SECTION- C6903

ROLL NO-B51
REG NO.-10901624
COURSE-B.TECH(ECE)
SUBMITTED TO

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

TOPIC - SPECTROMETRE AND ITS

APPLICATIONS
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We are extremely grateful and remain indebted to our guide MR. BHARPUR
SINGH for being a source of inspiration and for his constant support in the Design,
Implementation and Evaluation of the project. We are thankful to them for their
constant constructive criticism and invaluable suggestions, which benefited us a
lot while developing the project on “SPECTROMETRE AND APPLICATION”. He has
been a constant source of inspiration and motivation for hard work. He has been
very co-operative throughout this project work. Through this column, it would be
our utmost pleasure to express our warm thanks to his for their encouragement,
co-operation and consent without which we mightn’t be able to accomplish this
project.

We also express our gratitude to MR BHARPUR SINGH for providing us the

infrastructure to carry out the project and to all staff members who were directly
and indirectly instrument in enabling us to stay committed for the project.

Ajeet kumar
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1: INTRODUCTION
2: SPECTROPHOTOMETRE
3: SPECTROSCOPES
4: SPECTROGRAPHS
5: APPLICATION
6: REFERENCES
1 INTRODUCTION
A spectrometer (spectrophotometer, spectrograph or spectroscope) is
an instrument used to measure properties of light over a specific portion of
the electromagnetic spectrum, typically used in spectroscopic analysis to
identify materials. The variable measured is most often the light's
intensity but could also, for instance, be the polarization state. The
independent variable is usually the wavelength of the light or a unit directly
proportional to the photon energy, such as wave number or electron volts,
which has a reciprocal relationship to wavelength. A spectrometer is used
in spectroscopy for producing spectral lines and measuring
their wavelengths and intensities. Spectrometer is a term that is applied to
instruments that operate over a very wide range of wavelengths,
from gamma rays and X-rays into the far infrared. If the region of interest is
restricted to near the visible spectrum, the study is
called spectrophotometry.
In general, any particular instrument will operate over a small portion of this
total range because of the different techniques used to measure different
portions of the spectrum. Below optical frequencies (that is,
at microwave and radio frequencies), the spectrum analyzer is a closely
related electronic device

Spectroscope

Other names Spectrograph

 Related items Mass spectrograph

2 SPECTROPHOTOMETRE
In chemistry, spectrophotometry is the quantifiable study
of electromagnetic spectra. It is more specific than the general
term electromagnetic spectroscopy in that spectrophotometry deals
with visible light, near-ultraviolet, and near-infrared. Also, the term does not
cover time-resolved spectroscopic techniques.
Spectrophotometry involves the use of a spectrophotometer. A
spectrophotometer is a photometer (a device for measuring light intensity)
that can measure intensity as a function of the color (or more specifically
the wavelength) of light. Important features of spectrophotometers are
spectral bandwidth and linear range of absorption measurement.
Perhaps the most common application of spectrophotometers is the
measurement of light absorption, but they can be designed to measure
diffuse or specular reflectance. Strictly, even the emission half of a
luminescence instrument is a type of spectrophotometer.
The use of spectrophotometers is not limited to studies in physics. They are
also commonly used in other scientific fields such as chemistry,
biochemistry, and molecular biology. They are widely used in many
industries including printing and forensic examination.
Design

There are two major classes of devices: single beam and double beam. A
double beam spectrophotometer compares the light intensity between two
light paths, one path containing a reference sample and the other the test
sample. A single beam spectrophotometer measures the relative light
intensity of the beam before and after a test sample is inserted. Although
comparison measurements from double beam instruments are easier and
more stable, single beam instruments can have a larger dynamic range and
are optically simpler and more compact.
Historically, spectrophotometers use a monochromator containing
a diffraction grating to produce the analytical spectrum. There are also
spectrophotometers that use arrays of photosensors. Especially for infrared
spectrophotometers, there are spectrophotometers that use a Fourier
transformtechnique to acquire the spectral information quicker in a
technique called Fourier Transform InfraRed.
The spectrophotometer quantitatively compares the fraction of light that
passes through a reference solution and a test solution. Light from the
source lamp is passed through a monochromator, which diffracts the light
into a "rainbow" of wavelengths and outputs narrow bandwidths of this
diffracted spectrum. Discrete frequencies are transmitted through the test
sample. Then the intensity of the transmitted light is measured with
a photodiode or other light sensor, and the transmittance value for this
wavelength is then compared with the transmission through a reference
sample.
In short, the sequence of events in a spectrophotometer is as follows:

1. The light source shines into a monochromator.

2. A particular output wavelength is selected and beamed at the sample.
3. The sample absorbs light.
Many spectrophotometers must be calibrated by a procedure known as
"zeroing." The absorbency of a reference substance is set as a baseline
value, so the absorbencies of all other substances are recorded relative to
the initial "zeroed" substance. The spectrophotometer then displays %
absorbency (the amount of light absorbed relative to the initial substance).
3 SPECTROSCOPE

Comparison of different diffraction based spectrometers: Reflection optics, refraction optics, fiber optics

Spectroscopes are often used in astronomy and some branches

of chemistry. Early spectroscopes were simply prisms with graduations
marking wavelengths of light. Modern spectroscopes, such as
monochromators, generally use a diffraction grating, a movable slit, and
some kind of photodetector, all automated and controlled by a computer.
The spectroscope was invented by Joseph von Fraunhofer.
When a material is heated to incandescence it emits light that is
characteristic of the atomic makeup of the material. Particular light
frequencies give rise to sharply defined bands on the scale which can be
thought of as fingerprints. For example, the element sodium has a very
characteristic double yellow band known as the Sodium D-lines at
588.9950 and 589.5924 nanometers, the color of which will be familiar to
anyone who has seen a low pressure sodium vapor lamp.
In the original spectroscope design in the early 19th century, light entered a slit and a collimating
lens transformed the light into a thin beam of parallel rays. The light then passed through a prism (in
hand-held spectroscopes, usually an Amici prism) that refracted the beam into a spectrum because
different wavelengths were refracted different amounts due to dispersion. This image was then viewed
through a tube with a scale that was transposed upon the spectral image, enabling its direct
measurement.

With the development of photographic film, the more

accurate spectrograph was created. It was based on the same principle as
the spectroscope, but it had a camera in place of the viewing tube. In
recent years the electronic circuits built around the photomultiplier tube
have replaced the camera, allowing real-time spectrographic analysis with
far greater accuracy. Arrays of photosensors are also used in place of film
in spectrographic systems. Such spectral analysis, or spectroscopy, has
become an important scientific tool for analyzing the composition of
unknown material and for studying astronomical phenomena and testing
astronomical theories.
In modern spectrographs, the spectrum is generally given in the form of
photon number (in the UV, visible, and near-IR spectral ranges) or Watts
(in the mid- to far-IR) and is displayed with an abscissa given in terms of
wavelength, wavenumber, or eV.

A comparison of the three abscissa types typically used for visible spectrometers.

A comparison of the three abscissa types typically used for infrared spectrometers.
4 SPECTROGRAPH

Grating spectrometer schematic

A very simple spectrometer based on a prism

A spectrograph is an instrument that separates an incoming wave into a

frequency spectrum. There are several kinds of machines referred to
as spectrographs, depending on the precise nature of the waves. The first
spectrographs used photographic paper as the detector. The star spectral
classification and discovery of the main sequence, Hubble's law and
the Hubble sequence were all made with spectrographs that used
photographic paper. The plant pigment phytochrome was discovered using
a spectrograph that used living plants as the detector. More recent
spectrographs use electronic detectors, such as CCDs which can be used
for both visible and UV light. The exact choice of detector depends on the
wavelengths of light to be recorded.
The forthcoming James Webb Space Telescope will contain both a near-
infrared spectrograph (NIR Spec) and a mid-infrared spectrometer (MIRI).
An echelle spectrograph uses two diffraction gratings, rotated 90 degrees
with respect to each other and placed close to one another. Therefore an
entrance point and not a slit is used and a 2d CCD-chip records the
spectrum. Usually one would guess to retrieve a spectrum on the diagonal,
but when both gratings have a wide spacing and one is blazed so that only
the first order is visible and the other is blazed that a lot of higher orders
are visible, one gets a very fine spectrum nicely folded onto a small
common CCD-chip. The small chip also means that the collimating optics
need not to be optimized for coma or astigmatism, but the spherical
aberration can be set to zero.
A spectrograph is sometimes called polychromator, as an analogy
to monochromator

5 APPLICATION

Customer Applications Description

Agricultural and Food
Plant Reflectance
Lumber Colorimetery
Spectral reflectance from
plants can indicates plant stress and predict
growth rate
Initial high-temperature schedule to reduce
drying time and control kiln brown stain in
ponderosa pine shop lumber. The surface color

Surface Characterization of
Weathered Wood-Plastic
Composites Produced
from Modified Wood Flour
Onions
Contaminants on Poultry
Processing Equipment
Environmental and Ecology
Remote Sensing Monitoring-
Tallapoosa Watershed
Influence of plumage colour on
prey response:does habitat alter
heron crypsis to prey?
Spectral Signatures of surface
materials in pig buildings
and lightness of rough green and dry fleshly
planed boards were determined using a
StellarNet Spectrometers
The effects of weathering on the surface
properties of wood-plastic
composites (WPC) were examined. High-
density polyethyleneWPCs made from modified
wood flour were subjected to accelerated
(xenon-arc) weathering. Colorimetery and
Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
were employed to monitor the color change and
surface chemistries of the weathered WPC
surface. The study showed that longer exposure
time caused higheroxidation, lower wood lignin
and higher plastic content of the weathered
WPC surface.
A fiber optic sensor measures percent soluble
solids in onions for a big pay off at market time.
Detection of Fecal/Ingesta Contaminants on
Poultry Processing Equipment Surfaces By
Visible and Near-Infrared Reflectance
Spectroscopy
Hyperspectral Reflectance Measurements of
ChlorophyllConcentration and Related Water
Quality Predictors
The foraging strategies of wading birds may be
influenced by their degree of crypsis to aquatic
prey. White
plumage has been hypothesized to be adaptive
for herons hunting in open water habitats. We
tested this
hypothesis with laboratory and field
experiments with multiple prey species. The
foraging strategies of wading birds may be
influenced by their degree of crypsis to aquatic
prey. White plumage has been hypothesized
to be adaptive for herons hunting in open water
habitats. We tested this hypothesis with
laboratory and field experiments with multiple
prey species.
Spectral Signatures of the reflectance of visual
and near infrared radiation are used to make

Birds- Black Phoebes
Female Preferences for
Aposematic Signal Components
in a Polymorphic Poison Frog
Physics
OH Emission Spectra of Hybrid
Rocket Motors
Using PMMA and HTPB
Ultraviolet-Visible Spectrometry
Characterization of
Combustion in Hybrid Rocket
Motors
Spectroscopic Diagnostics of an
Atmospheric
Microwave Plasma for
Monitoring Metals Pollution
Organic semiconductor devices
for micro-optical applications
statistically significant discrimination between
clean and dirty pig building areas
Exploring how the Black Phoebe’s (a small bird
that is a sit-and-wait predator) vision, the
reflectance of prey items and the background,
and irradiance interacted to change how the bird
looked for food items.
Aposematic signals may be subject to
conflicting selective pressures from predators
and conspecifics. We studied female
preferences for different components of
aposematic coloration in the polymorphic
poison frog Oophaga pumilio across several
phenotypically distinct populations.
The development of sensors for hybrid rocket
motors has lead to the use of near-
infrared diode lasers for characterizing hybrid
rocket plumes. Emission Spectra obtained can
be used to calculate species concentrations and
temperatures, both spatially and temporally, in
rocket exhaust plumes. In this paper we report
our findings from a study of the
emission spectra of hybrid rocket exhaust
plumes in the ultraviolet, UV, visible, VIS, and
near-infrared, NIR, regions of
theelectromagnetic spectrum.
A 1.5 kW, 2.45 GHz microwave sustained
plasma in a flowing sample of stack exhaust gas
has been shown in recent DOE/EPA testing to
be an accurate monitor of trace hazardous
metals (in the part per billion range) such as
lead, chromium, and beryllium.Optical-UV
spectroscopic studies are being carried out to
better understand this particular atmospheric
pressure plasma torch.
The use of organic optoelectronic devices such
as organic light-emitting diodes and organic
photodiodes in micro-optical systems is
discussed. Potential applications like optical
interconnects and optical sensor systems are
examined. Device characteristics including
emission spectra, I-V-curves and the dynamic
behaviour are analyzed. In the combination

Colour-tunable spiral photonic
actuators
Wavelength-scalable hollow
optical fibres with large photonic
bandgaps for CO2 laser
transmission
Physical properties of CdS/ITO
thin films growth by CBD
technique with substrate
oscillating agitation
with a polymeric optical fibre (POF) a
transmission line comprising a organic light
emitting diode and organic photodiodes is
demonstrated. An important step towards
integration is realized by coupling the
amplifiedspontaneous emission of an organic
semiconductor material into a single mode
polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) waveguide.
Combining the multi-faceted environmental
responsiveness of polymers with photonically
active structures, we developed spiral photonic
actuators which can reversibly change both
shape and colour in response to the chemical
environment.
Here we report on the design and drawing of a
hollow optical fibre lined with an interior
omnidirectional dielectric mirror. Confinement
of light in the hollow core is provided by the
large photonic bandgaps established by the
multiple alter-nating submicrometre-thick
layers of a high-refractive-index glass and a
low-refractive-index polymer. The fundamental
and high-order transmission windows are
determined by the layer dimensions and can be
scaled from 0.75 to 10.6mm in wavelength.The
transmission losses are found to be less than 1.0
dB m 21, orders of magnitude lower than those
of the intrinsic fibre material, thus
demonstrating that low attenuation can be
achieved through structural design rather than
high-transparency material selection.
Cadmium sulphide (CdS) thin films deposited
on indium tin oxide (ITO) substrates were
prepared by chemical bath deposition
technique by using different conditions to
agitate the bath and the substrate. The
deposited films were characterized on their
morphology, on the band gap energy, and on
thickness. The implemented novel technique
for substrate oscillation has shown to
improve the films quality, by the chemical
bath without colloidal precipitates and by the
clean film surfaces obtained. CdS films with
variable deposition time can be achieved
depending on the agitating technique. In
addition, by oscillating only the substrate
during deposition is possible to obtain clean
 films and avoid the formation of colloidal
precipitates on the chemical bath, normally
presented when it is magnetically or
ultrasonically agitated.
Emission characteristics of a nanosecond
discharge in inert gases and its halo-genides
without preionization of the gap from an
auxiliary source have been investigated. A
volume discharge, initiated by an avalanche
electron beam (VDIAEB) was realized
atpressures up to 12 atm. In xenon at pressure
High Power UV and VUV Pulsed of 1.2 atm, the energy of spontaneous
Excilamps radiation in the full solid angle was 45 mJ/cm 3
, and the FWHM of a radiation pulse
was 110ns. The spontaneous radiation power
rise in xenon was observed at pressures up to 12
atm.
Pulsed radiant exitance of inert gases
halogenides excited by VDIAEB was 4.5
kW/cm 2 at e±ciency up to 5.5 %.
Chemistry
Living anionic polymerization of Phosphazene (PZN) catalyst, PZN catalyst
methyl methacrylate controlled by coexisting with a co-catalyst 1-
metal-free phosphazene catalyst hydroxycyclohexyl phenyl ketone and
as observed by small-angle polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) have been
neutron scattering, gel permeation observed for the first time by small-angle
neutron scattering (SANS) and UV-visible
chromatography and UV-
spectroscopy to elucidate the aggregation
visible spectroscopy behavior of the PZN molecules themselves and
the state of living chain ends in a living
polymer solution.
Polyaniline and polypyrrole were considered as
pseudocapacitivecoatings for carbon nanotube
film electrodes. The conducting polymers were
deposited electrochemically using cyclic
Electrochemical Synthesis of voltammetry. The electrochemical effects of the
Conducting Polymers on Carbon number of voltage cycles and monomer
Nanotube Films and Its Effect and electrolyte concentrations on film thickness
on Electrochemical Capacitance were studied. The effects of the polymer
coating on the capacitance of the CNT
electrodes were analyzed as well. The final
results were evaluated using CV and scanning
electron microscopy techniques.

Soluble Narrow Band Gap
Polymers
(Dry-Box)
Bio-Science
Human Pigmentation Variation:
Evolution, Genetic Basis, and
Implications for Public Health
Extinction Cross-Section
Measurements of
Bacillus globigii Aerosols
Soluble Narrow Band Gap and Blue
Propylenedioxythiophene-Cyanovinylene
Polymers as Multifunctional Materials for
Photovoltaic and Electrochromic Applications
Pigmentation, which is primarily deter-
mined by the amount, the type, and the
distribution of melanin, shows a remarkable
diversity in human populations, and in this
sense, it is an atypical trait.Numerous
genetic studies have indicated that the average
proportion of genetic variation due to
differences among major continental groups is
just 10–15% of the total genetic variation. In
contrast, skin pigmentation shows large
differences among continental populations.
The reasons for this discrepancy can be traced
back primarily to the stronginfluence of natural
selection, which has shaped the distribution of
pigmentation according to a latitudinal gradient.
Research during the last 5 years has
substantially increased our understanding of
thegenes involved in normal pigmentation
variation in human populations. At least six
genes have been identified using
genotype/phenotype association studies
and/or direct functional assays, and there is
evidence indicating that several additional
genes may be playing a role in skin, hair, and
iris pigmentation. The information that
is emerging from recent studies points to a
complex picture where positive selection has
been acting at different genomic locations, and
for some genes only in certain population
groups.
In a continuing series of experiments designed
to determine the spectral extinction cross
section of bacterial aerosols, spectral
transmittance was measured as a function of
particle concentration,and extinction cross
sections were calculated. Visible band
measurements of Bacillus globigii aerosols
indicated a slight increase in the extinction
cross section with increasing wavelength. The
extinction cross section was estimated to be

Mitochondrial succinic-
semialdehyde dehydrogenase of
the γ-aminobutyrate shunt is
required to restrict levels of
reactive oxygen intermediates in
plants
Ablation of Liver Cancer Cells
in Vitro by a Plasma Needle
2.58 (±0.25)10 8 cm 2 at the 543-nm
wavelength.
The γ-aminobutyrate (GABA) shunt is a
metabolic pathway that bypasses two steps of
the tricarboxylic acid cycle, and it is present in
both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. In plants the
pathway is composed of the
calcium/calmodulin-regulated cytosolic enzyme
glutamate decarboxylase and the mitochondrial
enzymes GABA transaminase and succinic-
semialdehyde dehydrogenase (SSADH). The
activity of the GABA shunt in plants is rapidly
enhanced in response to various biotic and
abiotic stresses. However the physiological role
of this pathway remains obscure. To elucidate
its role in plants, we analyzed Arabidopsis T-
DNA knockout mutants of SSADH, the
ultimate enzyme of the pathway. Four alleles of
thessadh mutation were isolated, and these
exhibited a similar phenotype. When exposed to
white light (100 μmol of photons per m2 per s),
they appear dwarfed with necrotic lesions.
Detailed spectrum analysis revealed that UV-B
has the most adverse effect on the mutant
phenotype, whereas photosynthetic active range
light has a very little effect. The ssadh mutants
are also sensitive to heat, as they develop
necrosis when submitted to such stress.
Moreover, both UV and heat cause a rapid
increase in the levels of hydrogen peroxide in
the ssadh mutants, which is associated with
enhanced cell death. Surprisingly, our study
also shows that trichomes are hypersensitive to
stresses in ssadh mutants. Our work establishes
a role for the GABA shunt in preventing the
accumulation of reactive oxygen intermediates
and cell death, which appears to be essential for
plant defense against environmental stress.
A plasma needle using a dielectric barrier
discharge reactor at atmospheric pressure with
a funnel-shaped nozzle was developed. The
preliminary characteristics of the plume and
applications to the ablation of cultured human
hepatocellular carcinoma HCC BEL-7402 cell
line are presented.
Process Monitoring and Quality
Control
The MPSS (Multi Probe Spectrophotometer
System) is a multi-channel process control
Semi-Conductor monitor used in semi-conductor fabrication and
other real-time process applications.
A dual beam process monitor using "Neural
Alcohol Networks" to measure the concentration of
alcohol in a process stream.
A multi-channel system used to monitor silver
Film Deposition film deposition on a moving roll of plastic using
transmission and reflectance.
The "Dilatometer" analytical instrument
Dilatometer designed for specifically for polymer chemists.
A triple-channel SpectroColorimeter used as a
Colorimeter process Quality Control monitor for plastic
injection molding operations.
A list of patents filed using StellarNet
StellarNet Patents spectrometers
6 REFERENCES
1 FUNDAMENTAL OF PHYSICS (HALLIDAY/ RESNICK/ WALKER)
2 NEHRU LABORATORY , PATNA
3 WIKIPEDIA