is my audience's state of mind likely to be, and what workload will they be
experiencing when they receive this message? How should I present my message to take
account of this?
 Will there be any distractions that may hurt communication? (This is especially
important to consider when giving a speech or presentation.)
 Should I include anyone else in the audience?
Step 4: Receive Feedback
This is a key step in the Communication Cycle. Without feedback from your audience, you'll never
know how you can improve the way that you communicate your message.
Make sure that you include some type of feedback process as part of your communication.
 Do you know how to read body language, and use it to steer your presentation?
 If you're giving a speech or presentation, will you allow time for a question-and-answer
session?
 Will you have a process for getting feedback from your audience?
 When you receive feedback, is it generally what you want and expect?
Remember to use indirect feedback here too. Did you get the response that you wanted from your
communication? Is there anything more that you can interpret from the response that you received?
Step 5: Analyse/Decode/Learn
Use the feedback you received in Step 4 to learn and grow. Depending on your situation, you
might need to rewrite your message and try again. (One of the benefits of testing your message on a
small scale is that you can do this before the big day.)
 Why did you receive this feedback? What does this tell you about your message?
 What could you have done differently to get the response you wanted?
 Did the audience feel the way you expected them to feel? If not, why not?
 How should you act or behave differently to move forward?
Step 6: Change/Improve
This step completes the cycle. All the feedback in the world won't help you unless you commit to
learning and changing.
 Honour and respect the feedback you've received. If you believe it's valid, change your
message or behaviour.
 Identify resources to help you improve (asking colleagues; doing more testing; or using
surveys, classes, books, seminars, and so on).

The Importance of Grammar, Punctuation, Spelling, and Capitalization

A panda walks into a cafe. He orders a sandwich, eats it, then draws a gun and proceeds to fire
it at the other patrons.

"Why?" asks the confused, surviving waiter amidst the carnage, as the panda makes towards
the exit.

The panda produces a badly punctuated wildlife manual and tosses it over his shoulder. "Well,
I'm a panda," he says. "Look it up."

The waiter turns to the relevant entry in the manual and, sure enough, finds an explanation.
"Panda. Large black-and-white bear-like mammal, native to China. Eats, shoots and leaves."

From “Eats, Shoots & Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation”

by Lynn Truss

An interesting and perhaps unanticipated result of the growth in social media for marketing is an
increased need for good writing skills. Blogs, drip marketing, opt-in electronic newsletters, and
other “new media” require both useful content and good writing to attract and keep readers.
The elements of good writing are simple: grammar, spelling, punctuation, and capitalization. By
mastering the rules and conventions, you will make your writing easier to understand and more
enjoyable to your readers.

Grammar

Grammar explains the forms and structure of words (called morphology) and how they are arranged
in sentences (called syntax). In other words, grammar provides the rules for common use of both
spoken and written language so we can more easily understand each other.

The building blocks of grammar are the eight parts of speech:

Verbs express actions, events, or states of being.

Nouns name a person, animal, place, thing, or abstract idea.
Pronouns take the place of nouns or another pronoun.
Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns by describing, identifying, or quantifying them. An adjective
usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies.
Adverbs modify a verb, adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a clause and indicate manner, time,
place, cause, or degree. Adverbs can be recognized because they answer the question how, when,
where, or how much. Adverbs often end in ly.
Prepositions link nouns, pronouns, and phrases to other words in a sentence and usually indicate a
relationship of time, space, or logic.
Conjunctions link words, phrases, and clauses.
Interjections are added to a sentence to convey emotion and are usually followed by an exclamation
point.

Every complete sentence has two parts: a subject (who or what the sentence is about) and a
predicate (what the subject is doing). The subject is a noun or a pronoun; the predicate is a verb. To
identify the subject of a sentence, find the verb and ask who or what. The answer is the subject.

Modifiers, phrases, and clauses add information about the subject and predicate and make the
writing more interesting and clear. A single word acting as an adjective or adverb is called a
modifier; two or more words without a subject and predicate and acting as an adjective or adverb is
called a phrase; and two or more words acting as an adjective or adverb and having a subject and
predicate is a clause.

Whether single words, phrases, or clauses, modifiers should appear close to the word or words they
modify, especially if the reader might mistake what is being modified. Here is an example of a
misplaced modifier:

John could read the sign easily written in French.

In this example, it is unclear whether the adverb easily is meant to modify the way John reads the
sign or how it is written. By moving the modifier closer to the word it is modifying, the meaning
becomes clear:

John could easily read the sign written in French.

Clauses are the basic building blocks of sentences. When a sentence is formed by a single clause, it
is known as a simple sentence. Simple sentences are the most common type for spoken language,
but can make writing seem childish. Simple sentences can be made more interesting and
informative by adding modifiers and can be effective for attracting the reader’s attention when used
sparingly.
Two or more clauses that are joined by a conjunction such as and, but, and, or form a compound
sentence. Compound sentences create balance or contrast between thoughts, ideas, or information
of equal importance:

Simple sentences: Molly and Emily live near each other. They are best friends.

Compound sentence: Molly and Emily live near each other, and they are best friends.

A complex sentence contains an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses that are not
equal. A complex sentence is different from a simple sentence or compound sentence because it
develops a central idea, provides background information, and clearly identifies the most important
thought.

Complex sentence: Even if Molly and Emily did not live near each other, they would still be best
friends due to their many common interests.

Improve your writing by varying the types of sentences you use. To grab a reader’s attention, use a
short, simple sentence. To emphasize balance and equal thoughts, use a compound sentence. To
show the relationship between different information, use a complex sentence.

Spelling

The availability of spell checkers in word processing programs greatly reduces the likelihood of
spelling errors – except for homonyms. A homonym is a word that is pronounced the same as
another, but is spelled differently and has a different meaning. Here are some examples of
homonyms:

· affect (to have an influence on), effect (a result). Affect is generally used as a verb (to affect)
while effect is generally used as a noun (the effect).

· capital (seat of government) and capitol (a building)

· lie (recline) and lye (used in making soap)

· principal (head of school) and principle (a truth, law, rule, or standard)

· scene (setting) and seen (past participle of see)

· whine (complain) and wine (an alcoholic drink)

Punctuation

Punctuation helps convey the precise meaning of a sentence – and in fact can even change the
meaning, as in this well-known example:

A woman, without her man, is nothing.

A woman: without her, man is nothing.

Here is a brief description of how punctuation is used:

A comma tells the reader to pause and assimilate information. They are also used to separate the
items in a series.
A semi-colon links independent clauses that are closely related in meaning when they are not linked
by a conjunction.
A colon introduces a list or a summation. It can also be used to link an idea that has been introduced
in an independent clause.
End punctuation – period, question mark, and exclamation mark – denotes the end of a sentence.
Parentheses enclose words that are not directly related to the main thought of the sentence but
provide important information, or to provide examples.
A dash signals a sudden change of thought or break in a sentence. Dashes can also be used in place
of parentheses to emphasize information.
Quotation marks indicate direct speech. All punctuation marks are enclosed within the quotation
marks except for semi-colons, colons, and question marks when they are not part of the quotation.
An apostrophe indicates that letters are missing from a contraction, or shows possession (i.e., that
one thing belongs to another). The word (its) spelled without an apostrophe is a possessive; spelled
with an apostrophe (it’s) is a contraction of it is. Similarly, whose is a possessive pronoun, and
who’s is a contraction of who is. Do not use an apostrophe to form the plural of numbers or letters
(the 1990s, a box of PCs).

Capitalization

Like punctuation, capitalization helps convey information. The first word of every sentence is
capitalized, signaling that a new sentence has begun. Proper nouns – the name of a particular
person, place, or thing – are capitalized to indicate uniqueness. However, it is not correct to use
capitalization merely to make a word look or seem important.

Seven C’s of Effective Communication

There are 7 C’s of effective communication which are applicable to both written as well as oral
communication. These are as follows:

1. Completeness - The communication must be complete. It should convey all facts required by
the audience. The sender of the message must take into consideration the receiver’s mind set
and convey the message accordingly. A complete communication has following features:
 Complete communication develops and enhances reputation of an organization.
 Moreover, they are cost saving as no crucial information is missing and no additional
cost is incurred in conveying extra message if the communication is complete.
 A complete communication always gives additional information wherever required. It
leaves no questions in the mind of receiver.
 Complete communication helps in better decision-making by the
audience/readers/receivers of message as they get all desired and crucial information.
 It persuades the audience.
2. Conciseness - Conciseness means wordiness, i.e, communicating what you want to convey in
least possible words without forgoing the other C’s of communication. Conciseness is a
necessity for effective communication. Concise communication has following features:
 It is both time-saving as well as cost-saving.
 It underlines and highlights the main message as it avoids using excessive and needless
words.
 Concise communication provides short and essential message in limited words to the
audience.
 Concise message is more appealing and comprehensible to the audience.
 Concise message is non-repetitive in nature.
3. Consideration - Consideration implies “stepping into the shoes of others”. Effective
communication must take the audience into consideration, i.e, the audience’s view points,
background, mind-set, education level, etc. Make an attempt to envisage your audience, their
requirements, emotions as well as problems. Ensure that the self-respect of the audience is
maintained and their emotions are not at harm. Modify your words in message to suit the
 audience’s needs while making your message complete. Features of considerate communication
are as follows:
 Emphasize on “you” approach.
 Empathize with the audience and exhibit interest in the audience. This will stimulate a
positive reaction from the audience.
 Show optimism towards your audience. Emphasize on “what is possible” rather than
“what is impossible”. Lay stress on positive words such as jovial, committed, thanks,
warm, healthy, help, etc.
4. Clarity - Clarity implies emphasizing on a specific message or goal at a time, rather than trying
to achieve too much at once. Clarity in communication has following features:
 It makes understanding easier.
 Complete clarity of thoughts and ideas enhances the meaning of message.
 Clear message makes use of exact, appropriate and concrete words.
5. Concreteness - Concrete communication implies being particular and clear rather than fuzzy
and general. Concreteness strengthens the confidence. Concrete message has following
features:
 It is supported with specific facts and figures.
 It makes use of words that are clear and that build the reputation.
 Concrete messages are not misinterpreted.
6. Courtesy - Courtesy in message implies the message should show the sender’s expression as
well as should respect the receiver. The sender of the message should be sincerely polite,
judicious, reflective and enthusiastic. Courteous message has following features:
 Courtesy implies taking into consideration both viewpoints as well as feelings of the
receiver of the message.
 Courteous message is positive and focused at the audience.
 It makes use of terms showing respect for the receiver of message.
 It is not at all biased.
7. Correctness - Correctness in communication implies that there are no grammatical errors in
communication. Correct communication has following features:
 The message is exact, correct and well-timed.
 If the communication is correct, it boosts up the confidence level.
 Correct message has greater impact on the audience/readers.
 It checks for the precision and accurateness of facts and figures used in the message.
 It makes use of appropriate and correct language in the message.

COHERENCE AND COHESION

Coherence is defined as the quality of being logical, consistent and able to be understood. Imagine
coherence as a building. A text has coherence if its constituent sentences follow on one from the
other in an orderly fashion so that the reader can make sense of the entire text.

Cohesion on the other hand refers to the act of forming a whole unit. It is effectively a subset of
coherence. Picture cohesion as the bricks and cement which make up the building. Bricks and
cement can be put together to create any form of structure. However, it is only when they are laid
together properly that they form a building. Similarly, a text will be cohesive if cohesive ties are
used however it will only be coherent if the cohesive ties are used appropriately to create meaning.

Coherence can be achieved through devices such as cohesive ties, formatting techniques, inference,
logical ordering of information, semantic patterning and consistency.

Cohesion describes the way in which a text is tied together by linguistic devices, such as And so we
see . . . , Additonally . . . , Therefore . . . , However . . . and On the other hand . . .

Cohesive devices effectively help the discourse flow. They include collocations, lexical repetition,
linking adverbials, substitution, ellipsis, conjunctions, synonymy/antonymy, hypernyms/hyponyms
and referencing (anaphoric, cataphoric, deictic). These devices create physical links between the
words in a discourse. These all enhance the ability of a text to be successfully interpreted and
understood. Recipes, terms and condition documents, informative brochures all make use of
formatting in the form of headings, bolding, underlines etc. to emphasis certain aspects of the text
and draw audience attention to the most important elements.
You can have cohesion without coherence, but you cannot have coherence without cohesion. The
picture does not make sense unless the correct pieces are placed in the correct order, even if certain
pieces may be the same size and shape.

Coherence in Writing is the quality of hanging together, of providing the reader an easily
followed path.

Writers promote coherence by making their material logically and stylistically consistent, and by
organizing and expressing their ideas in specific patterns. Coherence can dramatically improve the
reader's ability to understand your material by promoting its flow or readability. Coherence is
especially valued in science and technology because of the inherent complexity of the subjects.

 Give readers a road map to help them anticipate the content of your work.
 Use expected organization. Divide your report into standard sections and place information
in the appropriate section.
 Develop paragraphs logically. By organizing material into a topic sentence and supporting
sentences, paragraphs pull together material and emphasize various forms of conceptual
development.
 Transitional devices also operate at the paragraph level to provide links between sentences
and between paragraphs.

Transitional devices:

 To show addition: again, and, also, besides, equally important, first (second, etc.), further,
furthermore, in addition, in the first place, moreover, next, too

 To give examples: for example, for instance, in fact, specifically, that is, to illustrate

 To compare: also, in the same manner, likewise, similarly

 To contrast: although, and yet, at the same time, but, despite, even though, however, in
contrast, in spite of, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, though, yet

 To summarize or conclude: all in all, in conclusion, in other words, in short, in summary,

on the whole, that is, therefore, to sum up

 To show time: after, afterward, as, as long as, as soon as, at last, before, during, earlier,
finally, formerly, immediately, later, meanwhile, next, since, shortly, subsequently, then,
thereafter, until, when, while

 To show place or direction: above, below, beyond, close, elsewhere, farther on, here,
nearby, opposite, to the left (north, etc.)

 To indicate logical relationship: accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this

reason, hence, if, otherwise, since, so, then, therefore, thus
Thesis Statements

A thesis statement defines the scope and purpose of the essay orpaper. It needs to meet three
criteria:
1. It must be arguable rather than a statement of fact. It should also say something original about
the topic.

2. It must be limited enough so that the paper develops in some depth.

3. It must be unified so that the paper does not stray from the topic.

Topic Sentences

Good topic sentences can improve an essay's readability and organization. They usually meet the
following criteria:

1. First sentence. A topic sentence is usually the first sentence of the paragraph, not the last
sentence of the previous paragraph.

2. Link to thesis. Topic sentences use keywords or phrases from the thesis to indicate which part of
the thesis will be discussed.

3. Introduce the subject of the paragraph. They tell the reader what concept will be discussed
and provide an introduction to the paragraph.

4. Link to the previous paragraph. They link the subject of the present paragraph to that of the
previous paragraph.

5. Indicate the progression of the essay. Topic sentences may also signal to the reader where the
essay has been and where it is headed through signposting words such as "first," "second," or
"finally."
EFFECTIVE ORAL PRESENTATIONS

The ingredients of a successful presentation:

 Quality Content – good solid content, stuff that your audience isn’t aware of
 Humour –anecdotes and humour that allow the conversation to flow better. Stories that
support the main content
 Insight – When you include something that makes the audience go “That is quite insightful”
or “I never thought about it”
 Great Timing – know how long the story to be when to tell the story when to insert the key
point and provide the insights. That will make the presentation real good.

How can you make a good presentation even more effective?

1. Show your Passion and Connect with your Audience

 It’s hard to be relaxed and be yourself when you’re nervous.
 But time and again, the great presenters say that the most important thing is to connect with
your audience, and the best way to do that is to let your passion for the subject shine
through.
 Be honest with the audience about what is important to you and why it matters.
 Be enthusiastic and honest, and the audience will respond.
2. Focus on your Audience’s Needs
 Your presentation needs to be built around what your audience is going to get out of the
presentation.
 As you prepare the presentation, you always need to bear in mind what the audience needs
and wants to know, not what you can tell them.
 While you’re giving the presentation, you also need to remain focused on your audience’s
response, and react to that.
 You need to make it easy for your audience to understand and respond.

3. Keep it Simple: Concentrate on your Core Message

 When planning your presentation, you should always keep in mind the question:
 What is the key message (or three key points) for my audience to take away?
 You should be able to communicate that key message very briefly.
 Some experts recommend a 30-second ‘elevator summary’, others that you can write it on
the back of a business card, or say it in no more than 15 words.
 Whichever rule you choose, the important thing is to keep your core message focused and
brief.
 And if what you are planning to say doesn’t contribute to that core message, don’t say it.

4. Smile and Make Eye Contact with your Audience

 This sounds very easy, but a surprisingly large number of presenters fail to do it.
 If you smile and make eye contact, you are building rapport, which helps the audience to
connect with you and your subject. It also helps you to feel less nervous, because you are
talking to individuals, not to a great mass of unknown people.
 To help you with this, make sure that you don’t turn down all the lights so that only the
slide screen is visible. Your audience needs to see you as well as your slides.

5. Start Strong
 The beginning of your presentation is crucial. You need to grab your audience’s attention
and hold it.
 They will give you a few minutes’ grace in which to entertain them, before they start to
switch off if you’re dull. So don’t waste that on explaining who you are. Start by
entertaining them.
 Try a story (see tip 7 below), or an attention-grabbing (but useful) image on a slide.

6. Remember the 10-20-30 Rule for Slideshows

 This is a tip from Guy Kawasaki of Apple. He suggests that slideshows should:
 Contain no more than 10 slides;
 Last no more than 20 minutes; and
 Use a font size of no less than 30 point.
 This last is particularly important as it stops you trying to put too much information on any
one slide. This whole approach avoids the dreaded ‘Death by PowerPoint’.
As a rule, slides should be the sideshow to you, the presenter. A good set of slides should be no use
without the presenter, and they should contain less, rather than more, information, expressed
simply.
If you need to provide more information, create a handout and give it out after your presentation.

7. Tell Stories
 Human beings are programmed to respond to stories.
 Stories help us to pay attention, and also to remember things. If you can use stories in your
presentation, your audience is more likely to engage and to remember your points
afterwards. It is a good idea to start with a story, but there is a wider point too: you need
your presentation to act like a story.
 8. Use your Voice Effectively
 The spoken word is actually a pretty inefficient means of communication, because it uses
only one of your audience’s five senses. That’s why presenters tend to use visual aids, too.
But you can help to make the spoken word better by using your voice effectively.
 Varying the speed at which you talk, and emphasising changes in pitch and tone all help to
make your voice more interesting and hold your audience’s attention.

9. Use your Body Too

 It has been estimated that more than three quarters of communication is non-verbal.
 That means that as well as your tone of voice, your body language is crucial to getting your
message across. Make sure that you are giving the right messages: body language to avoid
includes crossed arms, hands held behind your back or in your pockets, and pacing the
stage.
 Make your gestures open and confident, and move naturally around the stage, and among
the audience too, if possible.

10. Relax, Breathe and Enjoy

 If you find presenting difficult, it can be hard to be calm and relaxed about doing it.
 One option is to start by concentrating on your breathing. Slow it down, and make sure that
you’re breathing fully. Make sure that you continue to pause for breath occasionally during
your presentation too.
 For If you can bring yourself to relax, you will almost certainly present better. If you can
actually start to enjoy yourself, your audience will respond to that, and engage better. Your
presentations will improve exponentially, and so will your confidence. It’s well worth a try.

A SUCCESSFUL PRESENTATION: 25 EASY STEPS TO PERFECTION

To learn how to make a successful presentation and become a PowerPoint pro, check out these
25 tips.

The topic
 Love your topic. Your listeners will only ever be as excited about the topic as you are. If you
are not interested in what you are saying, why on earth are you inflicting it on other people?
Work might not always inspire passion, but you should always look for a hook; an exciting way
in.
 Research. Know what you are talking about. Don't guess. Don't assume. Read, listen, find facts
and have an informed opinion.
 Context. Presenting a pitch for a new product will sound very different when you give it to the
marketing team to when you show the finance team. Think about your audience and tailor your
topic to the way they think and prioritise.
 Relevance. Have an answer to the question: why should anyone care?
 Distil to a single point. By the end of this stage you should no longer have a topic, but a single
clear thought or argument that you want to communicate. Keep it simple, keep it arresting.

The format
 Time limit. There will be one, and if there isn't, make one. Then aim to fill three quarters of it,
and leave time for questions. (If there are no questions, everybody gets to go home a bit early
and they'll love you even more.) Restriction helps you focus on what is truly essential to the
presentation.
 Plan on paper. Ok, it doesn't have to be paper, it could be OneNote, or mind mapping software,
or Evernote. The point is, don't start your presentation in PowerPoint, or any presentation
software. You need to be able to pool your ideas and images together, move them around and
play with structure first, then decide how to present it second.
 PowerPoint. There is a lot of debate about whether PowerPoint is good or evil, but the fact is
it's the standard. That does not mean that you have you use it in a standardly bad way though.
Guy Kawasaki advocates the 10/20/30 rule: 10 slides, 20 minutes, 30-point font minimum.
 Slides should keep you going, not hold you up. Consider the Pecha Kucha where you have a set
amount of time on each slide, which then advance automatically.
 Images inspire. Don't fall back onto boring stock photography and clip art. Consider using your
own personal photographs or explore creative commonsnsources like Flickr for more intimate
and relatable imagery. (Just be sure to check the terms of the licence if you're giving a
commercial presentation.)

The content
 Short and sweet. This applies to the presentation as a whole and each word you use. Stick to
short words and avoid jargon.
 Tell a story. People respond to stories. Everybody creates narratives, it's how we understand the
world. Find the story in what you want to say.
 Use examples. Presentations can often get a bit abstract. Keep your points grounded in reality
and use everyday experiences that anyone can relate to when explaining complex ideas.
 Pre-empt questions. In Writing to Deadline, Donald Murray explains that to write well you
have to keep answering the readers' questions. What will they want to know next? The same
goes for presentations. Of course you want to spark interest and debate after your talk, but make
sure no one has to ask an obvious question.
 Know what you can leave out. Questions can arise, people arrive late: sometimes things don't
run to plan. Know in advance which slides and points you can skip without losing key points or
narrative flow.

The preparation
 Know how to use your tools. If you are using PowerPoint, be sure you understand how. For
example, pressing 'b' will blank the screen so that you can focus attention on what you are
saying. You can also embed hidden clickable areas that take you from section to section.
 Rehearse. You have to practice: you need to be familiar enough with your presentation that if
the power fails and notes get lost, you could still communicate the core of your message. Go
through the presentation three times in the morning, and three times at night in the run up to the
day. Any more than that and you risk sounding over rehearsed.
 Plan your outfit. You will have enough to worry about on the day. It may seems silly but don't
leave it to the night before to decide what you are wearing. Choose it, check it's clean and ironed
and hang it up ready to fall into on the day. (Or pre-crumple your jeans and scruff up your
hoody, depending on your audience.)
 Get a lay of the land. If you can, try to find out what room you will be presenting in and
exactly who you will be presenting to. Will you have to project your voice, or will it be relaxed
and informal? Is it always freezing in there? Are the chairs uncomfortable? These factors will
affect your audiences' attention span, and for those things out of your control, you need to be
conscious of them in how you present.
 Run a fact check. You did your research, but often in companies things can change pretty
quickly. There might be a new budget forecast, or a change in the hierarchy. On the day before
make sure your presentation is as up to date as you are.

The day
 Take everything you need (and a backup). Have your laptop cables and connectors. Take a
backup of your presentation on a memory stick incase you have to use someone else's hardware,
and have some bullet point notes about the slides in case all technology fails.
 Arrive early. Don't get flustered. Have time to find the loos, sort the technical stuff, get a drink
(although avoid coffee and chocolate just before as they're bad for the vocal chords and you'll
find yourself coughing), and warm up.
 Warm up. There are lots of ways to relax and loosen up before a presentation. HP Biz Answers
has a serious of three videos that teach you how to use acting techniques to battle nerves, loosen
your tongue and and stay focused.
 Connect with your audience. Don't just run through the presentation by rote. Watch your
audience to see if they are engaged, listen for murmurs and change tack if brows are furrowed.
Be engaged to get engagement.
 Share and follow up. Think of a way to share your presentation with attendees after the event,
for example with Slide Share. Send a follow up email, thank people for their attendance and
invite questions and feedback. Keep the conversation going.

Critical Things to Know Before Giving a Presentation

Before you even start creating the outline of your presentation, be sure you're asking these seven
questions:

1. Who is the audience? This is the first question you should ask, and you shouldn't always assume
you know the answer. Pretend you're an entrepreneur and you have a new product, and a friend of
yours asks you to present it for his company. It could be your friend and a few of his coworkers
you're meeting with, but it could also be the president and board of directors. Each situation would
require a different approach and a different level of formality. Understand exactly what types of
people are going to constitute your audience--otherwise, you could end up writing for the wrong
crowd.

2. How big is the audience? This is another important question that will help you prepare
effectively, though it's more about the actual presentation than the writing process itself. With a
large audience, you'll need to be concise, direct, and fast-paced to keep their attention, looking
around the room for eye contact and generally going about your presentation with minimal
interruptions. With a small audience, you'll have to pace your presentation more slowly, pausing for
potential questions from the audience and gearing your body language to engage fewer participants.
If you don't know the exact number attending, a range is often suitable here.

3. Where will you be presenting? This will help you determine how to prepare. Imagine you have
a prototype of your new product, and you're going to be presenting before a small group of people.
If you'll be meeting around a table in a small boardroom, you can bring the prototype itself and
show it off first-hand to your audience. If you're in a large auditorium, however, you'll need a much
bigger, visually accessible medium for your distant audience. Knowing the location will also allow
you to understand and prepare your voice for the acoustics of the room.

4. What materials will be available to you? First, think of all the basics. Let's say you have a
PowerPoint presentation ready--will you bring it on a flash drive, or will you need to bring a laptop
in? Will they even have the proper equipment to hook your device up to a projector? Will they have
a microphone system, or will you need to project your voice? Is there a podium or a stage, or is it a
more informal gathering? These questions will help you understand what you need to bring as well
as how to prepare your presentation.

5. How long will you have to speak? This is a critical question that too many people overlook. It is
never safe to assume how long you'll have to speak. If your audience is expecting your presentation
to last a few minutes and you end up going half an hour, you could bore them to death. If it's
supposed to be more than an hour and it's only a half hour, you'll look like you don't have much
worthwhile material. Either way, you'll look underprepared, so find out the ideal length of a
presentation and practice it until you're confident that you're well within the time constraints.
Knowing exactly how much time you'll is one of the most fundamental (and important) presentation
tips.
6. Will there be a Q&A afterward? If you walk into a presentation and get hit with a Q&A
session you aren't prepared for, you could be assaulted with tough questions that undermine
whatever reputation you built up during the course of your initial speech. Find out if there's a Q&A
session afterward, and find out approximately how long it will last. Think of the hardest possible
questions someone could ask you, and have answers ready for each and every one of them.

7. Who else is speaking? Unlike the other questions in this list, this question won't ruin you if you
don't know the answer. Your presentation won't change much based on who else is presenting
before or after you, but knowing the answer will help you better understand the dynamics of the
event. For example, if you're the only speaker, there's going to be more pressure on you than if you
are only one in six. It won't kill you, but it's worth knowing in advance.

KNOWING THE AUDIENCE OF A PRESENTATION

When you're preparing a presentation, what do you need to know about your audience?
As part of your planning, keep these pointers in mind:
Demographics.
Research your audience before you start preparing the speech or presentation, such as:
 Socio-economic level or grouping
 Education level (and subject)
 Nationality
 Age ranges
 Affiliations (such as to professional institutes)
 Gender, ethnicity, religion, disability and other areas where equality issues may be
important.
 Family circumstance, including marital status and children / grandchildren
 Their first language.
 Their preferred learning styles.
 Their likely attention span.
 Their time expectations (such as how long you should speak and when there should be
breaks).
Know the size of your audience.
Will you be speaking to just a few people or to dozens or even hundreds of people? Clearly, the
audience size determines the physical setting and, in turn, guides the type of visuals you should use.
What's more, for a large audience, you may need to use a lectern and a microphone. If so, that will
enter into your planning and preparation as well.
Know the attitudes and biases of your audience.
This may be easy to do if you're presenting to a small number of colleagues, in contrast to an
audience you haven't met before. Easy or not, it's important nonetheless. What does your audience
think about your topic? What do they think about you? Are they likely to be skeptical - even
hostile? Or are they likely to respond favourably? If your goal is to persuade or motivate your
audience, what biases, concerns or fears must you first overcome to achieve your goal? You may
decide in the end that you cannot completely satisfy everyone's concerns. But at least you can
present your position strategically, while taking those concerns into account and through that,
showing your own awareness and sensitivity.
As much as possible, know what motivates your audience.
Your audience may have strongly held views about your topic. They may also have certain
expectations. What are these, and what can you do to help meet them? There may be issues that
trigger strong emotions in your audience. Find out what these are and prepare to deal with them.
How much does your audience already know?
Good communicators never talk down to their audience. If your audience already knows a good
deal about your topic, your presentation should build on what your audience knows, and not simply
repeat what is already known. Good communicators also don't talk over the head of others. If your
audience knows little about your topic, tell them what they need to know to respond as you want
them to.
Talk to their interests, not yours.
You should talk to the specific interests of your audience. Again, those interests are easy enough to
know if you're presenting to an intimate group of colleagues. With other audiences, however, it may
take some digging. Don't assume or guess what those interests are: ask, instead. An audience of
senior-level managers, for example, may well have different interests than an audience of entry-
level professionals. Factors such as educational and job background, professional interest, even
recent work or personal experiences your listeners might have had, are also important. You may
also want to know the relationship of your audience members to one another. Do they have
common interests, or do their interests conflict with one another? Again, the more you know about
these, the more likely you are to connect with your listeners from their point of view.
The "What's- in-it-for me?" rule.
This is also known as the "Why- should-I-listen-to-you?" rule. It applies especially to business
audiences. When preparing your presentation, embed the answers to these questions early in your
remarks, so that your listeners know what they're going to get out of your presentation.

FOUR TYPES OF AUDIENCE

1. Hostile
This audience does not want to be listening to you. This could be for many reasons, from not liking the
organisation you are representing, to wanting to get home and watch their favourite TV show. They can
be openly hostile and disagree with you. If audience analysis shows that you’ll be faced with this
audience (e.g. you have the last slot of a busy day of presentation), consider the following:
 Work hard on developing trust and interest
 Construct your presentation from an area of agreement or point of disagreement
 Use humour
 Use plenty of references and data to back up your points
 Challenge them, ask questions during your speech and engage them

2. Critical
Often at technical conferences, you get critical people who believe they are extremely intelligent and
relish the thought of proving part of your presentation incorrect. Use the following techniques:
 Use lots of evidence with strong references
 Argue both sides of the case, clearly stating pros and cons of each
 Try not to exaggerate, keep to the facts

3. Uninformed
This is the most common type of audience you will encounter. They might know a little about your
presentation topic but certainly not in great detail.
 Open up with questions so you can understand the level of knowledge on your topic
 Spend a few slides going over the basics of your topic
 Use simple language and avoid acronyms
 Give basic facts and try to relate information to something people understand (e.g. if talking
about space and using huge numbers, relate them to things people can comprehend)

4. Sympathetic
This audience is willing to listen and wants to be there. They can be interested in your topic, excited to see
you talk (you might be a well-known figure in your speaking field), have an emotional attachment – these
people are the easiest to persuade.
 Use the state of this audience to ask for help / funding etc.
 Trigger emotions which powerful stories
 CAPTURE AND HOLD AUDIENCE ATTENTION

WHEN TO USE VISUAL AIDS

Words and images can be used throughout your presentation from the introduction to the
conclusion. However, remember to restrict their use to key moments in your presentation; an over
use of visual aids can be hard to follow.
Think about using visual aids at the following times:
Introduction
 display the title of your presentation;
 define particular technical terms or units;
 indicate a structure to your presentation by listing your main points;
 display an image which encapsulates your theme(s);
 highlight a question you intend answering during the course of your presentation;
Main points
 highlight new points with an appropriate image or phrase;
 support technical information with clearly displayed data;
 indicate sequence by linking points together;
 offer evidence from your research to support your argument;
Conclusion
 summarise your main points on a slide;
 present your conclusion in a succinct phrase or image;
 display your key references to allow your audience to read more on your topic.

Different types of visual aids

There are many different types of visual aids. The following advice will help you make the most of
those most commonly used.
PowerPoint (or equivalent)
Microsoft PowerPoint is probably now the most commonly used form of visual aid. Used well, it
can really help you in your presentation; used badly, however, it can have the opposite effect. The
general principles are:
Do Don't
use a big enough font (minimum 20pt) make it so small you can't read it
keep the background simple use a fussy background image
but don't over-do the animation - it gets
use animations when appropriate
distracting
use endless slides of bulleted lists that all look
make things visual
the same

Overhead projector slides/transparencies

Overhead projector slides/transparencies are displayed on the overhead projector (OHP) - a very
useful tool found in most lecture and seminar rooms. The OHP projects and enlarges your slides
onto a screen or wall without requiring the lights to be dimmed. You can produce your slides in
three ways:
 pre-prepared slides : these can be words or images either hand written/drawn or produced
on a computer;
 spontaneously produced slides: these can be written as you speak to illustrate your points or
to record comments from the audience;
 a mixture of each: try adding to pre-prepared slides when making your presentation to show
movement, highlight change or signal detailed interrelationships.
Make sure that the text on your slides is large enough to be read from the back of the room. A
useful rule of thumb is to use 18 point text if you are producing slides with text on a computer. This
should also help reduce the amount of information on each slide. Avoid giving your audience too
much text or overly complicated diagrams to read as this limits their ability to listen. Try to avoid
lists of abstract words as these can be misleading or uninformative.

White or black board

White or black boards can be very useful to help explain the sequence of ideas or routines,
particularly in the sciences. Use them to clarify your title or to record your key points as you
introduce your presentation (this will give you a fixed list to help you recap as you go along).
Rather than expecting the audience to follow your spoken description of an experiment or process,
write each stage on the board, including any complex terminology or precise references to help your
audience take accurate notes. However, once you have written something on the board you will
either have to leave it there or rub it off - both can be distracting to your audience. Check to make
sure your audience has taken down a reference before rubbing it off - there is nothing more
frustrating than not being given enough time! Avoid leaving out of date material from an earlier
point of your presentation on the board as this might confuse your audience. If you do need to write
'live', check that your audience can read your writing.

Paper handouts
Handouts are incredibly useful. Use a handout if your information is too detailed to fit on a slide or
if you want your audience to have a full record of your findings. Consider the merits of passing
round your handouts at the beginning, middle and end of a presentation. Given too early and they
may prove a distraction. Given too late and your audience may have taken too many unnecessary
notes. Given out in the middle and your audience will inevitably read rather than listen. One
powerful way of avoiding these pitfalls is to give out incomplete handouts at key stages during your
presentation. You can then highlight the missing details vocally, encouraging your audience to fill
in the gaps.
Flip chart
A flip chart is a large pad of paper on a stand. It is a very useful and flexible way of recording
information during your presentation - you can even use pre-prepared sheets for key points. Record
information as you go along, keeping one main idea to each sheet. Flip back through the pad to help
you recap your main points. Use the turning of a page to show progression from point to point.
Remember to make your writing clear and readable and your diagrams as simple as possible.

Video (DVD or VHS)

Video gives you a chance to show stimulating visual information. Use video to bring movement,
pictures and sound into your presentation. Always make sure that the clip is directly relevant to
your content. Tell your audience what to look for. Avoid showing any more film than you need.

Artefacts or props
Sometimes it can be very useful to use artefacts or props when making a presentation (think of the
safety routine on an aeroplane when the steward shows you how to use the safety equipment). If
you bring an artefact with you, make sure that the object can be seen and be prepared to pass it
round a small group or move to different areas of a large room to help your audience view it in
detail. Remember that this will take time and that when an audience is immersed in looking at an
object, they will find it hard to listen to your talk. Conceal large props until you need them; they
might distract your audience's attention.

ENGLISH LANGAUGE FEATURES

What are vowels and consonants?
 The alphabet is made up of 26 letters, 5 of which are vowels (a, e, i, o, u) and the rest of
which are consonants.
 A vowel is a sound that is made by allowing breath to flow out of the mouth, without
closing any part of the mouth or throat.
 A consonant is a sound that is made by blocking air from flowing out of the mouth with the
teeth, tongue, lips or palate ('b' is made by putting your lips together, 'l' is made by touching
your palate with your tongue).
 The letter 'y' makes a consonant sound when at the beginning of a word ('yacht', 'yellow')
but a vowel sound when at the end of a word ('sunny', 'baby').
Consonants
All the letters in the alphabet are either consonants or vowels. A consonant is a speech sound in
which the air is at least partly blocked, and any letter which represents this. Consonants may come
singly (by themselves) or in clusters (two or more together), but must be connected to a vowel to
form a syllable.
Notice that the consonant (C) and vowel (V) notation does NOT match the letters of English
spelling in a one-to-one relationship (e.g. 'th' is one sound), but rather individual sounds.

Words with single consonants include:

 Go (CV), which has one consonant and one vowel in that order
 On (VC), which has one vowel and one consonant in that order
 Ton (CVC), which has a consonant, a vowel, and another consonant in that order

Words with consonant clusters include:

 Pro (CCV), which has two consonants in-a-row and one vowel afterwards
 Old (VCC), which has one vowel and two consonants in-a-row afterwards
 Spree (CCCV), which has three consonants in-a-row and one vowel afterwards
 Arcs (VCCC), which has one vowel and three consonants in-a-row afterwards
 Strengths (CCCVCCCC), which has three consonants in-a-row, one vowel afterwards, and
finally four consonants in a row.
A consonant is a sound that is made by blocking air from flowing out of the mouth with the teeth,
tongue, lips or palate ('b' is made by putting your lips together, 'l' is made by touching your palate
with your tongue).

VOWELS
A vowel is a sound that is made by allowing breath to flow out of the mouth, without closing any
part of the mouth or throat. These letters are vowels in English: A, E, I, O, U, and sometimes Y.
The letter Y can be a vowel (as in the words "cry", "sky", "fly" , “my” or "why"), in these words the
letter "y" has the vowel sound /aɪ/ (as in eye, I, pie, cry, cypher, climb, lime, light, kayak, Thai, and
height). It can also be a consonant sound called a "glide" as in the beginning of these words:
"yellow", "yacht", "yam", "yesterday".

The letter W can sometimes be the second part of a vowel sound as in words like such as "cow",
"bow:, or "how". In these words, the vowel has the sound of /aʊ/. The letter W can be used as a
consonant sound at the beginning of in the words "when", "where", "wet". (And in some in some
languages, like Welsh, the letter W is a vowel sound /ʊ/, like "cwm" (a kind of valley), but this is
not a vowel sound in English).
In written English these five or six vowel letters are the letters we use for the 13-15 vowel sounds in
English. This means there are more vowel sounds than letters in the English alphabet, and the
English spelling systems doesn't always help us figure out what the English sounds are.

TERMS TO DESCRIBE THE SOUNDS OF ENGLISH

you might be unfamiliar with some of the terms used to describe the sounds, here are some
definitions you might find useful:
Voiced: a voiced sound is a sound where the vocal cords vibrate, thus producing some sort of pitch.
This is the kind of sound most people associate with regular talking or singing.
Voiceless / unvoiced: a voiceless or unvoiced sound is one where the vocal cords do not vibrate,
thus making the sound very whispery and without a pitch. It can tend to make a letter sound harsher
when pronounced.
Stop: a consonant sound where the airflow is stopped completely by the mouth and then sharply
released. Think of sounds like “p,” “k,” and “t.” All languages contain stops.
Fricative: a consonant sound where the airflow becomes noisy and turbulent because it only has a
very small space to travel through in the mouth. Think of sounds like “f,” “s,” and “sh.” Most
languages have fricatives, but not all.
Nasal: a consonant sound where the airflow passes exclusively through the nose instead of the
mouth. Think of sounds like “m,” “n,” or “ng.” Almost all languages have nasals.
Affricate: a consonant sound that begins like a stop but then releases like a fricative, thus making it
a sort of combination sound. Think of sounds like “ch” and “j.” Affricates are common, especially
in English.
Alveolar ridge: a ridge found on the roof of the mouth between the upper teeth and the hard palate,
which is used in conjunction with the tip of the tongue to make many sounds
Soft palate: the soft tissue in the back of the roof of your mouth, which is used In conjunction with
the back of the tongue to make many sounds
Glottis: the part of the larynx (air passage) that contains the vocal cords and the opening between
them

Rhythm
This is the speed and cadence of how you say a sentence. So some beginner students might say –
each - word- in – a - sentence - at - the - same - speed and sound a little like a robot. Developing
different speeds and know when to slow down and speed up can give your spoken English more
interest.
Intonation
This is the ‘music’ of the language. Often questions can be asked with a rising intonation where the
pitch goes up. This might be a genuine question to which you don’t know the answer. ‘John’s still
on holiday?’ said with a rising pitch means it’s a question which needs answering. If it’s said
without a rising intonation it’s information that you already know and you may just need
confirmation. Intonation can also show emotions like surprise etc.

Stress
This is saying a syllable or part of a word more strongly and can be at word level. RECord is the
noun for example of an athletics world record perhaps, whilst reCORD is what you do to a song
when you copy it onto a CD.
Stress is also important at sentence level where the meaning can be changed depending on which
whole word you stress. I left you with a question last week about how many ways the meaning of a
sentence can be changed. Here we go: the words underlined should be stressed. See how it changes
the implied meaning.
I thought your brother was a bus conductor. [you thought someone else thought….]
I thought your brother was a bus conductor [you thought I knew he was a bus conductor]
I thought your brother was a bus conductor [not your friend’s brother]
I thought your brother was a bus conductor [not your sister]
I thought your brother was a bus conductor [I didn’t know he still is a bus conductor]
I thought your brother was a bus conductor [before I thought he was an orchestral conductor]
I thought your brother was a bus conductor [not a bus driver]

So the implied meaning of this short sentence can be changed seven times depending on which
word is stressed! Actually, if you stress more than one word in the sentence….let’s not go there!

PRESENTATION FORMAT: FORMAL AND INFORMAL

 Signposts for the Introduction of a Presentation
FORMAL INFORMAL

Introducing yourself: •Good •Hi everyone, I’m (name

morning/afternoon/evening. and title). Thanks for
On behalf of (company, coming.
department, etc.), I’d like to
welcome you.
My name is (name) and I am
(position).

Introducing the topic: •I’m going to give you an
overview of...
•The focus of today’s
presentation is…
•I’m going to talk to you
about…
•I’m going to be talking a
little bit about…
•I’m here today to talk to
you about…

Outlining your •The presentation today is •I’m going to talk about

presentation: divided into three parts. First, three things today. I’ll start
I’ll... Following that I’ll... with… Then I’ll talk a little
Finally, I’ll… bit about… I’ll finish
with…

Inviting questions: •Please don’t hesitate to •If you have any questions
interrupt me if you have any during the presentation,
questions. please ask.

Signposts for the Middle of a Presentation

FORMAL INFORMAL

Introducing the first •I’d like to start/begin by… •Let’s start/begin by

section of your looking at…
presentation:

Finishing a section and
starting a new one:
•Well, we’ve looked at... Now, I’d •Well, I’ve told you
like to discuss… about… Now I’ll
•Having discussed… I’d like to move on to…
move on to…. •Well, we’ve looked
at… Now, let’s talk
about…
•So, that was... Now,
let’s…

Expanding or •I’d like to expand on… •Let me tell you a

elaborating: •I’d like to elaborate on… little more about…
•Let’s consider this in more detail. •Let me give you
some more
details/information
about...

Talking about earlier or later: later:

later points in your •I will elaborate on this later in the •More on this later.
 presentation: presentation.
•I’ll provide you with a more
detailed explanation later in the
presentation.
earlier:
•To repeat what I said earlier…
•As I mentioned earlier…
Recognizing your •As you may be aware of…
listeners' prior •As you may know…
knowledge: •I know many of you are familiar
with…
Focusing audience's •May I focus your attention on
attention on visuals: the…You will notice that…
•Please direct your attention to the
slide/chart/etc.
Signposts for the Conclusion of a Presentation
FORMAL
Summarizing and •Finally, let’s summarize
concluding the some of the main points.
presentation: •To conclude, I’d like to
summarize.
Inviting final questions: •Does anyone have any
questions or comments
before we conclude today?
•If you’d like me to
elaborate or clarify anything
we covered today, please
ask.
Responding to tough a question you don’t have
questions: the answer to:
•I want to answer your
question completely, but I
don’t have that information
with me right now. Could
you give me your email after
the presentation so I can
send you a complete
response?
a question you didn’t
understand:
•I’m going to talk
more about this later.
earlier:
•Do you remember I
said...?
•As I said earlier…
•You might already
know that…
•I’m sure a lot of you
know that…
•I’m sure a lot of you
know about…
•I’m sure a lot of you
have heard…
•Take a look at this
slide/chart/graphic etc.
You can see that…
•Okay, here we can
see that…
INFORMAL
•Let’s summarize/recap what
we looked at today.
•Finally, let’s look back at
what we covered today.
•So, to remind you of what
we looked at today...
•Does anyone have any final
questions?
•Okay, does anyone have
any questions or comments?
a question you don’t have
the answer to:
•I don’t have that
information with me. Can
you give me your email and
I’ll send you an answer later
today?
a question you didn’t
understand:
•Could/Can you repeat that,
please?
 •Could you repeat that, •Sorry, I didn’t catch that.
please? •Are you saying that…?
•Could you rephrase that,
please?
•Let me make sure I
understand you completely.
Do you mean that…?

Finishing and saying •If there are no further
goodbye: questions, I’d like to thank
you very much for your
attention. If you think of any
additional questions, please
feel free to contact me.
•Well, I think that’s about it.
Thanks for listening. Please
contact me later if you have
any additional questions or
want more information.