Creativity & Education

B.
ED
PROGRAMME
Paper : Creativity and Education

Course No. : BED15403L
Semester : 4th
Directorate of Distance Education

University of Kashmir
Hazratbal, Srinagar
Course Prepared By
Unit 1st and 2nd

Showkat Rashid Wani
Assistant Professor in Education
Srinagar
Dr. Habibullah Shah

Dr. Kuldeep Singh Katoch

Assistant Professor,
Department of Education,
Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla-5.
Published By
Prof. (Dr.) Neelofar Khan

Director
Srinagar
Year of Publication: 2018
© Directorate of Distance Education

Srinagar
Course Code: BED-15403 (L) Creativity and Education
Unit I Structure of Ability
i) Meaning and Concept of intelligence
ii) Major Theories of intelligence
iii) Some tests of intelligence (verbal, Non-verbal & Performance)
Unit II Conceptual Framework of Creativity Thinking.
i) Nature and Meaning of Creativity
ii) Creativity as a process.
iii) Theories of Creativity
Unit III Identification of Creativity Talent.
i) Measurement of Creativity
ii) Personality Characteristics of a Creative child
iii) Personality Characteristics of a Creative person.
Unit IV Development of Creativity
i) Creativity in Teaching and learning.
ii) Different methods to foster creative Thinking
a) Creative problems – solving
b) Brain storming
c) Synectics.
Course No. BED15403L Creativity & Education
CONTENTS
Lesson No. Theme Page No
1. Structure of Ability 1-56
2. Creative Thinking 57-107
3. Identification of Creative Talent 108-125
4. Development of Creativity 126-163

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UNIT I
LESSON NO 01: Structure of Ability
Lesson Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Nature of Intelligence
1.4 Types of Intelligence
1.5 Theories of Intelligence
1.6 Measurement of Intelligence
1.7 Uses of Intelligence
1.8 Limitations of Intelligence Tests
1.9 Extremes of Intelligence
1.10 Creativity and Intelligence -An Introduction
1.11 Intelligence and Creativity
1.12 Creativity and Structure of Intellect
1.13 Relationship between Creativity and Intelligence
1.14 Let Us Sum Up
1.15 Check Your Progress
1.16 Suggested Readings
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2.1 Introduction
Creative children are assets to the society. Development and progress in

various fields depend on these children. Our educational institutions should
aim at the development of creativity in children to prepare them for different
walks of life. No nation whether big or small can afford to overlook the
importance of creativity in this age of competition. Who survives this
competition largely depends upon its creative minds. The creative acts affect
enormously not only scientific and technological progress, but society in
general. Nations who learn best how to identify, encourage and develop the
creative potential in their people may find themselves in a very advantageous
position as compared to the nations that are failed to identify and develop the
talented mind. Creativity is a basic tool for progress in any society or
community. It is so important that any society that wants to make headway in
any area of development must not lose sight of it. The conditions of modern
day living, characterized by complexity and interdependence, technological
and communication advances and rising expectations call for increased levels
of creativity (Mars, 1981). The creative talents have the responsibility of
transforming the economy so that the populace would benefit from the
products of their creative genius. In India the need to develop creativity in the
classroom is in a nascent stage and yet to be emphasized in any major
educational policy or planning document. The education in India is portrayed
as comprising of dull routines, unmotivated teachers, bored students and rote
systems of learning. The Indian education system in policy makes no overt
recommendations for creativity education to be adopted as an integral part of
the schooling experience for a child in India. Therefore, any such initiative can
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happen only at an individual level and must stem from an ideology or

philosophy that believes in creating the space for children to learn creatively.
The role that a teacher plays in fostering creativity in her classroom is
unquestionable, it is important that her teaching should be added with
appropriate teaching mechanisms. Creating a sense of informality to encourage
free expression through informal seating arrangements, flexible class timings,
group activities, proximity to nature, a vivacious campus and the freedom to
express without the fear of being judged are some of the factors which effect
the environment of the school and enhance the creative learning.
The problems of definition lie in its particular associations with the arts,
in the complex nature of creative activity itself, and in the variety of theories
that have been developed to explain it. Some people doubt that creativity can
be taught at all. They see creativity as a natural capacity with limited room for
improvement through education. Creativity is obviously to do with producing
something original. But there are different views of what is involved in this
process and about how common the capacity for creativity is. In this unit, an
attempt has been made to sketch the nature and meaning of creativity. An
attempt has also been made to discuss the various theories of creativity
relevant to the modern system of education.
2.2 Objectives
Dear students, after reading this lesson, you should be able to:
• Define Intelligence;
• Discuss the nature and types of Intelligence;
• Define I.Q;
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• Give a brief account of Measurement of Intelligence;

• State the relationship between creativity and Intelligence and
• Explain in detail the theories of Intelligence.
2.3 Nature of Intelligence
It is recognized that the concept of intelligence is a product of the

history of intelligence testing. As has very beautifully been said by James
Baldwin that people are trapped in history and history is trapped in
them. Among the most important issues in psychology is the debate over
intelligence testing; whether tests can measure a person's abilities and
quantify them and to what extent the results of these tests can be used fairly.
History of testing reveals that it was Francis Galton who first of all
attempted to measure individual mental abilities but he '"could not
develop simple quantifiable measures of mental ability. The credit of
developing questions that helped in predicting children's future success in
school goes to Alfred Benet, like Galton, Lewis Term an of Stanford,
university believed that intelligence was inherited.
As word intelligence is closely related to intellect. It is a
comprehensive term, used for observing, thinking, remembering, knowing
and of getting knowledge. Intellectual activity usually leads to acumen of
knowledge. Without intellectual activity one cannot solve a problem. It
assists in solving a problem and reaching a: goal. Briefly we can say that
intelligence is putting intellect to use.
Intelligence depends upon knowledge which implies making use of
knowledge rather than merely having it. Sometimes we say of a person
that he knows a lot and yet is rather stupid because he makes so little
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use of what he knows. In other words, it can be said that he has tools but
he does not put them to work.
Concept of Intelligence
Intelligence is thought one of slippery concept in psychology.
Though psychologists generally agree that intelligence is a concept
however they debate on the issues surrounding this concept. They differ
whether intelligence may be regarded as culturally defined or culture free.
Again they differ in considering it one aptitude or more than one aptitude.
They have also different opinions in regard to its cognitive speed.
All do not agree to the connotation of intelligence. For example,
psychologists are yet debating whether to define intelligence as an inherent
cognitive capacity, an achieved level of intellectual performance, or an
ascribed quality. However, intelligence experts agree that intelligence is not
a "thing" As we refer to someone's IQ, it is not a concrete thing nor it is a
fixed and objectively real trait rather it is a score one has obtained on a
particular test at 'a particular time. Different authors have defined
intelligence in different ways. Binet defined intelligence as "the tendency
to take and maintain: a definite' direction the capacity to make
adaptations for the purpose of attaining a desired end, and the powers of
auto-criticism." According to Terman an individual is intelligent in
proportion to his ability to carry an abstract thinking. Stoddard defines
intelligence the ability to undertake activities that are characterized by
difficulty, complexity, abstractness, economy adaptiveness goal, Social,
value," the emergence of novels, and to maintain such activities under
conditions that demand a concentration of energy and a resistance to
emotional forces. In the opinion of Thorndike intelligence is the ability to
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make good responses and is demonstrated by capacity to deal effectively

with novel situations, of an abstract, mechanical or social nature. Wechsler
defines intelligence as the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to
act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his
environment.
In the light of above definitions certain characteristics of intelligent
behaviour are:
(i) Adaptation to different situations (ii) abstract thinking (iii) performance
accompanied by economy and efficiency (iv) capacity to retain and retrieve
past experiences or knowledge.
An intelligent person is said to be able to adapt himself to the
environment where he lives. He, is able to solve problems of life. This doesn't
mean that intelligent people are alike in' solving problems, having same
efficiency and doing things with same economy or time. Psychology
warns us that people differ from one another. The same is true in case of
intelligent behaviour. There are some people having more intelligence,
some possess average and still some are below average in intelligence.
Again people differ in respect to fields/areas. Some may be able to'
develop. proficiency in language, someone in scientific pursuits. Therefore'
intelligence is understood' a multidimensional concept.
According to one view; intelligent behaviour varies with the
situation. For Binet and other intelligence testers, intelligence meant
children's ability to adapt successfully to academic demands; this has the
different implications for different societies. In one society it may mean the
ability to excel in one field and in other society it may mean excelling in
some' other field. In order to understand the concept of intelligence it is
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necessary to know what the culture of a particular society values

important and those abilities are to be investigated for the success of a
child in a given venture. Some researchers view intelligence as a basic
cognitive ability that helps people solve problems in any environment.
According to this view, the abstract and novel questions asked on
intelligence
tests evaluate our abilities to solve various problems effectively regardless
of our cultural background.
2.4 Types of Intelligence
Gardner (1993) has identified seven distinct types of intelligence:

1. Linguistic: Person who manifest linguistic intelligence are good at
writing" reading, telling stories and solving cross word puzzles.
2. Logical- Mathematical: People high on logical intelligence are
interested in patterns, categories and relationships. They are
attracted to arithmetical problems, strategy games and experiments.
3. Bodily Kinesthetic: This type of intelligence processes knowledge
through bodily sensations. Mostly this type of intelligence is found
in athletes, dancers and those who are good at craft work.
4. Spatial: People high on spatial intelligence think in terms of images
and pictures. 'they are fascinated by mazes, jigsaw puzzles and
drawing.
5. Musical: Mostly such persons are seen singing or humming to
themselves. They are quite aware of the minute details that others
may miss and are said to be discriminating listeners.
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6. Interpersonal: These people are leaders among their peers and are
good at communicating skills. They seem to understand other's
feelings and motivations.
7. Intrapersonal: Such people are self-motivated and are aware about
their own feelings.
Thorndike (1920) has also identified a dimension of intelligence
and named it social intelligence. He described social intelligence as the
ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls to act
wisely in human relations. Wechsler (1940) referred to intellective and
non-elective elements by which he meant affective, self and social factors
.He opined that the non-intellective abilities are essential to determine
one's ability to succeed in life. Gardner (1993) has also, referred to
multiple intelligence and proposed that interpersonal and intrapersonal
intelligence are as important as the type of intelligence typically measured
by IQ tests. Salvoes and Mayer (1990) coined the term emotional
intelligence and ', described as a form of social intelligence that involves
the ability to monitor one's own and others feelings and emotions to
discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one's
thinking and action. Goleman (1996) gave' the world a new meaning of
emotional intelligence. According to him, IQ accounts for only about 20
percent of a person's success in life and the balance can be attributed
emotional intelligence (EQ)
2.5 Theories of intelligence
We all know that some people are talented in science, some In

creative writing and still others in art, music or dance. It is a commonly
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observed fact that one talented in art can hardly solve the simplest
mathematical problem or one who is very good in mathematics finds it
difficult to be .an effective person in literary discussion. We may therefore
wonder whether people's mental abilities are too diverse to justify
labeling them with the single term intelligence or quantifying them with a
number from some single scale. In order to understand the concept of
intelligence some well-known theories are presented.
1. Unitary theory or monarchic theory: This theory holds that
intelligence consists of one factor simply a fund of. Intellectual
competence, which is universal for all the activities of the
individual.
A man who has vigor can move so much to East as to the
West in a similar way. If one has a fund of intelligence, he can
utilize it to any area of his life and can be as successful in one
area as in the other depending upon his fund of intelligence. But
in actual life situations the ideas propagated by this theory don't fit
well. We find that the children who are bright in Mathematics may,
despite serious interest and hard work, not be so good in political
science. A student very good in conducting science experiments
does not find himself equally competent in learning language. This
makes us conclude that there is nothing like one single unitary
factor in intelligence.
2. Anarchic theory or Multifactor theory: This theory was advocated
by E. L. Thorndike. As the name suggests this theory considers -
intelligence a combination of numerous separate elements or factors,
each one being a minute element of ability. So, there is no such thing
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as general intelligence (a single factor) and there are many independent

specific abilities which go into different tasks.
In this way, Monarchic and Anarchic theories hold the two
extremes. Just as we cannot assume good intelligence, a 'guarantee of
success in all fields of human life, we cannot also say with certain
specific type of abilities one will be entirely successful in a particular'
area and completely unsuccessful in the other area. Actually
Gardner Murphy put it, "There is a certain positive relationship
between brightness in one field and brightness in another and so on".
This brings us to the conclusion that there should be a common
factor running through all tasks. The failure to explain such
phenomenon gave birth to another theory named Spearman's two factor
theories.
3. Spearman's two factor theory: This theory was advocated by
spearman. According to him every different intellectual activity
involves a general factor 'g' which is shared with all intellectual activities
and a specific's' which it shares with none.
In this way, he suggested that there is something which might' be
general intelligence, a sort of general mental energy, running through
all the different tasks but in addition to this general factor there
are specific abilities, which make an individual able to deal with
particular kinds of problems. For example, an individual's performance
in Hindi is partly due to his general intelligence and partly some
kind of "specific ability in language which he might possess i.e., g +sl
or, in Mathematics his performance will be due to g +s2 and so on.
The factor g (in lesser or greater degree) will enter in all specific
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activities. The total ability or .intelligence of such an individual

(symbolized as A), thus, will be expressed by' the following equation A
schedule. g+sl+s2+s3+…….. = A.
This two actor theory of Spearman has been Criticized on
various grounds. The two main reasons are given below:
i. Spearman said that there are only two factors expressing
intelligence but as we have seen above there are not only
two but several factors (g, sl, s2, s3,………… etc.)
ii. According to Spearman each job requires some specific ability.
This view was not proper as it implied that there was
nothing common in the jobs except a general factor and
profession such as those of nursery; compounders and
doctors could not be put in a group. In fact the factors St ,
S2, S3,S4 etc. are not mutually exclusive. They overlap and
give birth to certain common factors.
This idea of overlapping and grouping has given origin to a
new theory called Group Factor theory.
4. Thurston’s Group factor theory: For the factors not common to all
of the intellectual abilities but common to certain activities
comprising a group, the term, group factor' was suggested.
Prominent among the propagators of this theory is L. L. Thurstone.
While working on a test of primary mental abilities he came to the
conclusion that certain mental operations have in common a
primary factor which gives them psychological and functional unity
and which differentiates them from other mental operations. These
mental operations constitute a group factor. So, there are a number
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of groups of mental abilities each of which has its own primary

factor. Turnstone and his associates have differentiated nine such
factors. They are:
i. Verbal factor (V): concerns with comprehension of verbal
relations, word and ideas.
ii. Spatial factor (S): involved in any task in which the subject
manipulates an object imaginatively in space.
iii. Numerical factors (N): ability to do numerical Calculations,
'rapidly and accurately.
iv. Memory factor (M): involving the ability to memorize quickly.
v. Word Fluency Factor (W): Involved whenever the subject is
asked to think of the isolated words at a rapid rate,
vi. Inductive reasoning Factor (RD): ability to generalize through
specific examples.
vii. Deductive reasoning factor (RO): ability to make use of
generalized result.
viii. Perceptual factor (P): ability to perceive objects accurately.
ix. Problem solving ability factor (PS): ability to solve problems
independently.
The weakest link in the group factor theory was that it
discarded the concept ·of common factor. However, later on
turnstone realized his mistake and revealed a general, factor in
addition to group factors.
5. G. H. Thomson's Sampling Theory: This theory was propagated by
G. H. Thomson, a brilliant psychologist. assumes that the mind is
made of. many independent bonds and elements. Any specific test
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or school activity sample some of these' bonds. It is possible that

two or more tests sample and utilize the same bonds, then a
general common factor can be said to exist among them. It is also
possible that some other tests sample different bonds then the tests
have nothing in common and each is specific.
This rationale seems to combine various theoretical
viewpoints as:
It appears to be similar to Thorndike's multifactor theory
except that it concedes to the practical usefulness of a concept like
‘g’.
At the same time Thomson seems to maintain that the concept of
group factor (G) is of equal usefulness.
6. Vernon's Hierarchical Theory: R. E. Vernon, a British psychologist
1as propagated the theory of intelligence by suggesting a
hierarchical structure for the organization of human intelligence.
According to Vernon, intellectual abilities or factors of
intelligence lie in hierarchical order. On top we have G, general·
type of major factor representing an overall intelligence of the
individual .Under G, there are two prominent group factors namely
Ved (Concerning with the verbal, numerical. and educational
abilities) and KM (connected with the practical, mechanical, spatial
and physical abilities). These two major factors may be divided
with minor factors and these minor factors may be further
subdivided into various specific factors related with minute specific
mental abilities.
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7. Guilford’s theory of intellect: J. P. Guilford and his associates have

developed a model of intellect On the basis of factor analysis of
several tests employed for testing intelligence of the human beings.
They have come to the conclusion that any mental process or
intellectual activity of the human being can be described in terms
of three basic dimensions or parameters known as contents (the
type of information involved): operations (way of processing
information) and products ( the ideas we come up with). This model
proposes that intelligence consists of 1.0 independent ability that
result from the interaction of four types of contents, five types of
operations, six types of products.
Each of these parameters-operations, contents and products
may. be further subdivided into some specific factors and elements.
As a result, operations may be subdivided into 5 specific factors
contents into 4 and products into 6. The interaction of these three
parameters, according to Guildford, thus result into the 4x5x6x=120
different elements or factors in one's intelligence. In a figural form,
these 120 factors or independent abilities of the human beings
along with the basic parameters and their divisions can be
represented through a model named as Guildford's model of intellect
or intelligence.
What is implied by these contents, operations and products
can be understood through the following brief description:
A. Contents: the types of information involved.
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1. Figural (visual)- The properties of stimuli we can experience

through visual senses e.g. color, size, shape. texture and other
visual characteristics of figure.
Figural (Auditory)- The properties of stimuli we can experience
through the auditory sense e.g. voice and sound.
2. Symbolic- number; letters, symbols; designs.
3. Semantic-the meaning of words, ideas, concept formation.
4. Behavioral-the actions and expressions of people.
B. Operations: The way of processing the information.
1. Cognition recognizing and discovering the information.
2. Memory-retaining and recalling the contents of thought.
3. Divergent production -producing a variety of ideas or solution
to a problem.
4. Convergent production -producing a single best solution to a
problem.
5. Evaluation -taking decision about the nature of the intellectual
contents or gathered information whether it is relevant or
irrelevant, adequate or inadequate.
C. Products: Operations the products obtained through Operations.
1. Units-Individual, piece of information limited in size e.g. a
single number, letter or word or one answer.
2. Classes- groups of units of information related to each other on
the basis of some common characteristics involving a higher
order concept (e.g. men + women =people).
3. Relations- a connection between concepts.
4. Systems- an ordering or classification of relations.
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5. Transformation -altering or restructuring intellectual contents.

6. Implication-making inferences from separate pieces of
information.
In this way, according to Guilford's model of intellect, there are
120 factors operating in intelligence. Each one of these factors has a
trigram symbol, i.e. at least one factor from each category of three
parameters has to be present in any specific intellectual activity or
mental task.
Let us illustrate this basic fact with an example. Suppose in
case a child is asked to find out the day of the week on a
particular date with the help of a calendar. In the execution of this
mental task he will need mental operations like convergent thinking,
memory and cognition. For carrying out these operations, he has to
make use of the contents. In this particular case, he will make use
of semantics, i.e. reading and understanding of the printed words
and figures indicating days and dates of a particular month in the
calendar. By carrying out mental operation with the help of contents he
will finally arrive at the products. The. day of the week to which:
the date in questions refers represents the factor known as
"relations". He may further transform and apply this knowledge to
identify the days for contiguous dates or vice versa.
Each of the seven theories of intelligence described above,
attempt to provide a structure of intelligence in respect of its
constituents or factors. These theories exhibit wide variations in
terms of the numbers of factors that they consider important The
range of all such factors also varies from 1 (Unitary theory) to 120
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(Guilford's Intellect Model). However, for understanding what goes

on inside one's intelligence we must try to build an eclectic view
by incorporating the essence of all the workable theories of
intelligence. Consequently, any intellectual activity or mental task
may be said to involve the following three kinds of basic factors
(arranged in the order as suggested by Vernon or in the form of a
model suggested by Guildford). General factor (g) (common to all
tasks) Specific factor s1, s2, etc. (specific to the task) Group factor G
(Common to the task belonging to a specific group).
2.6 Measurement of Intelligence

We are only familiar with that intelligence of an individual which
is manifested by him On an intelligence test or test. Psychologists have
devised so many such tests for the measurement of intelligence.
Classification of Intelligence Tests
A. As far as the administrative point of view is concerned the
intelligence tests can be classified into two broad categories namely:
Individual tests: in which only one individual is tested at a time.
Group tests: In which a group of individuals are tested at a time.
B. Another way of classifying the intelligence tests is based On the
form of the test. Accordingly, there are two types of tests:
Verbal tests or language test.
Nonverbal tests or non-language tests.
1. Verbal Language test: These tests make use of language. Here the
instructions are given in words. Individuals is required to use
language as well as paper and pencil for giving the responses. The
test content is loaded with verbal material.
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2. Nonverbal and non-language tests: These tests involve such

activities in which the use of language is not necessary. The use of
language is eliminated from test content and response except in
giving directions.
The typical examples of such nonverbal tests are performance
test. The principal characteristics of these tests are given below:
Contents of these tests are in the form of material objects.
What an individual has to do is indicated by the tester
either through oral instructions or by pantomime or signs. Individual's
response depends upon what he does or performs rather than by
anything he says or writes.
If we try to have a final picture of all types of tests in
intelligence, we will have to keep in view both the ways of classifying
them as mentioned above. All these types of intelligence tests can
be represented diagrammatically as follows:
Intelligence Tests
Individual Tests Individual Tests
Verbal Tests Performance Tests Verbal Tests Non Verbal Tests
Now we will discuss these one by one:

Individual Verbal Tests: The tests involving the use of language and
administrated to an individual at a time belong to this category. As an
example of such tests we can quote Stanford Binet Scale. It is the revised
form of the Binet-Simon test French psychologist Alfred Binet, father of
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intelligence test construction movement along with Theodore Simon

prepared a test as early as in 1905, containing 30 items (arranged in order
of increasing difficulty) graded for different levels. -The test included such
items as:
At age 3- point out to nose, eyes and mouth. At age 7-tell what is
missing in the unfinished picture.
In 1931, the first American revision of this test was published by
Terman at Stanford University and in 1937 another revision was carried
On with the help of Maud A Merril. This as well as 1960's revision is
called Stanford- Binet scale and widely used as an individual intelligence
test.
The tests in this scale are grouped into age levels, extending from
age 2 to 22 years. The tasks to be performed by the testee in these
various tests range from simple manipulation to abstract reasoning.
Individual Performance Tests: As said earlier the complete non-verbal
or non-language tests of intelligence for testing an individual at a time
come into this classification. In these the contents and responses are in the
form of performance and language is not. Used at all. In these tests. the
items which require responses - iii terms of motor activities are included.
Generally, the activities, on which the performance of an individual is tested,
are of the following types.
Block building or cube construction: Where the subject is asked to
make a structure or design by means of blocks or cubes supplied to him.
The examples of the tests involving such type of activities are Merril
Palmer Block Building, Koh's Block Design Test, Alexander's pass along test
etc.
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To fit the blocks in the holes: Test material of such types provides
numerous blocks and a board in which there are holes corresponding to
these blocks. The subject is to fit the blocks in these corresponding holes (in
the board. Examples are Seguin Form Board Test and Goddard Form Board
test.
Tracing a maze: Test material consists of a series of mazes of
increasingly difficulty, each printed on a separate sheet. The subject is
required to trace with pencil, the path from entrance to exit. Porteus
Maze test is an example involving such type of activities.
Picture arrangement of picture completion: In picture arrangement
test, the task is to arrange in series the given pictures where as in picture
completion test the subject is required to complete the pictures with the help
of given pieces cut oft' each picture. The Healy pictorial completion test is
a good example of such test which provides a good estimate of the
intelligence of the subject without making use of language. As seen above,
these tests try to emphasize upon one or the other types of performance,
instead of using one or two tests a group of performance tests, organized either
into a scale or battery, are used for a comprehensive picture of an individual's
mental ability. Some of the popularly known scales are:
The Pinter Patterson Scale.
The Arthur Point Scale
Alexander's Battery of performance Tests
Wechsler Bellevue Intelligence Scale: This scale is available in two forms.
The one form WAIS is used for children and the other W AIS for adults. It
is an individual test which has unique quality of being named as verbal
and performance scale simultaneously.
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Verbal Scale:
Test of General information
Test of General comprehension
Test of Arithmetic reasoning
Test of distinction between similarities
Test of Digit span
Test of vocabulary
Performance Scale
Digit symbol test
Picture completion test
Block Design test
Object assembly test
The scores on these sub-tests are added to give an idea of an
individual's Intelligence
The Group verbal intelligence tests: The tests which necessitate the use of
language and are applied to a group of individuals at a time come under
this category. Some of the earlier tests belonging to this category are:
Army Alpha test
Army General Classification Test.
The Group Nonverbal Intelligence Tests: These tests do' not necessitate the
use of language and are applicable to a group of individuals at a time.
The difference between performance tests (used for an individual)
and non-verbal tests (used for a group) is of degree as far as their non
verbal nature is concerned. The, performance tests require the
manipulation of concrete objects or materials supplied in the test, by the
subject. Responses are purely motor in character and seldom require the use
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of paper and pencil (except in a case like Maze Test etc. Where the test
material In the non-verbal tests,' used for group testing, is provided in booklet
and requires the use of pencil by the taste.
Still in these tests, material doesn't contain words or numerical
figures. It contains pictures, diagrams and geometrical figures etc. printed
'in a booklet. The subject is required to do such activities as to fill in some
empty spaces, to draw some. simple figures, to point out similarities and
dissimilarities etc. In this way, although the subject uses paper pencil he does
"not need to know words or numerical-figures', 'what he. is-to do is
explained by the tester usually through clear demonstrations so as to -make.
the least possible use of language.
The examples of such type of tests are:
1. Army Beta Test: It was developed in World War 1st, in USA: for
testing the intelligence of those soldiers who were either illiterates or
were not used to English language.
2. Chicago nonverbal test: This nonverbal test has been proved most useful
for the, young children aged 12 and 13 years.
3. Raven's progressive Matrices Test: This test was developed in UK. It is
a very much popular nonverbal group test-of intelligence. The test
has been designed to evaluate the subject’s ability.
a. to see relationship between geometric figures or designs.
b. To perceive the structure of the design in order to select the appropriate
part for completion of each pattern.
Verbal Tests v/s Non Verbal and Performance: What led to the construction
of nonverbal and performance when verbal tests were there for testing
the intelligence is a relevant question to. be asked. Verbal tests are
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already said, gave emphasis on linguistic ability. They were loaded with
verbal material words and numerical. Hence, the persons having linguistic
superiority were always. on the side of advantage in comparison to the
persons having language weakness. To do way such evils, non-verbal and
performance tests were put to use. In brief the-advantages of these tests
are asunder:
1. Performance tests are useful for those who have language handicaps
due to some of the following reasons.
2. They may belong to the foreign language speaking groups.
3. They may include' illiterates not knowing- how to read and write.
4. They may' have difficulties in reading, writing and listening due to
defects in their Sense organs (persons like deaf, dumb etc.)
5. They may be younger children who are not yet able to read and write
well.
6. They may be mentally retarded or mentally deficient children and
therefore, are very slow in grasping and responding of the verbal
items.
7. They may belong to unprivileged class or strata of the society and
hence have got limited education opportunities.
8. Verbal test belonging to one region contains the material which' has
a direct relationship with the language. or culture of that region or
country. Non-verbal and performance tests as more of less language
and culture free and hence-can be used for cross-cultural and
linguistic study of intelligence.
9. They can be proved useful in the efforts to determine aptitude and
promise in shop work, mechanical job etc. - .
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Limitations of Non-Verbal and Performance Test:

1. They may not be able to predict scholastic success in schools as do
the verbal tests simply because school work itself is predominantly
verbal.
2. They specially performance tests are very costly and pose difficulty in
carrying from one place to another.
3. There are more susceptible to practice-effects and chance successes
are more frequent than in the case of verbal tests. Therefore, they
are less reliable then verbal tests.
4. These tests are limited in a range of mental functioning tests, such as
they do not require much use of the ability to make abstractions and
to deal with concepts. That is why they are not able to differentiate
among above average individuals.
5. In this way, we come across the merits and limitations of these tests.
In fact, the testing of mental ability is a comprehensive task and
cannot be solely left either to the verbal performance tests. For
taking a reliable view of a person's intellectual ability the following
things should be kept in mind:
• Performance test should be taken as a supplement to verbal tests
and vice versa.
• No single test is suitable for this purpose. There should be a
combination of both verbal and nonverbal.
2.7 Uses of Intelligence Tests

Some of the uses of intelligence tests are:
1. Selection: Intelligence tests are often used for the purpose of
making selection of the suitable candidates for activities like.
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• Admission in a particular course of instruction.

• Deciding the cases of scholarships.
• Choosing candidates for assigning some specific responsibilities.
• Selecting candidates for participation in various co-curricular
activities etc.
2. Classification: Intelligence tests help the teacher to classify the student
as bright, dull or average and hence make possible putting them
into homogeneous groups in order to bring efficiency in teaching-
learning process.
3. Promotion: Intelligence tests can prove themselves as one of the
useful instruments in promoting the individuals not only in
educational fields but in all other occupational and social situations
where one studies to go higher on the ladder.
4. Knowing one's potentiality: Intelligence tests help in revealing the
potentialities of an individual and in this way make possible the
predication of one's success in a particular field. The knowledge of
such potentialities helps the teacher in the following ways:
Giving guidance: Teacher or a guidance-worker can give
guidance to - the pupils in the selection of various courses of
instruction and occupations.
Helps in learning process: Teacher can plan teaching learning
activities with the help of this knowledge. "Results of intelligence
tests,' as Crow and Crow write, "can help a teacher to discover
what the child can learn and how quickly he can learn as well as
the teaching methods that should be applied and the learning
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contents that should. be utilized to guide the learner to use his

mental potentialities to their utmost."
To establish a proper level of aspiration: One of the most
important ends served by intelligence testing is that of assisting the
individual to establish a level of aspiration that is realistic in terms of
intellectual potential.
5. Diagnostic purpose: Exceptional children like gifted, backward and
the mentally retarded children can be detected with the help of
intelligence tests. Moreover, the intelligence tests help in the
diagnosis of the root causes of problematic behaviour of the child
and likewise suggest the remedy to the problem.
6. Research Purpose: Intelligence testing has- been proved very useful
in psychological, sociological, and educational research. For example,
in deciding the relative role of heredity and environment; in the
process of growth and development, research workers have made
such use of intelligence testing.
2.8 Limitations of Intelligence Tests

Intelligence tests have given birth too many problems due to their
limitations and shortcomings. We can list them as follows:
Intelligence tests and students. Intelligence test labels some
students- as superior-and some as inferior. This type of knowledge creates
so many problems. Children who are slightly dull or are still brilliant
enough to realize through the result of intelligence tests that they are slow to
learn. It makes them disappointed and causes inferiority feelings and
ultimately mars their future. On the other hand, the students with a slightly
higher LQ become over confident. There is every possibility that these
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students may not give serious attention to their work. Also the
consciousness of their superiority may result in misbehavior on their part
and tan turn them into problem children. Intelligence test and teacher:
Teacher, after knowing the LQ. of the child makes a permanent idea of
the child's potentialities and abilities. They try to see him through his LQ.
They leave no attempt to discourage or to create over confidence in the
students according to the level of their intelligence announced by these
tests. Moreover, the knowledge of the intelligence of the pupils for a
teacher may result in slackness on his part. He may put the entire
responsibility of a pupil's failure on his inferior intelligence and for' a
bright pupil he can think that he would be able to do himself. In this
way, the knowledge of intelligence supplied by. These bring disastrous result
to the teacher.
Gives Birth to Segregation and conflicts: Intelligence test results
have been misused to _uphold the theory of royal blood, segregation and
sectarian outlook. In USA it has led to a conflict between the Negro and
the white population. The conflict, in actual sense, is the result of
misconception about the predictive value of these and their correlation
with hereditary factors. In defense we can put the following points:
No intelligence test, including most refined performance tests, can
be claimed as completely free of practice or coaching effects and
independent of cultural, social, racial and other environment factors.
Hence, they cannot be claimed as a measure of initial mental abilities and
capacities of the individual and therefore it is quite unjust to deny 01'
uphold the right of admission or job opportunities to the people on the
basis of these tests. Now the contemporary researches in this direction
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have proved that intelligence tests result always show favour towards
healthy environmental conditions like improved sanitation, family
atmosphere, education of parents, cultural backgrounds, socioeconomic
conditions and better education opportunities etc. In fact, intelligence test
helps in knowing very little about the total make-up of the child's
potentialities. Only cognitive (mental actions) domain can be said to be
touched by these tests. They leave untouched -many, important, personality
aspects like interest, attitudes, motives etc. Hence they cannot be relied as
the sole predictor of the future success of an individual.
"The result of all such tests" as Crow and Crow put it, "may be
affected by many factors inherent in' the testing conditions, the child's
background, experience and other favorable or unfavorable elements.
Hence, no administrator, teacher or student of Education should accept
test results as the only measure of an individual's ability to learn. "In this
way, it is not proper to give undue weightage to intelligence tests. They
should not be accepted as the only measure of an individual's degree of
ability to learn. The should not be made an instrument of creating complexes
among the students and mis-understanding among the teachers. In brief the
results of these must be interpreted and used intelligently. They should be
taken as the means and not the end in themselves.
2.9 Extremes of intelligence

There are two extremes of intelligence the mentally challenged and the
Gifted:
The Mentally Challenged: At one extreme is the population whose
intelligence test scores fall below 70. These persons are labeled as mentally
retarded. They experience a difficulty in adapting to the normal demands
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of living independently. Usually there are four levels of mental

retardation :
• Mild: whose typical intelligence, score ranges from 50-70. They are
expected to learn academic skills up to 6 th grade level. Adults may, with
assistance achieve self-supporting social and vocational skills
• Moderate: Their intelligence test score happens to be 35-49. They may
progress 2nd grade level academically. Adults may contribute to their
own support by labour in sheltered workshops.
• Severe: 'Their intelligence score has been found 20-34. They may learn to
talk and to perform simple tasks under close supervision but are generally
unable to profit from vocational training. (4) Profound: Their
intelligence score goes below 20 and 'require constant aid and supervision
The Gifted: At the other extreme ate the persons whose intelligence test score
go beyond 120 and are called Gifted. Their achievements in art, literature,
music, science and other fields are outstanding. They seem always to have
been very bright children. There are indications of exceptional brightness in
the childhood' records of all great men and women. Other qualities besides
intelligence stand out in the records and certainly contributed to the later
achievements of these individual-such qualities as persistence of efforts,
confidence in their own powers, force of character, ambition or the desire
to excel and often a passionate love for their chosen work are found in
these individuals.
Concept of Mental Age (M.A.) Intelligence Quotient (I.Q): As we have used
above the terms mental age and I.Q. in the interpretation of intelligence
test results, it is worth-while to know something about them.
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Mental Age: The term mental age was used first by Binet. What is
this concept can be clarified through the following example.
Suppose there is a test which has 100 questions (like Jalota's test)
and suppose the majority of the subjects whose age is 13 years 6 months,
answer successfully 48 questions, then an individual who earns a score 48,
regardless of his chronological age, will be said to have a mental age of 13
years 6 months.
Intelligence Quotation (I.Q.): This term was initiated by the German
Psychologist William Stern and put into wide practice by Terman. It
appeared to stem that if child was 6 years old (chronologically), but could
what an 8 years old normally does he would be 8.6 or 1.33 as bright as
the average. And in this way, he made the ratio M.A lea., measure of
the· rate of mental development of an individual. The ratio was given the
name of Intelligence Quotient (I.Q.). To do away with the decimal point the
ratio was multiplied by 106 and thus the formula to calculate I.Q. was known
as:
Mental Age
I.Q = ×100
Chronological Age
(as used in Stanford Binet Scales).
Attained or Actual Score
I.Q = ×100
Expected mean score for age
(as used by Weschler).
Classification of I.Q: By making use of formula I.Q. given by Stem, Terman
tried to classify the individuals into certain specific categories on the basis of
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the data collected through the administration of his. Intelligence tests for
terming them average, below average and above average as given below:
I.Q Level of Intelligence
140 and above Genius
120-140 Gifted
110-120 Very Superior
90-110 Superior
75-90 Normal or Average
50-75 Border Line and Dull
25-50 Morons
Below 25 Idiot
The Constancy of I.Q
As mentioned earlier, intelligence goes on growing up to 16 or 18 years
of age, but I.Q. for most of the individuals remains constant. Primarily LQ
provides a ratio for knowing how bright an individual is as compared
with some of his own age. Actually, it is an index which is independent
not 'only of the particular score" which" an individual obtains on a
particular scale but also of the particular age at which he happens to
make it. It is thus a measure which acquaints us with the relative
brightness or intellectual possibilities of an individual more or less
permanently.
It is true that individual grows in intelligence but the whole
groups (the other individuals of his age) also grow at the same rate as
that particular individual does. Thus LQ a measure of defining relative
brightness or intellectual possibilities of an individual remains practically
constant. Under ordinary circumstances (accident. or disease exempted) an
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individual’s LQ. "is supposed to remain constant throughout life or at

least throughout the age limits covered by the scale. This property of I.Q:
is referred to as constancy of I.Q. by psychologists.
2.10 Creativity and Intelligence-An Introduction
Of course, human beings are endowed with unique powers. Of all their
powers, creativity is the most unique. In each of us are little-used powers of
creativity, which may be termed as “spark of genius”, waiting to be freed. Even
a computer, which can work at an amazing pace, cannot match it as it can only
repeat the mechanical orientations but cannot produce original ideas, which the
human mind is capable of the work of creation. Therefore, it is necessary to be
careful in defining creativity and distinguishing it from other similar
intellectual functions. The brain is believed to have a significant role in the
creative ability of individuals. According to Craft (2000), each of the two
hemispheres of the brain appears to have its own area of specialization and
processes information in its own way; and of course, in the normal brain, the
hemispheres communicate with each other through the corpus callosum, the
mass nerve fiber which bridges the hemispheres. For the great majority of the
population, it is the left hemisphere that controls logical and linear thinking.
This is the side that can compute mathematics, remember names, learn to read
and memorize. By contrast, the other hemisphere is the part of the brain where
metaphors are understood, where emotions are felt and where dreams,
imageries and fantasy occur. The left hemisphere of the brain is dominant for
the following tasks: analytical, mathematical, verbal, linear and literal. The left
hemisphere may, then, be particularly good at „convergent‟ thinking. By
contrast, the right brain appears to be dominant for the following activities;
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metaphoric, imaginative, non-verbal, holistic (non-linear), spatial, musical,

artistic, emotional, sexual, spiritual, and dreams. The right hemisphere may be
particularly good at supporting „divergent‟ thinking–and creativity more
widely. In general, the hemispheres work together in harmony, although often
the right hemisphere is under-utilization. And really it is this hemisphere that
is important for education and for fostering creativity. The challenge for
teachers is how to find ways of fostering creativity that feeds the right brain as
well as the left, for all children. Creativity is the process of developing original
novel and yet appropriate response to a problem. An original response is one
that is not usually given. A novel response is one that is new or has no
precedent. However, unless and original and novel solution is also appropriate,
it can‟ t be termed as creative. An appropriate response is one that is deemed
reasonable is the situation. Building a house of toothpicks is probably an
original and novel idea, but is clearly not appropriate because such a house
could be structurally week. Creativity is the ability to produce work that is both
novel (i.e. original, unexpected) and appropriate. “To create” means “to make
or bring into existence something new”. Torrance (1962) on the basis of an
analysis of the diverse ways of defining creativity and requirements of a
dependable definitions for keeping a programme of research focused on factors
affecting creative growth in context, defined creativity as “a process of
becoming sensitive to problems deficiencies, gaps in knowledge, missing
elements, disharmonies, making guesses or formulating hypotheses about the
deficiencies testing and re-testing them and finally communicating the results.”
Intelligence is the aggregate capacity of individual to act purposefully,
to think rationally and to deal effectively with his/her environment. It can be
called as the capacity to acquire knowledge. In order to solve any problem,
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knowledge should be applied in the right manner with the help of intelligence.
Educationists consider intelligence as the mental ability which helps the
individual to think about minute, complex and abstract matters, to adjust with
changing situations by solving various problems as quickly as possible, to
acquire with ease knowledge, proficiency and aptitude in different subjects, to
explain new situations with the help of prior experience, to arrive at
conclusions by determining the exact relations between various elements, to
utilize our energy by keeping the emotions and impulse under control
whenever necessary in achieving the goal. Man, however, has surpassed other
creatures in the development of brain and this development has made him
superior to other species in his behaviour and in control of his environment.
But it is well-known fact to us all, that the individuals have different
capabilities to adapt and change this environment. One thinks differently from
the other. He solves the problems concerning to his environment and to
overcome the hurdles in the way of his progress, and in paving new paths of
his progress quickly than this fellows. One feels it very difficult to adjust with
his peers while the others are very efficient in doing .So thus it can be said that
a person‟ s intelligence manifests itself through different activities and not
through a particular activity (Gupta and Basu, 2006.)
Creativity has long been recognized as an intellectual talent of great
individual worth and social usefulness. However, it has often been confused
with intelligence. In literature, though the two terms carry different
meanings but still then there has always been considerable interest in the
relation between creativity and intelligence. Assumption is that both being
to the same category of mental life, intelligence being a more general and
broader term than creativity. Unfortunately, psychologists are in basic
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disagreement on the meaning of the intelligence. One point of disagreement is

whether intelligence is to be convinced as capacity or ability. Most of those who
use the term capacity or potentially in defining intelligence convey their belief
that intelligence is inmate, inborn, or untaught, those who use the term
ability, on the other hand, do not commit themselves on trie question of the
source of intelligence and that they would argue that we observe is ability and
that we cannot observe and record potentially unless it has developed into
some kind of performance.
Binet, the father of modern intelligence tests, has defined intelligence
as an intellectual ability whereas Stoddard (1943) presents a comprehensive
description of intelligence and states that any type of intellectual ability which
undertakes activities characterized by difficulty, complexity abstractness,
economy, addictiveness to a goal and social value is termed as intelligence
and it accompanies one more attribute i.e. the emergence of originals, that
distinguishes different types of intelligence at the higher of the continuum is
labelled as relativity.
Binet and those who followed the philosophy inherent in the
approach considered intelligence to be a general and a unified ability.
Spearman, a British Psychologist, applied statistical analysis to'
intelligence test results and concluded that performance on intelligence
testes was due first to the presence of a general factor and then to specific
abilities. Thurstone is believed to be the first who made mention of
ideational fluency (an attribute included in creative thinking) while
developing a test that measured what he considered 'bathe primary mental
abilities.
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It was up to the close of the 19th Century that a notion was held that
intelligence and creativity are synonymous. In one research study in 1898,
Dearborn studied the imaginative responses of Harward students on a
series of inkblots and found that some of the students who were of the
'intellectual type' gave a very poor account of themselves on imaginative
thinking.
In 1902, Colvin made use of his measures based on compositions
with high school students. He gave attention to such factors as invention,
sense of humor, imaginative power, feeling and perceptive power and
found that logical power shows no pronounced relation to any type of
imagination except the visual' Simpson (1922); McCarty (1924); and
Abramson (1927); also arrived at the same conclusion. In 1930, Andrews
used a variety of methods and observations, to study a variety of types
of imaginative or creative activity. Her conclusions have been criticized
for the reason that the measures she had used, appear to be indices of
convergent thinking. Markey (1935) employed observational methods to
evaluate performance in a ‘variety "of standardized situations and tasks.
She concluded-that no single test taps all of the imaginative resources of an
individual and that the same test of imagination is not equally-valid at all age
levels as the level of the child's understanding and comprehension
influences the -type of creative response. In the light of the above attempts to
assess the creative thinking of younger chi fern, there is in general a
tendency for a low correlation between such measures and traditional
measures of intelligence. Markey (1935) reported that the correlations
between menial age and test scores were slightly higher than between
chronological age and test scores. Furthermore, between mental age and
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imaginative behaviour are because' of the "diversity or' groups studied

and so on it was only in 1930 that Andrews recognized more, clearly the
difference between the two types of measures and concluded that the
correlations between and imagination and mental age and imagination are
so low as to indicate that very little relationship exists between intelligence
and the fantastic. Imagination of the young child" McDowell and Howe (1941),
however, have reported that IQ was positively correlated with the degree
of creative; use of all the play materials. In 1950, Thurstone stated that
there was a positive correlation between intelligence and creativity but creative
talent was not the same as intelligence.
2.11 Intelligence and Creativity

The relationship between creativity and intelligence has been matter of
considerable of the two is done critically, one must reach at the conclusion that
the two are both originating from the same domain and have almost similar
explanation in their theories and hence should have a close relationship. In this
regard many researches had been done on school children and others. Many
research findings and observations have demonstrated that there is no positive
correlation between creativity and intelligence. One is not the essential or
necessary prerequisite of the other. Those found scoring high on intelligence
tests might demonstrate no signs of creativity where as individuals performing
poorly in intelligence tests may sometimes create something very original.
Therefore, no clear relationship has been seen to exist between intelligence and
creativity. There has been debate in the psychological literature about whether
intelligence and creativity are part of the same process (the conjoint hypothesis)
or represent distinct mental processes (the disjoint hypothesis). Evidence from
attempts to look at correlations between intelligence and creativity from the
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1950s onwards, by authors such as Barron, Guilford or Wallach and Kogan,

regularly suggested that correlations between these concepts were low enough
to justify treating them as distinct concepts. Some researchers believe that
creativity is the outcome of the same cognitive processes as intelligence, and is
only judged as creativity in terms of its consequences, i.e. when the outcome of
cognitive processes happens to produce something novel, a view which
Perkins has termed the "nothing special" hypothesis.
Recent Efforts
As the above studies were of the correlational type and were at
best only suggestive. It was
Guilford (1959)
and his associates at the
University of Southern
California who for the first
time gave the empirical
evidence for the existence of a
set of mental abilities in the
'structure of intellect' that
seemed to have promise as direct contribution to creative thinking.
Guilford was able to demonstrate, though the application of factor
analysis technique, the presence of creative thinking abilities as distinct
from intelligent thinking. is he who brought top fore' the existence of two
distinct types of thinking abilities which he designated as convergent
thinking and divergent thinking abilities. The convergent thinking abilities
are those abilities which are mainly responsible for dealing with the given
information in a logical manner in order to arrive at any single answer
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for any problem as found in all intelligence tests. On the contrary, the
divergent thinking abilities are those abilities that enable the individual to
go off in varied directions, generating new information from given
information and arriving at different and usual solutions to problems. The
abilities represented under the category of divergent production are three
different kinds of fluency word, ideational, associational; two kinds of
flexibility spontaneous, and adaptive originality elaboration and
transformation. These distinctions brought to think of convergent thinking
as synonymous to intelligence and is measured by traditional measures of
intelligence and divergent thinking was thought of more close to
creativity and is measured by tests of creativity. There are other abilities
that contribute to creative performance find their place, also in a three-
dimensional figure in which the primary abilities are distinguished in
terms of the kinds of material dealt with, the kinds of operations applied
to the material, and the resulting products. This three dimensional figure
which is known as "the structure of intellect" developed by Guilford
(1959) provides information about mental abilities involved in creative.
2.12 Creativity and the Structure of Intellect

No doubt, psychologists have made mention in some mental
abilities but it is Guilford who considered all the factors' that could be
regarded as belonging to the intellectual domain and proposed a system
of those factors which is termed as 'Structure of intellect' He used the
statistical technique of factor analysis to develop this model and found
that there are 120 abilities or factors of the mind. A factor is found by
correlating varies tests with each other and determining mathematically"
which tests cluster together, along certain dimensions, the dimensions or
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factors having been arrived at by the method of factor analysis. He

hypothesized that the human intellect was composed of a "three
dimensional" system of numerous intellectual abilities classified on the
basis of (1) the material or content processed; (ii) the processes or
operations performed with the material; and (Hi) the forms or products of
the processed information (see Fig. 4.1). The figure represents the three
kinds of factors by means of a cubical model. Theoretically, 120 factors or
abilities can be generated from the model. Since any operation can .be
performed on any content and can result in any product (4 contents x 5
operations and 6 products).
Contents: Content is the raw material to which mental processes applied.
The contents are like codes or languages and the products are like words
in these languages. There are four types of contents-figural, symbolic,
semantic and behavioral. The first three comprised the model of 1957 and
the fourth one was added in the model of 1959.
i. Figural: Figural content is concerts material· directly perceived
through sense organs. It is called figural to indicate that some kind
of structuring occurs or some image is formed; the figural content
contains both auditory and visual abilities which are separate and
distinct. Artists, painters and designers make use of Visual abilities
while as poets and dancers make use of auditory abilities. Visual
objects have properties of shape, size, color, texture, and auditory
elements are in the form of rhythms, melodies and speech sounds.
ii. Symbolic: Symbolic content pertains to letters, numbers or other
conventional forms and their systematic organizations. It includes
signs or labels that usually stand for other things. Things that are
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seen or heard and the things we think about have names and those
names are another kind of information. The symbolic contents are
manipulated in mathematics and in languages as both rests heavily
upon the symbolic abilities.
iii. Semantic: Semantic content appears in the form of verbal meaning
and interpretation. This type of material is called conceptual as it
consists of meanings in verbalized form. Scientists, writers, speakers
and teachers rest heavily upon semantic contents.
iv. Behavioral: Behavioral content is referred to as social intelligence-the
ability to perceive and interpret the thoughts and feelings of others
from their overt behaviour. It is mainly concerned with mental or
behavioral events. This content enables us to know what the person
is feeling, perceiving or is intending to do. This information we get
from his facial expression, his bodily posture and from what he says
and how he says it. Thus, this type of ability helps in
understanding other individuals and coping with them. Behavioral
abilities would serve well those who need to influence or manage
others like teachers, speakers, judges, politicians, probation officers,
police and salesmen.
The content categories, thus, provide a basis for classifying
individuals with respect to their jobs, and for creative production
on the one hand and abilities for dealing with different kinds of
content on the other. For example, high visual figural abilities are
needed by inventors, engineers and architects while as auditory figural
abilities are needed by composers, arrangers and stylistic musical
performers; symbolic information is needed by mathematicians and
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linguists while as semantic information would serve well to the

speakers, teachers, scientists and planners. Lastly, those who deal
with people can't do anything if they are lacking in behaviour
abilities for example, police and judges, parents and teachers,
politicians and statesmen.
Operations: The second major principle is according to the kind of operations
that are performed on the materials on which the operation is performed and
the product is obtained. There are five recognized kinds of operations as
cognition, memory, convergent thinking, divergent thinking and
evaluation. All the five kinds of operations are applied to each of the
four kinds of materials.
i. Cognition: It is the discovery and recognition of information. It is the
basic kind of operation performed with information. Simply it
means knowing, and technically it is a matter of structuring in one
of the languages of information. The factors that are included in
cognition are not only discovery abilities but they also pertain to re-
discovering and recognition of elements and of things derived from
them. We recognize figural objects, symbolic objects and meanings.
ii. Memory: Memory is the retention, recall and reproduction of
information. Memory images are related to some past experience.
When the image of an object comes to our mind and ‘involves a
reference to our past experience, we are said to remember the
object. The experiencing of a perception in the past is only the first
step or stage in the process of remembering. For example, taking
tea with a friend' was not merely experienced but was also ‘kept
or retained somewhere in the brain or mind till it was remembered.
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The fact of remembering also indicates that the impression was not
merely retained but that it was capable of being reproduced or
recalled to mind. Thus, memory is the next operation which is an
important aspect of the intellect as no content without retention can
be used at any later time. This is, in other words, the operation by
which coded information can be put into storage and reproduced
in terms of learned facts, formulae or other signs and symbols at
the time of need.
iii. Divergent Thinking: Divergent thinking is the process of thinking
in different directions, sometimes seeking variety, from: known and
remembered information. It has been described as ability to.
produce a large variety of responses. According to Guilford it is
broad search or scanning of one's memory store.' In brief, it is a
generation of logical alternatives.
iv. Convergent Thinking: Convergent thinking is a process of
producing of correct or conventional answer from known and
remembered information. It has been described 'as an ability to
produce a well-determined answer. Guilford labels it as a focused
search for the given information or problem involves specifications
for one particular answer or solution. In brief, it is a search for logical
imperatives.
v. Evaluation: Evaluation is to determine how good; correct, or
adequate one’s knowledge or thinking at a particular time is. This
ability is concerned with critical thinking. We check the information in
order -to see whether the information is just recognized or is
produced divergently or convergent. In this operation, valuations
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are made with respect to information, conclusions or other

responses derived from given information on. We may question our
cognitions and things we recall as well as our solutions to problems
and we arrive at decisions as to whether they are Correct, suitable
or adequate. Thus, we say that evaluation is the decision making
process relative to the accuracy and appropriateness of the
information that has been cognized. According to Guilford, it is
probably safe to say that all our behaviour is checked and
rechecked. There is comparison of output with input, according to
cybernetic principles; comparison and decision as to suitability,
agreement, logical consistency and other logical criteria and this all
comes under the operation of evaluation.
Products: The third major way of classifying intellectual, abilities is based
on the product involved. We come out with certain kinds of products by
applying certain operations to certain kinds of materials. Products are of
six categories units, classes, relations, systems, transformations, and
implications.
i. Unit: A unit is defined as a unit of thought, such as, figure, a symbolic
structure or a concept. It can be a specific word or image. According to
Gilford, a unit has "thing' "character; The-human body' is comprised of
different parts part is an itself. Thus city the product in the form of an
individual or object, for example one answer in terms of fluency
represents one unit and as many answers are given, is the total of
all units.
ii. Class: Classes are groupings of units of information according to
common characteristics. We find similarities between units as they have
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characteristics in common. A class is comprised of many units and each

unit is comparable to another unit and can be grouped with any
other unit having common characteristics. Example for class may be
cited as 'Parrot is a bird, 'the bird' is a class "which includes not
only parrot brutal so other birds such" as, crow, sparrow, pigeon, etc.
iii. Relation: A relation refers to the relationship between units of
information such as 'bigger than' or, “next to" and so on. It could be a
relation of part to whole, as a finger is related to hand or elbow related
to an arm. It could be a relation of opposition, as in the pairs of
works, large and small. It could be a relation of class to member, in the
pair animal and sheep. The relations are of two types positive and
negative. When two objects or two ideas hail from the same source
it indicates positive relation while as if the sources differ it is termed as
negative relation. Relations can be reproduced in different ways, for
example, relationship between a father and daughter. It could be
said that they are related as parent and child, as being of opposite
sex; or one is older than another; or one is stronger than another or
wiser and so on.
iv. System: A system is defined as a connection between more than
two things based upon their interrelation ships. It could be
compared to units as the latter are based on their' common
attributes. When we compare it with the class, the latter is not
organized with respect to units but in a system, the organization of
units is the main condition. Examples of the systems are organized
sentences, paragraphs, story plots, orders or sequences in time and
in space or scientific theories and so on.
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v. Transformation: Transformation is defined as any change in pre-

existing information. Any change in formation would become a new
item of information such as redefinitions, inversions and re
arrangements. Transformation helps in trying the new solutions instead
of usual and familiar solutions for a given problem.
vi. Implication: Implications refer to inferences drawn from current
knowledge and applied to future actions. It is a broad kind of
connection. When one unit suggests another, leads to another, or
leads us to expect another, there is an implication, for example, the
proposition is, if A, then B, which is logical implication. the other
examples of implications are in the form of predictions and
conclusions we make on the basis of current information (Guilford).
2.13 Relationship between Creativity and Intelligence

The early studies stated above have attempted to trace the
relationship between creativity and intelligence but as being highly
suggestive could not point out the exact nature of relationship between
the two. Neither the factor analysis of Guilford alone would provide
complete solution nor it could be determined by merely combining a few
psychological tests of substantially differentiable psychological factors that
seemed to be relevant on a prior definition of creativity and then showing
that they correlate rather low with tests of intelligence. Many studies in the
latter fifties and early sixties also adopted the same approach in order to
demonstrate the distinction-between creativity and intelligence. However,
Wallach and Kogan (1965) have argued "the warrant for claiming an
empirically separable divergent thinking domain depends- once the matter
of face validity is taken care of upon showing that the divergent thinking
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tasks share a substantial amount of variance with convergent task than

they share with one another;' and that the measures of convergent
thinking share a substantial amount of variance in common as well.
The second, thing connected with the issue of relationship between
creativity and intelligence is whether creativity is same in every field and
whether there is only one type of creativity or many types of creativity
needed in different fields. There is not only one field; there are different
fields, such as, arts, music, sciences, mathematics, Engineering etc.
Naturally, all the fields do not ask for one made that the tests be
prepared in such a manner that they are able to define a dimension
within the intellectual domain which is distinct from, intelligence. It was
necessary that the tests of creativity domain must therefore, correlate,
highly among themselves and should correlate sow with intelligence.
The question here is whether there is an unified dimension of
individual differences that warrants conceptualizing a general cognitive
dimension of creativity that is like the concept of general intelligence but
exists apart from the matter to put this question another way we may ask
whether the two concepts, namely, intelligence and creativity define
dimensions of individual differences that- vary indecently of each other
(Wallach and Kogan,1965). The most widely known research study in this
area is that of Getzels and Jackson (1962). They took the sample of 192
boys and 241 girls ranging in class from 6th grade through the end of high
school. Five creativity measures- word association, uses of things, hidden
shapes, fables, and make-up problems; and a standard10 test were
administered on the sample. The results showed that all the significantly
with IQ in case of girls. Now, the important thing is to consider the
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relationship among the creativity tests-that is, the question of whether they
define a unitary dimension of individual differences. The results showed
that the five creativity tasks are virtually no more strongly correlated
among themselves than they are correlated with intelligence and that this
is also true for both the sexes. The average correlations are.0.26 and 0.27
in the case of boys and girls respectively between creativity measures and
intelligence and 0.28 and 0.32 for both boys and girls respectively among
creativity measures themselves. In sum, the creativity measures correlated with
intelligence on the order of 0.3 and also correlated with each other on the same
very order. Thus, there is no strong evidence that would suggest that the
creativity tests are any more strongly related to one another than they are
related to general intelligence. In other words, it can be said that creativity
as a psychological dimension is distinct from intelligence as the tests of
creativity share the same with one another what they share with intelligence.
The findings reported by Barren (1956); Torrance (1960); Guilford
and Christensen (1956); Fleischer (1963) and Torrance and Gowan (1963)
have also arrived at the same conclusion. Arecent study conducted by cline,
Richards and Needham (1963) on high school students have also shown
the same results. the average correlations found for boys between the
creativity tests and an IQ measure is 0.35 while it is 0.21 among the various
creativity measures. The average correlations found in the case of girls
between the creativity measures and IQ test is 0.33 While it is 0.24 among the
seven creativity measures. Wallach and Kogan have reported that in reviewing
the research in this area, the evidence led to the conclusion that the
various creativity measures used are almost as strongly, equally strongly,
or even more strongly related to general intelligence than they are related
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to each other, Hence, the conceptualization proposed by Getzels and

Jackson that intelligence and creativity are two distinct dimensions within
intellectual domain cannot be madeˆn view of the evidence in hand.
The occurrence of such results are perhaps due to the inadequacy of the
tasks involved in the tests of creativity, i.e. the fault lies in the measurement
approach. Wallach and Kogan argue that a potpourri of abilities was being
assessed in the good name of 'creativity'. They are of the view that
creativity is essentially a thinking process which is distinguishable from
other mental processes and suggest an associational concept of creativity
consisting of two variables, namely, the total number of associations
which a person is capable of making and secondly, the relative uniqueness
of his association process. They take Mednick's (1962) definition of creative
thinking as "the forming of associative elements into new combinations
which either meet specified requirements or are in some way useful."
Wallach and Kogan, thus, devised procedures which emphasized the
person's ability to generate a large number of ideas in response to a given
task, and mainly those ideas that could be considered as unique. They
emphasized two additional features to be included in the tests of creativity,
i.e. freedom from time pressure and a game-like context rather than an
examination or test- setting.
They administered ten creativity measures and ten intelligence measures
on 70 boys and 81 girls. The creativity measures were based on the
associational concept and game - like context. The results showed that the
ten creativity measures proved to be highly inter correlated, the ten
intelligence measures also proved to be highly inter correlated and the
correlation between the certainty measures and the intelligence measures
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proved to be extremely low for the whole sample as whole as well as

separately for boys and girls. The average correlation among the ten
creativity measures is on the order of 0.4; the average correlation among
the ten intelligence measures is On the order of 0.5 while as the average
correlation between creativity and intelligence measures is about 0.1. Thus,
they have been able to demonstrate creativity as a psychological
dimension within the intellectual domain which is distinct from general
intelligence. Wallach (1970) concluded that independence from
conventional intelligence tests is obtained when the creativity test
emphasizes ideational fluency, whereas high correlations with intelligence
tests result when emphasis is on verbal facility or vocabulary size. They
then suggested that this conclusion re-emphasizes the need for creativity
tests to be administered without time limits, since time limits necessarily
limit ideational fluency by cutting off the flow of ideas and hence also
restrict creativity. Wallach and Kogan's emphasis on ideational fluency as
the key element of creativity tests is highly consistent with Guilford’s
original descriptions of the mental abilities involved in divergent thinking.
Cropley and Maslany (1968) extended the Wallach and Kogan findings to
some extent, by showing that a similar pattern of inter- correlations
persisted even when the tests were administered to High School and
University students, both in a group setting and with self-recording of
responses.
Present Position
The results obtained from the above studies support the hypothesis
that the correlations between creativity and intelligence are so low as to
warrant conceptualizing a general cognitive dimension of creativity as
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different from intelligence. Different researchers went on delving deep to

find out further empirical. evidence with respect to the nature of
relationship between creativity and intelligence. Some researchers have-
shown low correlations; some have indicated zero correlation while as some
have shown high correlation between the measures of creativity and
intelligence.
Low Correlation (Non- Significant Relationship)
Beaudot reports low correlation between-creativity and intelligence
while administering a translated version of the Torrance Tests of creative
thinking on 156 boys and girls, of the age group of 11 years in Paris. To
find out the IQ score he administered a test of general intelligence. The
results indicate no significant correlations (0.04) between creativity and
intelligence measures. Nijesse in Holland have also reported somewhat
similar results by correlating creativity measures with intelligence measures.
He used to creativity measures (verbal and figural) or Wallach and Kogan
and one "numerical test of Guilford to measure creativity. Intelligence was
measured by standard intelligence tests. One more thing was added while
administering the creativity measures on the sample of 192 boys and 211
girls, i.e. with time limits and without a time limit. Wallach and Kogan
have used without a time limit). This average correlation between the
creativity measures and measures of intelligence were found ranging from
0.05 to 0.17. the low correlation with intelligence measures makes clear
that some creativity tests measure an ability which is not covered by
intelligence. It is through the factor analysis technique, Nijsse pointed out
that the first factor was clearly interpretable as creativity and the second'
one as intelligence. With regard to the difference between testing, with
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and without a time-limit, it was found that the latter condition, for boys
as well as for girls, led to significantly higher scores than the former
condition. Zetenyi (1977) while giving a brief review of the researches done
in Hungary .on the relationship between intelligence and creativity reports
that the intelligence measured by different tests' and creativity assessed by
the creativity tests invariably show a low; mostly positive and non-
significant correlation with each other in essantially different age groups,
at extremely variant levels of eduction as indicated by the researchers like
Albert; 1971; Barkoczi, 1973, 1976; Barkozi and Pleh, 1912 Barkoczi, Olah,
and Zetenyi, 1973, 1975;Bolla, 1976; Kasa, 1974, Klein, 1970, 1972, 1973,
1974,1975; KIehl and Zetenyi, 1974 in their studies. Reid (1970) in a
significant piece of research undertook a factorial study of creativity of 87
boys and 79 girls at intermediate school. The intelligence tests used
correlated highly among themselves whereas the creativity measures
revealed moderate interelation ships (around 30). Scoring dimension inter-
correlates across tests of creative thinking were extremely low. Thus, the
low inter- correlation between the intelligence and creativity measures
strongly suggested different aspects of cognitive functioning, were being
tapped.
No Correlation (No Relationship)
Some studies have been reported in the literature that show that it
is not simply true that the more intelligent person is necessarily the more
creative one. Mackinnon (1963) after conducting a series of studies on the
relationship between creativity and intelligence reports that with the
exception of mathematicians among whom there is a low positive
correlation between intelligence (ass measured by the Terman Concept
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Mastery Test, 1956) and the level of their creativeness, they have found in
their creative groups studied in their institute essentially no relationship
between - intelligence so measured and creativity". In and study, they
took a sample of forty creative architects, who obtained the mean score
of 113 on the concept Mastery Test with individual scores ranging from 39
to 179 correlate with their creativity (-.08) as -rated by architectural experts. In
another study of 28 professors of' architecture whose Terman scores
ranged from 36 to 170, intelligence so measured correlated (-0.07) with
their judged creativity and in a still later investigation of 21 graduating
seniors in architecture whose Terman scores ranged from 17 to 142, the
correlation of intelligence so measured and judged creative potential for
architecture, though ·positive, was low and not significant (+.14). In the
light of the results, Mackinnon believes that above a certain required
minimum level of measured intelligence which varies from field to field
and in some instances may be surprisingly low, being more intelligent
does not guarantee a corresponding increase in creativeness. The results
from a number of studies (Getzels and Jackson, 1962; Wallach and Kogan,
1965) also indicate that although persons above average in intelligence are
more likely to be creative, it does not mean that average or highly intelligent
persons are necessarily creative. Torrance (1962) states, "if we were to
identify children as gifted simply on the basis of intelligence tests; we would
eliminate from consideration approximately seventy per cent of the most
creative. An interesting piece of research has been conducted ‘by Kogan
and Pankove (1972) in which they studied 16 males and 13 females’
students at 5th grade and 10th grade after five years). In fifth grade,
their creativity and intelligence did not show any correlation but at the
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tenth grade, there were significant positive correlations' between creativity

and intelligence in the case of boys and no relationship between creativity
and intelligence did exist in the case of girls.
Indian Scene
In India; too, various researchers have attempted to seek the
relationship between creativity and intelligence. The results based in their
researchers vary from showing high correlation to no correlation between
the two. Fatima and Mehdi (1971) working with 8th graders on a set of
three non-verbal creativity tasks (which form part of a battery of creativity
tests developed by Mehdi, 1973) found that the correlations between
creativity and intelligence were very low ranging from -179 to .125, the
correlation among the creativity tasks themselves except for the originality
were significant at .05 level. Intwo other studies based on two different
samples (urban and rural), Gupta and Mehdi (1972); and Aziz and Mehdi
(1973) also obtained the similar results. Mehdi (1977) in another study, on
a sample of 1054 boys and 337 girls drawn from the states of Uttar
Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh studying in VII and VIIIgrades found that the
correlation between creativity and intelligence was significant but
considerably low. Gupta (1980) reported that creativity whether verbal to
non-verbal was independent of intelligence. The similar resuet has been
reported by Brar (1987) in seeking the relationship between the measures of
creativity and intelligence. On the other hand, Dharmangadan (1976)
reports positive and significant relationship between intelligence and
creativity. The similar results were obtained by Qureshi (1980) and Dey
(1984) while studying the relationship between the measures of intelligence
and creativity. Muddu (1980) reports negative relationship between
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creativity and intelligence. Trimurthy (1987) reports that the students with
high I.Q. were found more creative than students with low IQ in verbal
creative thinking and in the case of non verbal creative thinking, IQ did
not exert any significant influence. In a recent study Chadha and
Chandha (1990) have indicated positive and significant correlation between
the measures of creativity and intelligence when the effect of scholastic
achievement is partialed out. The nature and extent of relationship between the
creative and intelligence thus suggests two things. First, whether the tasks used
in the tests measure what they are expected to measure. Therefore, much
depends on the type of tests used. Second, the nature of the sample to be
studied determines the size of the relationship between the two.
2.14 Let Us Sum Up

Creativity is universally widespread and each and every child has some
degree of creativity. It is the duty of parents and teachers to provide support
for creative development and help the child to understand the divergent
thought and to communicate his ideas freely. They should provide conducive
experiences and guidance and should recognize the individuals creative talent.
creativity is universally widespread and each and every child has some degree
of creativity. It is the duty of parents and teachers to provide support for
creative development and help the child to understand the divergent thought
and to communicate his ideas freely. They should provide conducive
experiences and guidance and should recognize the individuals creative talent.
Thinking always influenced by creativity and intellectual abilities of a person,
when a student is considered to be creative, he has minimum levels of
intelligence.
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1. Define Intelligence? Discuss in detail the nature and types of
Intelligence?
2. Define I.Q. Give a brief account of Measurement of Intelligence.
3. What do you mean by creativity? Discuss briefly the relationship
between creativity and Intelligence?
4. Explain in detail the theories of Intelligence?

1. Allport, G.W. (1948). Personality: A Psychological Interpretation, Holt &
Co., New York, P. 48.
2. Allport, G.W. (1956). Personality, A Psychological Interpretation, London :
Constable And Co. Ltd., 1956.
3. Chadha, N.K. And Chandna, S. (1990). Creativity Intelligence and
Scholastic Achievement: A Residual Study. Indian Educational Review,
25(3): 81-85.
4. India Pvt, Ltd; New Delhi.
5. Mangal S.K. Advanced Educational Psychology; Prentice Hall of
6. Passi B.K. (1982). Creativity in Education NPC Agra.
7. Torrance , E.P. 1990. Torrance Test of Creative Thinking. Bensenville, Il:
Scholastic Testing Service.
8. Torrance, E.P. 1962. Guiding Creative Talent. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.,
Prentice Hall.
9. Torrance, E.P. 1965. Rewarding Creative Behaviour. Englewood Cliffs, N.J:
Prentice Hall.
10. Bhatia B.D. and Safaya R.N.: Educational Psychology and Guidance,
DhanpatRai&Sons, Delhi
11. Mangal S.K.: Essentials of Educational Psychology, Prentice Hall of India
Private Limited.2007
12. Chauhan S S : Advanced Educational Psychology, Vikas Publishing House
Pvt Limited 2006
13. Agarwalla S: psychological Foundation of Education and Statistics,
Bookland.2008.
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UNIT II
LESSON NO 02: Concept of Creativity
Lesson Structure
2.1 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Creativity-An Introduction
1.3 Nature of Creativity
1.4 Components of Creativity
1.5 Levels of Creativity
1.6 Traits of Creativity
1.7 Theories of Creativity
1.8 Let Us Sum Up
2.1 Introduction
The word “creativity” is used in different ways, in different contexts. It

has an elusive definition. The problems of definition lie in its particular
associations with the arts, in the complex nature of creative activity itself, and
in the variety of theories that have been developed to explain it. Some people
doubt that creativity can be taught at all. They see creativity as a natural
capacity with limited room for improvement through education. Creativity is
obviously to do with producing something original. But there are different
views of what is involved in this process and about how common the capacity
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for creativity is. In this unit, an attempt has been made to sketch the nature and
meaning of creativity. An attempt has also been made to discuss the various
theories of creativity relevant to the modern system of education.
1.1 Objectives
Dear students, after reading this lesson, you should be able to:
• Define Creativity;
• Discuss the nature and meaning of creativity; and
• Explain the various theories of creativity
1.2 Creativity-An Introduction
No nation whether big or small can afford to overlook 'the

importance -of creativity in this, age of, Competition. Who survives this
competition largely depends upon its creative minds? The creative acts affect
enormously not only scientific and technological progress, but society in
general. The nations who learn best how to identify, encourage, and
develop the creative potential in their people may find themselves in very
advantageous position. On the contrary, the nations that are still
underdeveloped are rather differently motivated towards the identification
and development of this rare talent.
Although creativity has been a topic of some interest throughout
man's history; but it is only very-recently when, Efforts were-made to
study it scientifically. Prior to 1950, there were only trickle to research
articles on creativity. The Russian threat in technological advancement was
probably the have included. Using factor analysis, he has isolated 120
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separate, measurable abilities. Present intelligence tests hardly measure six

to eight of these abilities. By 1977 Guilford was able to operationally. Specify
100 of the total 120 abilities. Guilford first of all focused on adults in
military establishments and concluded that concern for creativity is a basic
concern in the national interest that needs to be and can be productively
pursued. Having opened the field to the adults, he also opened it for the
children and youth. His concepts and tests were used be educators and
others in school situations and devised further tests on creativity.
What Guilford showed to be intellectually wrong in conceiving of
intelligence in narrow terms; Getzels and Jackson (1962) showed it to be also
educationally wrong? Benefiting for Guilford’s break-through and devising
tests for creativity, relationship between intelligence and creativity and
revealed that it was not possible to trace the able students if alone traditional
measures of intelligence would have been used, and again, the cream of the
students would have also been missed. They concluded that it is not only
the intelligence tests that are biased against the highly creative children, but
also the teachers. Guilford, Getzels and Jackson have undoubtedly opened
the new era but it remained to Torrance to unravel unfailingly the
positive domain in educational practice.
Torrance (1965) develop tests of creativity that are extensively used
by teachers for several levels of education in classroom setting to cultivate
creativity in children through their daily teaching practices. He also developed
programmes for teachers training. In regard to intelligence and creativity he
has demonstrated that we will miss about seventy percent creative children
when we depend solely on traditional tests of intelligence to measure ability.
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He, too, finds some correlation between creativity and intelligence up to ' 120
IQ beyond that both are independent in their future direction.
Most psychological researchers generally agree that all persons have
some creative potential, though there are wide individual differences in
degrees. Low enfold (1959) distinguished between actual creativity and
potential creativity, the former being that potential which is already
developed and functioning, the latter including the total creative potential
(both developed and undeveloped) within an individual.
Taylor (1962) points out that many lay persons have a quite
different notion from that held by psychologists when they think of
creativity in the arts. They believe that most people have zero potential to
be creative, whereas a few persons have creative talent in varying
degrees. The psychologists, on the other hand, are .of the opinion that all
persons have some degree of potential to be creative is not limited
essentially to certain fields of the arts and sciences rather it should be
expected generally in human activities.
Researchers also agree that creativity occurs at all ages, some
aspects of all fields of human work and endeavor though there are
marked differences in the. Frequency, level, and' type of creativity across
these categories. Again, despite the notion that some fields of endeavor.
Require more creativity, they may not necessarily do so times; Creative
‘bursts on the other hand. May fields riot often thought of as creative.
People now begin to realize that creativity is in each one of us
which could no longer be: left .to the chance occurrences of the genius;
neither could it be left .in the realm of the wholly mysterious and the
untouchable. Men had to be able to do something about it creativity had
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to be a property in many men it had to be something identifiable, it had

to be subject to the effects of efforts to gain more of it (Razik,1967). Two things
can be said with confidence; first, psychologists are convinced that all
people are, to some degree, potentially creative despite their age level,
cultures and fields of human endeavor. Second, individuals, vary in their
degree of creative potential for various fields of activity and in the modes
of expression of their creativeness.
Various factors have been identified that go with creative
performance. Among them certain persons and situational attributes have been
found to be more promising predictors of creative performance than
others. For instance, certain intellectual characteristics, such as, originally,
redefinition, flexibility, fluency , elaboration, and evaluation have come out
as valid measures of creative performance. In broader terms, a few
components of memory, cognition, and evaluation, convergent production
and divergent production are involved in creative work. Divergent
production seems to be the most important for the production of ideas in
both quantities as well as in quality as it involves originality, flexibility,
sensitivity and ability to. Redefine the factor that these intellectual aspects
of creativity' are relatively distinct components indicates the probability of
multiple types of creative talent. There is probability also that some of these
intellectual components underlie some of the motivational forces in creative
person such as drive, dedication to work, resourcefulness, striving for
general principles, desire to bring order out of disorder and desire for
discovery.
The intellectual and motivational factors are linked significantly to
certain personality characteristics. Several personality traits have been
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found to be valid indicators of creative potential among, them self

sufficiency, independence, openness, stability, tolerance to ambiguity
femininity in interests, and self-confidence rate first. Creative people
indifferent fields may have different personal characteristics. The personal
characteristics possessed by artists may not be the same as scientists do have.
However, researchers generally agree that the creative individual tends to
produce adaptive responses that are original in nature. About their
adjustment it is said that, whereas the typical person focuses on adjusting to
his environment, the creative individual' tries to adjust the environment to
him, to improve it in ways that he feels are urgently needed.
Environmental influences also affect the creative potential. These can
either enhance or hinder development of those attributes which seems to
be predictors of creative performance. These influences include factors
involved. in educational settings, working conditions and climate and
training programmes. Home environments also may be regarded as
external influences modifying creative attributes either in positive or
negative directions.
Researchers are generally agreed that education can do a great deal in
promoting creative performance through environment manipulation. For
Lasswell (1950), the environment serves as facilitator and as restructure
both in the innovation process and in the process of discovery and
'recognition of the innovation. Anderson (1961) has used the concepts of'
"Open” and “Closed System” in discussing the facilitators and inhibitors of,
creative development in education. The open system permits originality,
experimentation initiative and invention. The closed system on the
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contrary, is concerned mainly with the acquisition of knowledge,

memorization of facts, and finding already known answers to problems.
Sinnott (1959) discussed genetic variation and also creativity as
response to environment. For him the changes of the mind are not
dependent on genetic change rather are they the result of the enormously
varied responses of given genetic constitution to environmental differences
and much of the variety of all organic life is due to environmental
variety.
The environmental factors which are related to creativity are
thought and action and provide for discovery of new ideas. Mead (1959)
discussed creativity in cross- cultural perspective. She has given an
elaborate analysis of the relationship between the forms provided by a
culture and the creativity of the individuals within the culture. Torrance
(1962a) in his cross-cultural studies has shown that several cultures and
sub-cultures impede the growth of creativity through subtle, consistent
pressure for conformity. He has, further indicated that children experience
great difficulty in maintaining creativity due to discontinuities. These
discontinuities seem to be culture- made rather genetic.
Torrance(1961) argues that "perhaps the most promising area in
unfolding creativity is that of experimentation with teaching procedures
which will stimulate students to think independently, to test their ideas,
and to communicate them to other. Parnes (s1963) has pointed out that
there is no research yet reported that is inconsistent with this view that creative
productivity tan be developed through deliberate procedures. The
committee set up for the first time in 1959 to report on the role of
educational experience in the development of creative scientific talent
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reported that at least six research projects had indicated that creative
productivity can be developed by deliberate procedures (Taylor 1959).
Parnes concludes that there is firm basis for the conviction expressed by
Guilford (1952) "Like most behaviour creative activity probably represents
to some extent many learned skill”. In the same vein, Maltzman and his
associates (1959) at the University of California concluded a group of
research studies on originality training and asserted that the results
support the hypothesis that, “Originality is a learned form of behaviour
which does not differ in principle from other forms of operant behaviour".
Since research has demonstrated that a considerable part of creative
behaviour is learned, courses in creative problem solving have been
multiplying. The courses have also been used in special programmes of
groups of students in engineering, law, medicine, education, business,
physics and psychology. Parnes (1959) points out that the students who
took the course registered substantial gains on the tests measuring various
factors included-in creativity.
Various techniques of creative problems solving are used to develop
the creative efficiency. These techniques facilitate solutions that are
creative, i.e. solution characterized by freshness, appropriateness,
imagination, new relationships between even common place facts, or ideas,
and significant. Transformations of the initial definitions of the problems.
Two methods which seem to differ from the usual problem solving
approaches but which apparently do not attempt to alter emotional
dispositions are "attribute listing" and "Morphological Malysis". Attribute
listing is used for 1 Improving product design. Here, creation is not just
mechanically combining different ideas rather it is useful modification of
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an attribute, or assimilation of attributes of other' objects. Morphological

analysis involves combining the major attributes of the major variables of
a problem into the grid so that all possible combinations can be
considered. This method facilitates the imagination by enabling the
individual to focus on one aspect of the, situation at a time.
Brainstorming (Osbron,1957) and Synaptic (Gordon, 1961) are other
approaches of creative problems solving which contain within their
methodology the objective of freeing a person from the usual inhibitions
that operate to block his creative process. The primary aim of the
brainstorming approach is to encourage the individuals to drop their
defensiveness, not to use critical judgment prematurely, and instead of
competing for power and status, they compete for excellence and
creativeness of their ideas. The members of the group are asked to
express their ideas readily, spontaneously and uncritically until a good
quantity of ideas is available to be judged. The advocates of synectics
approach believe that people who understand what psychological
processes are required can markedly- increase their own creative efficiency. In
the creative process, the emotional aspects of the task are seen as more
important that the rational aspects. Four psychological states that
characterize the creative process are detachment involvement, deferment,
speculation and autonomy of the object. It is not mere involvement or
speculating of detaching which helps in increasing creative efficiency,
operational mechanisms also are used to help produce each of these
mental states. Since making the familiar strange and the strange familiar
are the goals of synectics approach, four mechanisms such as, personal
analogy, direct analogy, symbolic analogy, and fantasy analogy are used.
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This method provides specific techniques for using the vast storehouse or
man's vivid associations.
Inquiry training was developed by Richard Suchman (1962) to teach
students a process for investigating and explaining unusual phenomena.
The main aim of this approach is to develop scientific process skills in the
students. Since the model is built on the assumption that all knowledge
is tentative, is thought to be very useful in training students build new
theories and answers to various problems.
Creative thinking, as such, a way of problem solving suggests that
every child can be trained to use his mind creatively. There is ample research
evidence to show that men fundamentally prefer to learn in creative ways,
through creative problem solving activities (Torrance, 1970). Creative teaching
and learning open up new exciting vistas both for the teacher and the child.
Creative teaching and learning however, is fostered under certain
conditions. Rogers (1954) has termed these conditions as "psychological
safety" and "Freedom". Psychological safety is achieved when the individual
child is accepted as of evaluation is absent and is understood empathetic
ally. The psychological freedom provides the individual child is
permissive climate in which he is completely free to think, tofeel, to be
whatever is most inward within himself.
Progress is fostering the, creativity of our children will be obtained
most effectively if we understand that we must simultaneously progress in the
preparation of the individual; from both an 'intellectual and an emotional point
of view, and 'in the, provision of a stimulating climate.
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1.3 The Nature of Creativity

Creativity is regarded the greatest asset of mankind. It is an ability
that is most vital for shaping the future of man. The interest in creativity
and in its research is traced as from the second half of the present
century when Americans realized that Russians were overtaking them in
many areas especially in space research. The credit for opening the present
era of research in creativity goes to Guilford presidential address to the
American Psychological Association pointed out the need for starting
systematic and well planned studies on creativity especially with regard to
the identification and development of creativity.
Creativity has been approached differently by different thinkers;
philosophically, creative thinking is not a peculiar type of thinking that has
different non-publicly observable features from other types of thinking.
For a philosopher a creative thinker is one whose thinking leads to a
result which conforms to criteria of value ill one domain or another.
While discussing creativity, Plate made a distinction between artificial art and
true art. He said, artists, for him are those who bring into birth some new
reality. They are creative as they enlarge human Consciousness,
scientifically; Creativeness involves an imaginative leap to a new
perspective. The scientist searches for a hypothesis which is likely to fit
the facts he is concerned with. Poincare has expressed creativity as the
capacity to be surprised, as many scientific discoveries are made just in this
way. The scientist observes a phenomenon which many others before him
have been without getting puzzled. A scientist has the capacity to be
surprised, anything obvious for others becomes a problem for him, his
mind starts working on it and it becomes the beginning of his discovery.
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What makes him a creative scientist is only partially his ability to solve
the problem and the ability to getting puzzled is largely responsible for
making him different from the average scientist. Social Scientist
approaches creativity with respect to interpersonal relationship. For him,
creativity is a social invention whose product is not an object but persons’
creativity in human relationships. Such a person is regarded creative who is
intelligent and possesses sharp perceptions, subtle sensitivities, respect or
the individual person, boldness to explain one’s point of view and to stand
for one's convictions.
Psychologists and psychoanalysts have also approached the
creativity but they too differ in their views. Some have equated it with
mental health; some have related it to. the personality development while
others have restricted it to all interplay of unconscious and conscious.
Sinnot (1959) equates creativity with life itself by virtue of its organizing,
pattern forming and questing quality. It is only with, the, imagination
which is a quality of mind, makes possible the creativeness in a man.
Murray (1948) defines creativity in terms of the product. For him,
creation will refer to the occurrence of a composition which is both new
and valuable. New means that the entity is marked by more than a certain
degree of novelty or originality! Relative to sameness or replication, and
valuable, means either extrinsically or intrinsically valuable as such to one
or more persons or generative of valuable composition in the future.
Guilford (1960) also lays emphasis on the divergent production however,
he has conceptualized creativity achievement. In view of his factor analytic
studies he has clearly shown the presence of divergent production in
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creative thinking which he defines as the generation of information from

given information where the emphasis is on variety of output.
Rogers (1957) sees creativity essentially as a process. Creative process,
he defines, that is the emergence in action of a novel relational product,
growing out of the uniqueness of the individual on the one hand, and the
materials, events, people or circumstances of his life on the other.
Uniqueness of the individual, he refers to man's tendency to actualize
himself, to become his potentialities. The novelty of the product is judged
by the fact that the more original the product, the more far-reaching its
implications, the more likely it is to be judged by contemporaries as evil.
Rollo May (1959) considers creativity as process of bringing something new
into birth. He says that we cannot speak of a creative person we can only
speak of creative act. For what is occurring is always, a process, a doing;
specifically a process interrelating the person and his world; therefore,
creativity is the encounter of the intensively conscious human being with
the world.
Erich From (1959) looks at creativity from another point of view. He
defines creativity as an ability to see (or to be aware) and to respond.'
For him, most people are not aware of and do not respond to anything.
To see the other person creatively means to see him objectively that is,
without projections or distortions. It means to wake up fully to the
awareness of reality, inside and outside of oneself. One can experience
creativity only when he has reached a degree of inner maturity which
reduces projection and distortion. For Maslow creativity is a maximum of
self-actualizing, He says that creativeness is not the sole prerogative of
certain professionals like theorists, artists, scientists, inventors, writers or it
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cannot be confined to certain conventional areas rather it is the universal

heritage of every human-being that is born and which co-varies with,
psychological health. Maslow (1962) distinguished special talent,
creativeness, and self-actualizing creativeness. The former is the result of
his ability in special fields while as the latter takes birth by the fusion of
primary and secondary processes. Self-actualizing creativeness stresses the
personality rather than its achievements, considering these achievements to
be epiphenomena emitted by the personality and, therefore, secondary to
it. According to him, selfactualizing creativeness is emitted like radio-
activity like a cheerful person who emits cheerfulness without purpose,
design or even consciousness.
Stoddard(1956),stresses on the act. For him to be creative, is to be
unpredictable, it is to be decidedly suspect in the world of affairs. He says
that the creative act at its highest brings about notable differences in things,
thoughts, works of art, and social structures.
Anderson (1959)approaches creativity in a quite different way. In his'
view creativity is not all that can be judged by. The object produced i.e.
that can be seen studied or enjoyed. For him; there is another kind of
creativity to which he' refers as psychological or social invention whose
product. Is not an object as such; this kind or creativity' is not with
objects but rather with the persons and their social relationships.
Therefore, creativity is an optimum growth in social relationships.
Therefore, creativity is an optimum growth in social interaction that
cannot be forced or co-erced, it can only be facilitated 61' restricted in
each and every individual as it is found in every living cell.
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Torrance (1962) defines creativity as the process of seeing problems,

or gaps in information, forming ideas or hypotheses, testing and
modifying these hypotheses and communicating the result. Barpett (1958)
used the term adventurous thinking which he defined as "getting away
from the main track, breaking out of the mould, being open to experience
and permitting one thing to lead to another."
1.4 Components of Creativity

As is clear from the above definitions that some authors have
approached creativity in terms of a product; others in terms of a process,
or a kind of a person and still ‘others have 'defined it in terms of
personality development, at least five components of creativity have been
pointed out: (i) the act; (ii) the process; (iii) the object; (iv) the person; and
(v) the environments.
1. The Acts: It is very difficult to describe accurately the creative act.
It is indescribable because of its very nature. The creative act is
hypothesized as unknowable unit occurs. Generally we assume that
creative act occurs when the organism is open to experience inwardly
and outwardly and when it is ready to tryout all sorts of
relationships in a flexible way.
The organism; thus, out of this multitude of half- formed
possibilities selects either the one which most effectively meet an
inner need or that One which forms a more effective relationship
with the environment. Rogers (1954) emphasizes certain qualities
that are associated with a creative act. In almost all the products of
creation we note selectivity, or emphasis, an evidence of discipline, an
attempt to bring out the essence. The artist paints surfaces or textures
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in simplified form, ignoring the minute variations which exist in

reality. The scientist formulates a basic law of relationships brushing
beside all the particular event or circumstances which might conceal
its naked beauty. The writer selects those words and phrases
which give unity to his expression. We may say that this is the
influence of the specific person of the “I”. Reality exists in a multitude
of confusing facts but it is "I" who give a structure to the
relationships to reality. All have their own way of perceiving
reality but it is this disciplined personal selectivity which gives
products their creativeness.
To be creative, the individual must undergo certain unique
experiences the first experience the individual is experiencing is
Eureka feeling this. Is it I have discovered! And this is what i
wanted to express! Another experience which an individual meets is
the anxiety of separateness. It is believed that many creative
products have been formed with the feeling of loneliness that 'I am
alone'. They feel that perhaps no one has ever done this job before. The
next experience which usually goes with creativity is the desire to
communicate. Itis doubtful whether a human being can create,
without wishing to share his creation. Itis the only way he cab.
Assuage the anxiety of separateness and assure himself that he
belongs to the group" But he does not create in order to
communicate, but once having created he desires to share this, new
aspect of himself. In relation to his environment with others.
Hallman (1963) says that the creative act is a whole act, and
unitary instance of behaviour which terminates in the production
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of distinctive forms of living. The creative act evolves out of certain

mental processes and it co-varies with specific personality
transformation. Brunet (1962) says that to be called creative, the act
must grow out of a combinatorial activity-placing of things in new
perspectives.
2. The Process: The second component of creativity is the process. It is
the emergency in action of a novel relational product, resulting out
of the uniqueness of the individual on the one hand and the
material, events, people or circumstances of his life on the other.
The creative process generally comes out with product which is
novel. It grows out with the unique attempts of the individual.
Sometime he combines or rearranges old things in a manner that
they are unique and gives birth to a novel object or something
produced is felt new that has not experienced by the people. The
product is characterized novel because of the circumstances and the
people who are to use it or enjoy it.
The product does not happen all at once rather it takes the
creator a lot time to produce. The creator usually experiences of
passing through many stages and phases, of putting in many attempts
and trials on making it. For example, any book first of all takes
the shapes of a manuscript which needs revision many times at the
hands of the creator in order to reach the final shape of the book.
Similar process goes on in making out any painting or any creative
product.
Process is often obscure, unknown, unperceived and
universalized even by the person himself. It has been observed that
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even the creator does not feel any presence of the process. Though he
does not perceive it but still than something going on. The process
cannot be evaluated or measured; therefore, the creator does not
perceive it. We go on playing with different fantasies or dreams.
Unless something tangible comes, but of it which we can see,
experience or enjoy we cannot talk about any on-going process.
Though fantasies may be extremely novel, they cannot usefully be
termed as creative unless they eventuate in some observable
product. Unless they are symbolized in words, written in a poem or
translated into a work or art or some invention they cannot be taken
as products. Every produced object is the result of a phased
process but in regard to creativity it goes on in the unique manner.
The characteristics of a creative process given by Rollo May are
explained briefly as under. The Encounter Every creative act is
associated with an encounter. All persons who are creative,
experience first of all, an encounter. 'Take the example of an artist;
he encounters the, landscape he intends to paint. What he does
first? He first of all, looks at it observes it from this angle and that
angle. He gets absorbed in it and then starts working on it.
'Similarly writers encounter with the ideas and begin to, 'draw an
outline.
'Scientists also make an encounter they confront their
experiments laboratory and the apparatuses. It is not only the
encounter which makes possible the' creation of hovels rather it
should accompany engagement. By engagement we simply mean
the absorption ill it there are two types creative person
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pseudo/Escapist’ creative, and genuine, creative. What makes them

different? It is only the encounter which makes one to be an
escapist and other the genuine one. One lacks encounter and the
other are fully absorbed in it. The escapist creative lacks
engagement while as the' genuine creative races challenge or
encounter.
3. The Encounter: Genuine creativity is characterized by an intensity
of awareness a heightened consciousness as to what extent one is
caught up or involved in the act. It does not mean partial
involvement but the whole involvement of the creator in the act.
This intensity of awareness is not necessarily connected with
conscious purpose. It may occur in reveries, in dreams or on
unconscious levels. The unconscious insights or the answers
Problems that come in reveries or dreams do not come in the areas in
which one is not interested. They come only in those areas to
which the person is intensively committed in his conscious living
and for which he has worked very hard and with dedication
consciously.
This point to the fact that both unconscious as well as
conscious levels are involved in the creative act. The unconscious as
has been said supplies the surge and the power, the imagery and
the concreteness the ambiguity and conflict while as the rational
(conscious) level provides the elaboration, the testing, the gestalts,
the socially derived approvals.
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Various writers have analyzed the stages through which the

creative thinker moves in arriving at a creative production. Graham Wallas
in 1926 identified four distinct stages to describe the creative process.
1. Preparation: It is referred to as the period of accumulating
necessary factual knowledge, skills or basic ideas. This stage is
subject to the conscious control on the part of the creator. During
this period, one becomes conscious of the problems and collects the
necessary material and information. There is, however, no guarantee
that adequate preparation will lead in generating of creative ideas but
one thing is sure that a person without this preparation will not have
such ideas.
2. Incubation: It refers to the period of time following preparation in
which false leads, incorrect solutions may be forgotten. Itis, in other
words, the period of relaxation - turning attention away from the
problem. During this period some kind of unconscious activity is
going on although he may seek relaxation from conscious effort.
3. Illumination: It is descriptive term for the flash of insight when the
new combination of ideas occurs and is recognized as what was
being sought. It is marked with the sudden realization of a solution
to a problem. During this period, the meaningful materials come to
forefront and include the psychological events' and accompany the
appearance of flash of insight
4. Verification: The period during which the solution is tested and
refined is called verification. It also includes evaluation and revision
which are conscious elaboration's of the crucial insight after it has,
occurred. It involves the testing of the new insight against some
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evidence to see whether it holds up as in the Case of a scientific

innovation. Thus, this is the period in which the produced object gets the
final form after testing the validity of the concepts.
Rossman (1931) has given seven stages of the creative process they are:
(i) observation of aneed 01' a difficulty, (ii) Analysis of the need, (iii)
Making a survey of all the available information (iv) Formulating all the
objective solutions, (v) Making a critical analysis of those solutions (vi)
Birth of a new idea-an invention and (vii) Experimentation to test the most
promising solution.
Obsborn (1953) has also given seven stages of a creative process
leading to a creative product. They are:
i. Orientation -- Getting awareness of the existence of the problem.
ii. Preparation – Gathering relevant and pertinent data.
iii. Analysis -- Breaking down the relevant material into parts.
iv. Ideation -- Collection divergent ideas as alternatives.
v. Incubation -- Modification or change of information unconsciously.
vi. Synthesis -- Putting up the pieces of information together to prepare
a whole.
vii. Evaluation -- Judging the result.
However, in 1974, Stein has pointed out that the creative process
passes only. through four stages: (i) Preparation, (ii) Hypothesis formation,
(iii) Hypothesis testing, and (iv) Stage of communicating the results to
eventuate into a product. Whatever the stages, one thing is largely agreed
that every product is the outcome of various stages through which it has
to pass in order to eventuate into the observable object.
The Object
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The third component of creativity is the object which is generally

referred to as the product. A product maybe a physical object just like an article
or it may be theoretical system of the design of mechanical linkage which
is independent of its representation in a particular physical diagram. The
product may be an equation or something else but its importance \largely is
in reference to the input costs that are to be taken into account while
judging the Object produced. When we are describing a creative person,
may he be an artist or a scientist or any other, we ask how much he' has
contributed and what quality of material he has produced. Here we are
not asking simply of the quantity but quality is emphasized. This quality
is referred to as the originality related to the object produced. Originality
generally is associated with four main characteristics novelty,
unpredictability, uniqueness and surprise.
1. Novelty: Novelty means “newness”, "freshness", "inventiveness".
Guilford (1950) used the terms such as "cleverness" "remote
associations" and "uncommonness of responses" to denote originality
in his factor-analytic approach. Morris Cohen has said that the
most original ideas' are nonsense because all sensible ideas have
some non original connection with previously existing facts or
relationships
2. Unpredictability: Unpredictability refers to the quality which
perhaps has never existed in the world before and which cannot be
predicted on the basis of prior configuration of events. Thus,
unpredictability, refers to the in computability of creativity and
theory of causality which asserts that the creative product has no
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causal connection or is not causally related to any' object in the world

and does not depend on the existence of other objects.
3. Uniqueness: Uniqueness asserts that the products which are original
have no precedent. In other words, we can say that the creative product
differs from other products.
4. Surprise: Surprise refers to the psychological effects novel
combinations upon the beholders. Bruner (1962) meant by surprise as an
ordering of elements in such a way so as to. Find a new relationship in
them that was not obvious before or grouping them in such a way
that did not exist before it. For him, surprise need not to be rare or
bizarre but it should accompany the quality of obviousness when it
occurs, it produces a shock of recognition. Surprise leaves psychological
effects not only upon the beholder but the creator also get
psychologically affected - he is marked by states of exhilaration or thrill.
The Person
The fourth component of creativity’ is the person. ‘The person is
explained in terms of the condition of self-actualization with reference to the
theory of personality of Maslow. The basic idea on which Maslow
developed his theory is the hierarchy of need. At the lowest level are the
Physiological needs. A number of people function only at the level; at the
highest level are the self-actualizers who have growth motive in them. they rise
above the general run of the people who an integrated and whole personality,
ultimately realize the purpose of life. During this process; the person
experiences varied experiences and finds him in the 'peak experience' the
essential aspect of which is integration within the person and also
between the person and the world. In these states of being, the person
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become unified; for the time being, the splits, polarities, and dissociation
within him tend to be resolved; the civil war within is neither won nor lost
but transcended. In such a state, the person becomes for more open to
experience and for more spontaneous and fully functioning, essential
characteristics of self-actualizing reactiveness (Maslow, 1959). From this point
of view creativity involves a fundamental change in personality structure
which occurs during the course of its fulfillment. Rogers (1954) points out
that the mainspring of creativity is the man's tendency to actualize himself,
to become his potentialities. For him a creative person is a fully functioning
person whose unique capacity of awareness is functioning freely’ and fully.
When man is less than fully man when he denies to awareness various aspects
of his experience-then indeed there is reason to fear him and his
behaviour. But when he is most fully marl, when he is his complete organism,
when awareness of, experience, is most fully operating Then he is to be
trusted, then his behaviour" is Constructive. 1t is not always conventional. It
will, not always be conforming. It will be individualized' but it, will also be
socialized (Rogers, 1953b).
Anderson (1954) points out that psychologically the human infant has
a built-in programme for self-differentiation, or being himself, for self-
actualizing. He does not have similar built-in system for achieving harmony
with others. though he may have an inborn need for social integration,
he can achieve it only through social interacting and social, learning. For
him creativity as personality development is not only a product of openness
in human relating it is a further opening to higher levels of harmony in the
universe While discussing the criterion of-self-actualization, Hallman (1959)
identifies creativity with self-formation, and suggests that unless significant
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transformation occurs in personality during an activity that activity will

fall short of the creative. He points out this criterion asserts a connection
between motivation and creativity, for the self- actualizing person is
characterized by an unusually strong motivational drive. He does not get
easily frightened by the Unknown, the mysterious the puzzling, and often is
attracted by it.
The Environment
The fifth component of creativity is the environment. Hallman (1963)
discussed environment as the condition of openness which refers to the
inner, the outer, the personal, and the social characteristics of the
environment which facilitate the creative person to move from the actual
state of affairs towards solution of the problem. According' to Lasswell
(1950), the environment serves as a facilitator or as restrictor both in the
innovation process itself and in the process of discovery and recognition
of the innovation.
Mead (1956) discussed creativity in cross cultural perspective. She
analyzed the relationships between the forms provided by a culture and
the creativity of the individual within the culture. While discussing the
environment and creativity, Rogers (1957) has beautifully remarked that
the tendency "to actualize himself' exists in every individual and awaits
only the proper conditions to be released and express. He stresses the
following conditions in the individual are closely associated with a creative
act:
i. Openness to experience. If a person who is open to experience, each
stimulus is freely relayed through the nervous system; with being
distorted by any process of defensiveness. Openness to experience also
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refers to the tolerance for ambiguity, ability to receive such conflicting

information without forcing closure upon the situation. The more
the sensitive awareness the individual has available to himself
during the various phases of his experience, the surer it will be that his
product will be creative;
ii. the second condition associated with the creative act is the source of
judgment for evaluating the product be internal. It is the creator who
establishes the value of his produced object and not the beholder
who may simply shower praises or criticizes it. If the person feels that
whatever he produced satisfied-him, theft he has-produced-
something creative. Besides the internal conditions there are some
external conditions that help in fostering creativity. Among them
“psychological safety" and "psychological freedom" are of
paramount importance.
Dow also stresses that the self-actualization is the first and foremost
characteristic of a creative person. He has made it clear that there are some
outside influences or forces that prevent creativeness or prevent anyone from
becoming a complete personality. The most deadening force is the
conformity that hampers creativity among Individuals. Many other authors
also hold consensus that the environment serves as a facilitator or as a
restructure of individual creativity. Eyeing (1959) enumerated
environmental facilitators of creativity in chemistry laborites, Hilgard
(1954) discussed some programmes that can be of great help to students
at college level to foster creativity in them.
1.5 Level of Creativity
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Some researchers have thought it necessary to consider levels of creativity

in understanding the concept of creativity. Taylor (1959) differentiates
between the various levels at which the individual maybe creative. He
suggested the following five levels:
1 Expressive Creativity: This is the first level of creativity. It involves
independent expressions where skills, quality and originality with
respect to the object produced are not very important. The expressive
creativity is mostly exemplified in the spontaneous drawings of
children
2 Productive Creativity: This level of creativity calls for some
production but the object produced need not to be distinguishable
from the products of others. It was mostly involved in artistic or
scientific products where there are restrictions and controlled free
play.
3 Inventive Creativity: At this level of creativity, ingenuity is displayed
with materials, methods and, techniques. The inventors, explorers
and discovers who employ new uses of old parts or seek new ways
of old things are the examples of using inventive creativity in their
production.
4 Emergent Creativity: It is believed to be the highest level of
creativity . It requires ability to absorb commonly provided
experiences and produces something unique the produced object
may be either an entirely new principle assumption around which
new schools or movements can flourish. Taylor pointed out that
many people have the fifth level in mind when they talk about
creativity because this level is very rare while as the other lower
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levels usually have been involved in most investigations regarding

creative behaviour.
1.6 Traits of Creativity
Researchers generally agree that the discussion on the nature of

creativity is incomplete if the knowledge of traits that go along with
creative potential is not understood. Researchers have shown that it is the
combination of intellectual factors and personality traits which distinguish
the creative person from others.' It is Guilford and his associates who
first of all started scientific investigation of the traits that make up what
we now term creativity. It is he who made the distinction between two
types of thinking abilities one leading to intelligence is termed as
convergent thinking and another leads to creativity is called as divergent
thinking.
Convergent Thinking:
Guilford defines convergent thinking as “it involves thinking as “ it
involves thinking our right answer to to-1ow-arcts 'irrelatively uniquely
determined answer”. This type of thinking proceeds towards a restricted
answer or solution. For example, if anybody is asked to give the opposite
of low, he would probably respond with 'high', thus, in this ability, the
solution is determined by the given information, or where the information
leads to one right answer or to recognize best conventional answer. This
thinking ability mainly represents the analysis and integration of given or
remembered information.
Divergent Thinking
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Guilford defines divergent thinking as "a kind of mental operation

in which we think in different direction, something seeking variety from
known and remembered information". It is a type of thinking in which
considerable searching about it done and a number of answers will do.
Unlike convergent production where the information leads to one right
answer or to a recognized best conventional answer, divergent production
leads to novel responses to stimulus object.
The unique feature of this type of thinking is that a variety of
responses is produced.
Guilford relates divergent thinking to certain well known traits
which seem to go with creativity. He defines trait as any distinguishable,
relatively enduring way in which one individual differs from another. He
has made a mention of two types of traits aptitude traits and non-aptitude
traits.
Aptitude Traits
These are primary traits related to creativity. These traits are found
by factor analysis. It is believed that the following traits are related to the
aptitude for creative thinking.
(i) Sensitivity of Problem
It is an ability which is reflected in a. person's detecting something
which is missing or lacking in a given situation or needs some
improvement. This trait is best indicated by tests asking examinees to state
defects or deficiencies in common implements or in social institutions or to
state problems created by Common objects or actions. It is this
Observation of imperfections which give a start to a creative person towards
a creative production.
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(ii) Fluency of Thinking

This is considered as a quantitative aspect of creativity, i.e. coming
up with a large quantity of ideas, words and ways of expressing them.
There are four factors associated with fluency of thinking such as, word
fluency; associational fluency; expressional fluency and ideational fluency.
a) Word Fluency
This is an ability to generate words containing a specified letter or
combination of words. It involves a requirement of words only and is best
called a test of vocabulary.
b) Associational Fluency
This ability involves a requirement of meaning for the wards given
and not only the generation of words within a, fixed time limit. This ability
asks for generation associations or relations, production of analogies, or
similarities.
c) Expressional Fluency
This ability involves the production of phrases or sentences. This
ability is needed in both the writing and in oral speech. It is believed that
any piece of writing is judged best by the arrangement of words in sentence
structure and the way one expresses himself indicates the extent of creativity in
him.
d) Ideational Fluency
This trait is of wider usefulness as it involves production of ideas. This
is the ability to generate ideas to fulfill certain requirements within a
limited time. This ability calls for quantity, i.e., here quality is not
evaluated and is only the quantity which is important consideration.
(iii) Flexibility of Thinking
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Flexibility is referred to as thinking up a variety of ideas and new

ways of dealing with situations. It indicates how an individual can respond
in different distinct ways to a stimulus. It can best be termed as a measure
of variety. It differs from fluency in the way as fluency calls upon the
generation of ideas Or fertility, of ideas but flexibility does hot involves
only generation of ideas 'Out the variety or different the tough trends in
the generation of ideas. It is manifested by two abilities spontaneous
flexibility and adaptive flexibility.
Originality
The originality has been approached differently. It has been viewed
through different perspectives. It is designated as uncommon with respect
to figural; verbal or symbolic transformations. It is designated statistically
as unusualness of responses or infrequent. Some tests call for remote
associations or relationships, remote either in time or in logical sense.
Always we see that examinees give two types of responses obvious and
remote. Obvious indicates ideational fluency while as remote indicates
originality. There are various terms that are used originality such as,
uncommon, unusual, clever, novel, unique, and infrequent.
Redefinition
It is an ability which calls for a give up old interpretations' of familiar
object in order to use them or their parts in some new way. The examinees or
required to define or perceive the problem in such a way that is different
from the usual, or established way. Here, the emphasis is on the ability or
rearranging ideas, concepts or objects or to indicate the use of parts in new
ways. Improvising, in general, probably reflects the ability.
Elaboration
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This ability is indicated by production of detailed steps, variety of

implication and consequences that can be 'measured" quantitatively Expanding
and combining activities of higher through process are involved in it
Guilford (1950) demonstrated this ability by giving examinee one or two
simple lines and told to construct on this foundation a more complex
object. The scores is the amount of elaboration. It is also indicated by a test
in which the base outline of a plan is given and the examinee is asked to list all
the minor steps required to make the plan work. Here, he is required to use
two types of abilities, pertaining to elaboration of figural material and
elaboration of meaningful material.
Non-Aptitude Traits
Besides, the aptitude traits there are non-aptitude traits related to
creative performance. The traits' of motivation and temperament are believed
to have determining effects upon whether or not an individual exhibits
creative performance. Anne Roe (1946 and 1953) conducted a series of studies
011 leading artists and leading scientists in several fields, and she arrived at
the conclusion that one trait namely willingness to work hard and to work
long hours; stood out in common among individual.
Guilford has shown through factor analysis that at least three
primary traits of interest in different kinds of thinking including instruct
in reflective thinking, rigorous thinking and autistic thinking are related to
creative performance. He had also found a pair of primary interests,
namely, aesthetic appreciation and aesthetic expression that are related to
creative performance. Another factor that has been found to be related to
creativity is ‘tolerance of ambiguity’. This is willingness to accept some
uncertainty in conclusions and a tendency to avoid thinking in terms of rigid
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categories. The original person tends to be more tolerant of ambiguity and to

like reflective and divergent thinking and aesthetic expression. In addition to
these traits, Guilford has exhibited other non- aptitude traits of self-
confidence, social boldness and self sufficiency related to creativity.
To conclude, research about the nature of creativity reveals that
creativity is not a unitary trait but a complex of so many discrete abilities
and personality traits. Second that successful creative performance, to the
extent that it depends upon aptitudes, is not equally promising in all the
fields of endeavor. “Potential for creative production in the arts is not same
thing as that in mathematics or that in writing, to say nothing of potential
for creative handling of problems involving human relations”. (Guilford
1962).
1.7 Theories of Creative Performance
Various psychologists and philosophers have attempted to answer

certain questions related to creativity, such as, the nature of creativity,
creative functioning or creative behaviour, and process of creativity. The
answers to these questions constitute different theories of creativity . Some
theories are based upon simple assumption while as some have undergone
empirical validations. At one time, creativity was equated with cosmic life'
based upon the Darwin’s theory of evolution. According to this notion,
human relativity was considered as manifestation of creative force inherent
in life, in organic matter and it was this force that continuously brings forth
new productions as are often unique and unprecedented. These productions
follow the life cycle taking birth, developing and finally perish. ,But such'
a type of notion regarding relativity as, natural has been challenged
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recently, and now more emphasis is laid on the development of creativity

that can be fostered through well-planned techniques and methods. Some
well known: theories of creative performance are enumerate there.
Divine Inspiration Theory
Some philosophers have considered creativity as divine inspiration.
They quote Plato as saying that a creative writer finds it difficult to
exercise enough of control over him when he writes anything. Plato
considers the writer as an agent of some higher power. It is only the
higher power which makes him Capable of producing anything creative.
Tagore also confesses in Gitanjali that "I am a dead reed, but you make
it a flute blowing various tunes through me over value and hills". Whether
it was a divine inspiration or not, which enough, Poincare (1913), to
discover the existence of fuchsia functions into Mathematics is presented
here. It is said that he had been struggling for days with the problem of
functions but could not reach any conclusion. One night after taking black
coffee and being unable to sleep, ideas rose in his mind, he says, in
crowds, colliding sometimes interlocking, and finally making some stable
combination from which he discovered the existence of the Fuchsia
functions. Shortly' afterwards, while on a geological excursion and with no
thought of mathematics in his head, as he put his foot on the stop of an
omnibus, the idea flashed into his mind that the transformations he had
used were similar with those of non Euclidean geometry.
Another notable example often cited is of the solution of a
scientific problem without conscious effort is of Otto Loewi's proof of the
chemical mediation of nerve impulses. This came to him vividly in a
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dream and the next day he performed the critical experiment in his
laboratory that proved the truth of the solution given to him.
Most of the creative artists especially poets have often experienced
that there is some invisible power that make them to create something
new. Houseman(1933) in his essay on "The Name and Nature of Poetry"
describes how his verses often arose in his mind. He says, "As I went
along, thinking of nothing in particular, only looking at things around.
Me, there would flow into my mind, sometimes a line of' two of verse,
sometimes a whole stanza at once, accompanied, not preceded, by a
vague notion of the poem which they were destined to form part of.
Then there would usually be a lull of an hour or so, than perhaps the
spring would bubble up again". Robert Frost has also experiences 'such as
these. One evening in winter, the poet had opened his front door and strode
out into the snowy darkness for a breath of air when there came into his mind
the whole of that poem "Stopping by woods on a Snowy evening". Sinnot says
that such inspirations rarely come unless an individual has immersed
himself into a subject. He must have a rich background of knowledge and
experience in it. In science, he must be laboring to find the answer to a
problem or to bring a mass of apparently unrelated facts in his mind into a
unity; in art, he must be pondering about a piece of music or painting which he
feels is there but cannot quite be brought into existence; ill poetry he has
an intense preoccupation with something beautiful but still vague which
he is eagerly trying to express. He is wrestling to bring into actuality the
cloudy half-formed products may appear or the outline for 11 story or a verse
but more commonly the initial inspiration is only the start and needs long
hours or days of labour to be followed in reorganizing the original flash of
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insight but one thing is certain that without this flash the creative process
might never have been able to get started.
Accidentally Theory
It is believed that so much creativity is nothing but the result of accident
or chance. Any artist whether he be a scientific inventor or painter, or
writer is the one who can most often put himself' in readiness for the 'accident'.
The artist holds himself open for the lucky accident. Accident is not the right
.term, rather a myriad of different possibilities exist; and out of these one is
born.
Arthur Koestler made a study of the great scientists of Renaissance
and brought out the report in the book "the sleep walkers". In this book, he lays
special emphasis on the seemingly irrational slips and errors which actually
helped Copernicus, Galileo and Kepler in formulating their theories. The
accidentally is found in most of the productions both in science and arts.
Such experiences have been experienced by Claude Bernard while
discovering the relationship between electricity and magnetism. Galvani's
discovery of the conditioned responded are also assumed as accidental
relations. It is also believed that at times luck favors the person (Connon;
1940 Mclean, 1941) Though this theory fails to provide any sound scientific
bases of explanation, however, one thing comes to fore that no creation is
possible unless one is intensely interested and motivated in it. No doubt,
chance plays its role but it is only sustained hard work which makes any
creation possible.
Besides says theories discussed earlier, there are some personality
theorists who have attempted to explain creative behaviour in their
personality theories. These are generally grouped into three major streams
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of psychological thought which explain creative behaviour. (i)

Psychoanalytic, (ii) Humanistic, and (iii) Behavioristic Psychoanalysts view
creativity as somehow stemming from the unconscious, or in some cases;
the preconscious. Humanistic theories typically relate creativity to the
individual's striving for self- actualization. Behaviorists recognize creativity
as novel or unusual behaviour which is nevertheless a learned response
fundamentally not different than other behaviors and explainable ill
stimulus-response terms. No doubt, humanistic theories find some common
ground with psycho-analytic theories so far, unconscious as a source of
creativity is concerned but still they differ. All the three psychological
traditions differ in regard to “the extent to which the creative process seen to be
under cognitive control continues to be an emotionally laden issuerelated
no doubt to one’s reference groups”. (Helson and Mitchell, 1978). As
Rchalak (1968) started: At heart is the image of man which is at issue in
psychology’s internal conflict. How shall we theorize about the human-being?
Shall we say that he can think, or not? Can he respond to the
opportunity for independent action by taking responsibility or not? Let us
see what the following theories say regarding this.
Psychoanalytic Theory
Freud, the father of psychoanalysis was the first who attempt to analyze
the intricate process of creativity. Freud and his followers lay special emphasis
on the repressed unconscious wishes, the prudential and libidinal urges,
the sublimation of which largely determines creativity. They view an artist
as a successful neurotic who finds outlet of his unconscious conflicts through
sublimation – a process in which instinctual forces are redirected into
disguised, socially accepted channels. Thus, creatively according to Freud
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owns its origin to conflicts within the unconscious mind. Some believe that
conflicts are harmful and hence should be avoided which is not true. Conflicts
are the source of wondering, of the development of strength of possibility. If
one avoids conflicts he becomes a smoothly running machine where every
affect is immediately leveled off, where all desires become automatic and
where all feelings become flattened out. To be aware of the conflicts, to
experience them deeply, to accept them not just intellectually but in
feeling, is one of the conditions of creativity (Fromm).
For some writers and artists, the themes that haunt them and from
the content of their creative efforts are in a large measure
autobiographical and in that sense reflect their own unresolved conflicts.
This was apparently the case with Eugene O'Neill whose 'conscious'
autobiography appears in the play 'Long Day's Journey into Night’
Whereas his 'Unconscious' autobiography is perhaps revealed in 'Desire
under the Elms' (Weislman, 1957).
How to solve these conflicts the Unconscious comes to our rescue
'which succeeds in finding out appropriate solutions to these conflicts. The
solutions which reinforce the activity intended by the ego are believed to
release creativity whereas the solutions which do not reinforce an activity
intended by the ego, are repressed and emerge as neurosis. Therefore,
creativity and neurosis are teased from the same superior creativity is a
kind of creative madness or at least creative instability.
According to Freud, creativity helps a conflict- ridden person in
releasing his inner conflicts. For him, a neurotic is an artist san art, i.e. a
neurotic is that artist who has not created art. The term, Freud, used to
describe this phenomenon was catharsis. The same expression we find in
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Kohut (1957) when he describes music as mostly cathartic experience

which is in fact a process of sublimation. Musical experience and musical
creativity bring i11a sublimated and disguised release of tension within
the individual. Michel (1946) also finds the same very process operant is
dramatic arts. He sees in the acting of the actor as a direct narcissistic
satisfaction which the actor derives from the appreciation of the audience
and it also brings in him a satisfaction to his self.
The focal points around which psychoanalysis, perhaps, revolves are
the conflicts and unconscious. So far we have discussed the importance of
conflicts regarding creativity as attached to it by psychoanalysts, now we
shall look at another point which is more important - unconscious. It is
in dreams and half-dreaming states; the mind is filled with a throng of
images rid fantasies. The whole unconscious presumably is occupied with
such images and fantasies. The whole and their Source can be traced in
memory and experiences of the past and perhaps also directly in the
processes of life itself. It is the place where matter, life and mind are
most inextricably mixed and where the natural tendencies come to
expression and the new patterns of the unconscious mind are created.
For instance, when any individual ponders over a problem and
seeks to solve it in his conscious mind. Among the throng of images and
ideas, the unconscious mind rejects certain combinations as unimportant
or incompatible but sees the significance of other. By doing this, the
unconscious mind' is able to solve problems and a lay at least the
foundation for the creation of any new object. In order to create
something, the unconscious requires as incentive or a goal to be achieved.
It is thus, a conscious desire for something; may be some work of art of
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some discovery or some scientific theory or anything else for which he

seeks and wants to reach expression.
The others who attempted to further this theory are" Kris (1952),
Kubie (1958), Greenacre (1957), and other, Kris and Kubie emphasize the
importance of preconscious processes which are believed to Occur when
the ego lessens its control on' the rational thinking process so that ail
organized drive oriented type of thinking occurs. they believe that it is at
this preconscious level of thinking that facilitating associations between'
the ideas related to immediate' problem and apparently unrelated but
potentially useful ideas are likely to occur; such ideas ate also based oft
the day dreams and fantasies in which an individual gets himself
absorbed. Thus, for Kris, creativity is a "regression in the service of the
ego" by which he meant that in all creative thinking ego achieves some
measure of control over the primary processes. Kubie also support Kris's
idea regarding the use of preconscious and not of unconscious mental
mechanism in the creative act. He believes that both conscious as well as
unconscious mental activities hinder creative activity because of it
'anchorage to reality' and the unconscious because of the 'rigid use of
symbolic functions'.
Greenacre (1957) who also worked within the Freudian framework
believes/that the ego in the creative act dissociates itself from the real
object and develops its own fantasy with the world. He lays more emphasis
on sensitivity to sensory stimulation which is, for him, a prerequisite
condition for creativity. Influenced by Greenacre Weissman (1967) believed
that because of the intensified sensory stimulation, the creative infants even
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hallucinate real object. He, thus, substituted Kris's concept of 'regression in

the service of the ego' by 'dissociative functions of the ego.
Freudians also view that creativity is a recapitulation of early
childhood experiences. According to Hillgard (1959) Einstein was often
seen sitting around the house with uncut hairs in his bathrobe and
slippers, in behaving in some respect like a child who needs to be taken
care of. Merton (1957) has also discussed Newton's heated controversy
with Leibniz over the priority of invention of calculus, and other childish
behaviour of psychosomatic symptoms. Thomas Mann referring to Goethe
is quoted as commenting upon "The Union in one human being of the
greatest intellectual gifts with the most amazing naiveté.
Compensatory Theory
Adler (1927) emphasizes the compensatory drive in the creative person
which makes him to create. According to him, human beings produce art,
science and other aspects· of culture compensate for' their OWl1 inadequacies.
Adler believers that the race "of man as a whole developed culture and
civilization to compensate for his relatively weak position on the earth. Many
great creative have created perhaps to compensate for their inadequacies, for
example, Beethoven was a deaf person. Van Gogh was psychotic and
Gauging seems to have been schizoid. The similar view has been put forward
by Rank (1932) who conceived of a desire in the artist to immortalize himself.
This theory, emphasizes either on the inferiority, inadequacy or guilty feelings
of the human being which drive him and make him to compensate and in the
process of compensation, something original he brings about so as to fit himself
in the culture.
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Jung (1938) is another very important theorist whose contribution to

creativity is quite substantial. According to Phillip son (1963), Jung viewed
creativity at two levels; (i) the psychological mode, and (ii) the visionary
mode. In the psychological mode, the content is mainly derived from the
domain of human consciousness, in relation to family environment, society,
and other social institutions but the release of creativity does not transcend the
limits of psychological intelligibility. In the visionary mode, the content is
derived not from the experiences but from the timeless depths which lung
called the "Collective Unconscious". According to lung, the visionary mode
in creativity is not subject to the conscious control of the individual.
Sometimes, such a person experiences an "alien will' beyond his
comprehension. It might be for this reason that the great work of art
transcends the life experiences, personal, factors and historical periods in
which such an individual h pens to live.
Motivational Theory
A group of motivation theorists have emphasized that creativity is
affected by innate orientation, drive or urge such as, drive of self
actualization (Goldstein, 1939, Rogers, 1954, Maslow, 1959). They believe
that man's basic motivational tendency is towards self actualization or
self-fulfillment. Maslow points out that man's other goals center around
what he lacks or needs, such as food, safety and human solidarity. These
goals, according to him, are prerequisites to self-actualization because a
person must first satisfy his lower-order needs before he strives for the
development of his individuality or the realization of his potentials.
Creativity for, Maslow, is a maximum of self- actualizing.
According to him; self-actualizing creativeness stresses first the personality
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and then its achievements considering and these achievements to be

epiphenomena emitted by the-personality and therefore, secondary to it. It is
emitted like 'sunshine it spreads all over the place, it makes something grow
(which are grow able) and it wasted on the rocks and other unknowable
things. He classifies creativity into primary; secondary and integrated types w
reference to the use of primary and secondary processes. For him Self-
actualizing people are highly motivated as _they are relatively un-frightened
by the unknown, the mysterious, and the puzzling. They selectively pick it out
to puzzle over, to meditate on, and to be absorbed with.
For Rogers, motivation is the mainspring of creativity. It is a
tendency within a man to actualize himself, to become his potentialities, and'
to express and activate all the capacities of the organism-to the extent that
such activation enhances the organism, to the extent that such activation
enhances the organism or the self. According to him, this tendency exists
in every individual and awaits only the proper conditions to be realized and
expressed. Thus reactiveness is an emergent property of the individual
and as supposed by Plaut (1929), the need for self expression is the most
important universal determinant for creativity, though certain favorable
conditions are necessary for its release. Rogers stresses the three inner
conditions of creativity; (i) openness' to experience (ii) an internal locus
of evaluation; and (iii) the ability to toy with elements and concept’s.
Motivation may be intrinsic or extrinsic but both are necessary
conditions to creativity. It has been observed in the researches that most of
the creations and discoveries of great social value has .been motivated by
purpose having more to do with personal interests than with social value.
The individual creates primarily because it is satisfying him as this
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behaviour is felt to be self-actualizing. Thus, it is intrinsic motivation

which helps rather forces an individual to create something new. He has the
urge to expend, extend, develop and mature. People differ in their
intentions to create new productions. Scientists create in order to improve
things and seeing needs (Rossman, 1931) while as artists create to fulfill
their urge to do something different (Hadamard, 1945). Some people create
as they prefer complexity over simplicity. But, in all cases, one can produce
only in accordance with his intellectual capacity and potential.
Creations differ in as far as their social utility is concerned. There
are people whose creations are of social utility while as the creations of
others are destructive in nature. For example, one man may by
discovering a way of relieving pain, whereas another in devising a new
and more of torture for political prisoners. Both these action creative but their
social value is very different. No questions arises whose creation will be
regarded an example one? To answer this question, we shall have to defer
be behaviour of the creator. It has been found that 'When the individual
is "open" to all of his experience, then his behaviour will be creative and
his creativity may be trusted to be essentially constructive (Rogers, 1953).
In other words, when man is less than fully a man-when he denies to
awareness various aspects of his experience then indeed we have all too often
reason to fear his and his behaviour, as the present world situation testifies.
But when he is mo. fully a man, which he is, his complete organism,
when awareness of experience, that peculiarly human attribute, is most
fully operating, then he is to be trusted, then his behaviour is
constructive. The product may be pathological or socially evil if it comes
from the individual who is denying to awareness some areas of his
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experience whereas the product may be constructive both for society and
the creator himself if the creator is open to all aspects of his experience.
Hennessey and Ambile (1982) have demonstrated that creativity will
be maintained when intrinsic motivation is maintained and it will be
maintained when intrinsic motivation is maintained and it will be
undermined when intrinsic motivation is undermined. They report that
those children who had received intrinsic motivation training exhibit
higher creativity when rewarded then when not rewarded. Deci and Ryall
(1985) are also of the belief that the impact of an event on motivational
process is determined not by the objective characteristic of the event but
rather by "its psychological meaning for the individual". Thus, it can be
safely concluded that the intrinsic motivation is conducive to creativity
without which it is perhaps impossible for any individual to create
anything new. What motivates him to create depends upon the situation
on the one hand and tolerance for ambiguity, and urge to satisfy him on
the other.
Theory of Association
The theorists of Association base their theory of creativity on
stimulus response associations. They see psychological processes as
essentially involving the building up of associations between stimulus
associations. The roots of this theory go back to 19th century in America
and England when associations were a dominant school of psychology and
the influence of behaviorism on it. They maintain that thinking is the as
oxidation of ideas. New ideas are formed from past ones by a process of
trial and error. Therefore, the more association of ideas, the more
creativity; they hypothesize.
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Mednick is regarded the great exponent of this theory. According to

him "Creative" process is the forming of associative elements into new
combination which either meet specified requirements or are in some way
useful. In other word, it can be said that creativity involves the formation
of associations between stimuli and responses. The process of building up
these associations between stimulus and response point out the fact that
elements linked together are not normally associated is hypothesized that
people differ in making up new associations. Some people tend to link
stimulus with highly unlikely responses while as others link stimulus
with likely responses. For Mednick (1962) it is the group of diverges, i.e.,
the creative who tend to link with highly unlikely responses. they dare to
venture to link aspects of their environment together in an effective way
though they do not really belong together as per past experience. He
believes that the creative person arrives at the creative solution through three
ways: (i) by chance, (ii) by similarity of the associative elements, and (iii)
by the requisite elements being evoked. Continuously through the mediation
of common elements.
On basis of this conceptualization, Mednick developed a 'text of
creativity the Remote Associations Test. The degree of creativity depends
on the relative remoteness of the elements, used to form the new
elements. He assumes that a highly creative will make a greater number
of associations to any stimulus than that of a less creative one. When creative
people are asked to respond to a stimulus, they are likely to give some remote
or unusual while as less creative people tend to give only usual, common,
ad stereotyped responses.
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Some theorists have added instrumental conditioning in the S-R theory.

They believe that the extent to which a child is able to make creative
responses is dependent on the extent to which he has been rewarded or
punished during the process of creating new things. Thus, they emphasize the
role of differential reinforcement in the process of creative solutions.
Maltzman and his associates report that the originality in children can be
increased, He found in one of his experiments that experience in unusual
uses of object help children solve problems in new ways. According to him,
giving usual responses is a habit that can be strengthened by reinforcement.
This theory, however, ignores the individual as an important
element in connecting them. Environment and behaviour. According to S-R
theory, individual becomes merely some kind of storage place at the mercy of
the external world. In fact, whether a person functions divergently or
convergent cannot be wholly traced from his conditioning history but in his
characteristics as a human being whose thinking mainly depends upon both
personal as well as intellectual characteristics.
Cognitive Theory
Cognitive psychologists go deep into the internal process by which
an individual deals with the complexity of his environment. They assume
that an individual's behaviour is always based on cognition, the act of
knowing about the situation in which behaviour occurs. Gestalt psychologists
use the terms productive thinking and problem- solving to creativity.
According to Wertheimer, productive thinking involves a process of
successive restructuring of a problem. The structural features of the
problem put the problem solver in any stresses and 'strains. The problem-
solver, by facing such stresses and strains, arrives at a solution, where he
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finds the ways of restructuring the problem. Such a solution is termed as

creative. However, some theorists argue that this type of thinking is more
needed in convergent problems which require one or a few right answer
than to divergent problems which require many but varied solutions.
Guilford (1959) discusses the concept of creativity as cognitive
ability, multivariate in nature. He through factor - analytic approach
revealed quite a number of components that constitute creative thinking.
He gives different names to such cognition's as divergent productions.
These productions are: Fluency, Flexibility, originality and elaboration.
According to him; the divergent production results from the material or
content processed and the processes or. Operations performed with the
material. A reference to his structure of intellect model has already been made
in which each ability has been discussed fully; here we are considering
their theoretical bases only. According to Guilford, when divergent
production process acts upon figural contents, to bring but products of
different units, classes, relations, systems, transformations, and
implications, they may be called-nonverbal creativity. When symbolic
and semantic contents are used they give rise to verbal creativity while
as when behavioral contents are used they exhibit the behavioral patterns
of an individual as to how he deals with people around him.
Guilford, thus, analyses the nature of creative thinking ability which
he equates with divergent thinking. For him, it is a type of thinking that
does not follow the beaten path of conformity or convention but rather
seeks for varied and unusual solutions to the problem. This concept is,
thus useful from the point of view of the assessment of this unique
ability in individuals. He believes that his ability can be measure with the
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help of tests and obtained scores can be correlated to real life

achievements of the creative individuals. In 1996, he developed his most
popular test of divergent thinking which provides the bases for all the tests
developed in India and abroad.
Among all the theories presented there, the theory given by
Guilford seems to be more rational and widely accepted theory as it
provides the ground to measure creativity quantitatively with the help of
divergent thinking tests. Second, the theory considers the motivational
factor as an important determinant of creativity. Third, the theory assumed
that very individual is in possession of creative thinking ability. Though,
some may be more creative whereas others may be less creative and
rejects any such dichotomy such a creative and non-creative.
1.16 Let Us Sum Up
Many people associate creativity primarily with the arts. Music, drama,
art, dance, literature, and the rest, are often called the creative arts. But
creativity is not unique to the arts. It is equally fundamental to advances in the
sciences, in mathematics, technology, in politics, business and in all areas of
everyday life. It is sometimes thought that only very rare people are creative
and that creativity involves unusual talents. The literature of creativity often
focuses on the great men and women who have produced or made path-
breaking compositions, paintings, inventions or theories. Such people, it is
sometimes said, make their mark without special help and may even gain
strength from educational failure. For both reasons it is assumed that there is
limited scope and little point in trying to educate for creativity. Obviously,
there are people with exceptional creative gifts. The elite conception of
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creativity is important because it focuses attention on creative achievements

which are of historic originality, which push back the frontiers of human
knowledge and understanding. These achievements constitute the highest
levels of creativity. Education must certainly nurture young people who are
capable of such achievements. But there are other considerations. In this unit
we have discussed the nature and meaning of creativity. Traits and
components of creativity have also been discussed for the larger understanding
of the students. Finally an attempt has been made to discuss the theories of
creativity.

1. Define creativity? Discuss in detail the nature and process of creativity?
2. What do you mean by creativity? Discuss briefly the components of
creativity?
3. Explain in detail the theories of creativity?

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Prentice Hall.
Prentice Hall.
Pvt Limited 2006
Bookland.2008.
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UNIT III
LESSON NO 03: Identification of Creative Talent
Lesson Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Personality Profile of a Creative Person
3.4 Personality Profile of a creative Scientist
3.5 Personality Profile of a Creative Child
3.6 Let Us Sum Up
3.1 Introduction
The selection of suitable instruments or tools are of vital importance

for any successful research study. Different tools are suitable for collecting
various kinds of information for various purposes. The research worker
may use one or more of the tools in combination for his /her purpose of
research. Research students should therefore familiarize themselves with
the variety of tools with their nature, merits and limitations. They should
also know how to construct and use them effectively. The systematic way and
procedure by which a complex or scientific task is accomplished is known
as the technique.
After knowing the concept of intelligence and relationship between
creativity and intelligence. Let us briefly discuss the meaning and concept of
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creativity. Creativity is difficult for a lot of people to quantify; it's a broad term,
but an important skill. Creativity is what drives us as designers. Creativity and
expertise is what makes the difference between an amateur and a professional.
Creativity is usually a personal talent. And the good news is: anyone can learn
to be more creative in their work and life. Creativity is the capacity or ability of
a person through which something new ideas, objects, arrangement or re-
arrangement of old elements can be built up for bringing about uplift in the
society. The creative thinkers always explore new areas and makes new
observations, new predictions and new inferences. According to Guilford,
creativity involves divergent thinking with respect to the traits of fluency,
flexibility and originality of thought process. It means that creativity involves
the thinking process in various forms with the originality and flexibility in the
thought process. Historically, creativity has been seen as a tortured and
mystical process, the province of geniuses, artists and eccentrics. Today, we are
less in awe of the creative process. Now, creativity is recognised as a practical
skill, one which can be taught and which everyone can achieve. It is a way of
thinking in which we look at familiar things with a fresh eye, examine a
problem with an open mind about how it might be solved, and use our
imagination rather than our knowledge to explore new possibilities rather than
established approaches. In the previous chapter you have read the concept of
Intelligence Guilford’s concept of Intellect, relationship of creativity with
intelligence – studies carried out in India and Abroad and relationship of
creativity with academic achievement – Studies done in India & abroad. In this
unit you will read about the characteristics of creative person, scientist and
artist in detail. Creative people invent, imagine, create, and communicate in
fresh, new ways. Every activity/business requires creative thinkers in the form
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of scientists, engineers, medical experts/researchers, technology innovators,

artists, writers and inventors, educators and parents. Those with the ability to
“think outside of the box” will lead the future and make special things happen.
In other words creativity can be defined as ‘all the ways of thinking that lead to
something new and useful for the thinker’. A creativity technique should help
generate new ideas. Creativity tools can:Come up with new ideas; Break
through fixed ways of thinking; ‘Think out of the box’ - thinking beyond
current solutions; Build upon each other’s ideas; and Develop new inspiring
and surprising ideas. Some believe that the term “creativity” only applies only
to those who possess artistic talents. Traditionally, creativity has been
associated with the achievements of extraordinary people such as Aryabhata,
Mozart, Einstein and Leonardo Da Vinci, and a good deal of the early research
into creativity has focused on the work of highly creative people or those
considered to be geniuses. For example, creative thinkers are independent,
confident and risk-taking. They are perceptive and have good intuition. They
display original thinking. They dare to challenge traditions, make waves and
bend a few rules. Like all of us, creative people make mistakes, and they subject
themselves to embarrassment and humiliation. They must be willing to
fail. Thomas Watson, founder of IBM, even recommended that one route to
success was to “double your failure rate.” Creativity improves the self-esteem,
motivation and achievement of learners. Pupils who are encouraged to think
creatively and become more interested in discovering things for themselves.
They are more open to new ideas and challenges, able to solve problems, can
work well with others and have greater ownership over their learning. The
concept of creativity will be clear if we go through the characteristics of a
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creative child. The characteristics and nature of creativity in a person can be

summed up as follows:
• Creative child is courageous in the conviction of his beliefs and values.
• The creative child is curious to know more and more about his
environment.
• Independent judgment is another characteristic of a creative child.
• The creative person is independent in thinking about the problems of
various types.
• Creative child becomes pre-occupied with a task where he concentrates
all his mental energies on the task in hand.
• Willing to take risk is another capacity of a creative child.
• The creative child has vision of future problem
3.2 Objectives
After reading this lesson, you should be able to:

• Discuss the nature and meaning of creativity;
• Explain the personality profile of a creative person
• Describe the personality profile of a creative scientist
• List the characteristics of the personality profile of a creative child
3.3 Concept of Creativity
According to Guilford, “creativity involves divergent thinking with

respect to the traits of fluency, flexibility and originality of thought process. It
means that creativity involves the thinking process in various forms with the
originality and flexibility in the thought process”.
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Zbigniew Pietrasinski, a Russian Psychologist, who emphasized

creativity a “Creativity is a resulting in new products of a definite social value”.
Torrance, “Creativity is a process sensing gaps or disturbing missing
elements, forming ideas or hypotheses communicating the result, possibly
modifying and re-testing hypotheses.”
Bronowsky, “It is distinguished between discovery, invention and
creativity by saying that fact is discovered, theory is invented by only a
masterpiece is created”.
From the above definitions the concept of creativity will become clearer
and following characteristics of a creative child can be derived from these
definitions. The characteristics and nature of creativity in a person can be
environment.
various types.
• Creative individuals have a great deal of energy, but they are also often
quiet and at rest. Creative individuals tend to be smart, yet also naive at
the same time.
• Creative individuals have a combination of playfulness and discipline,
or responsibility and irresponsibility.
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• Creative individuals alternate between imagination and fantasy ant one

end, and rooted sense of reality at the other.
• Creative people seem to harbour opposite tendencies on the continuum
between extroversion and introversion.
• Creative individuals are also remarkable humble and proud at the same
time.
• Creative individuals to a certain extent escape rigid gender role
stereotyping and have a tendency toward androgyny.
• Generally, creative people are thought to be rebellious and independent.
• Most creative persons are very passionate about their work, yet they can
be extremely objective about it as well.
3.4 Personality Profile of a Creative Person
Rating scales have been successfully utilized for measuring the

Creativity is defined as the tendency to generate or recognize ideas,
alternatives, or possibilities that may be useful in solving problems,
communicating with others, and entertaining ourselves and others.
(From Human Motivation, 3rd ed., by Robert E. Franken, page 396). Three
reasons why people are motivated to be creative:
i. need for novel, varied, and complex stimulation
ii. need to communicate ideas and values
iii. need to solve problems (page 396)
In order to be creative, you need to be able to view things in new ways
or from a different perspective. Among other things, you need to be able to
generate new possibilities or new alternatives. Tests of creativity measure not
only the number of alternatives that people can generate but the uniqueness of
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those alternatives. the ability to generate alternatives or to see things uniquely

does not occur by change; it is linked to other, more fundamental qualities of
thinking, such as flexibility, tolerance of ambiguity or unpredictability, and the
enjoyment of things heretofore unknown (page 394). Creativity is often
characterized by solving a problem situation (a desire) in an original and
unexpected way, whilst also remaining useful. Many psychologists had their
opinions on creativity too. Sigmund Freud believed that creativity was the
result of a tension between the conscious and the subconscious, linked with
desires for wealth, power and love. All psychologists consider creativity as
something for artists and scientists; the ordinary man seldom coming in contact
with creativity? This perception changed over time and people started to
realise that creativity could apply to anyone. Nowadays, it is understood that
creativity is a cognitive process, influenced by both social and personal factors.
It's also believed that creativity tests are only partially able to measure our
creativity owing to its complexity. Creativity is also something of a gift. When
presented with a problem, some people will come up with creative concepts in
matter of minutes, while others may need a day to deliver stereotypical
solutions. Creative person does things that never done before. Particularly
important instances of creativity include discoveries of new knowledge in
service and medicine, invention of new technology, composing music or
analysing a situation in a new way. Different educationist, philosophers have
identified following characteristics of a creative person. Michelle L. Casto
suggests 6 characteristics of a highly creative person:
1. Unconventional
2. Individualistic
3. Inventive
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4. Driven
5. Visionary
6. Intuitive
Mihaly suggests 10 traits of a creative person:
1.High level of energy
2. Smart yet naive at the same time
3. Use a combination of playfulness and discipline
4. Shift between imagination and fantasy with a deep sense of reality
5. Are both introverted and extroverted
6.Are humble and proud at the same time
7. Do not adhere to standard gender stereotypes
8. Are both rebellious and conservative
9. Are very passionate about their work, but can be objective when need
be
10. Their openness and sensitivity often exposes them to pain and
suffering, but also great joy
Clark B. has identified following Characteristics of Creative People
Cognitive Rational Creative Individuals
• Self-disciplined, independent, often antiauthoritarian
• Sense of humour
• Able to resist group pressure, a strategy developed early
• More adaptable
• More adventurous
• Greater tolerance for ambiguity and discomfort
• Little tolerance for boredom
• Preference for complexity, asymmetry
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• High in divergent thinking ability

• High in memory, good attention to detail
• Broad knowledge background
• Need think periods
• Need supportive climate, sensitive to environment
• Need recognition, opportunity to share
• High aesthetic values, good aesthetic judgment
• Freer in developing sex role integration' lack of stereotypical male,
female identification
Affective/Emotional-Social Creative Individuals
• A special kind of perception
• More spontaneous and expressive
• Unfrightened by the unknown, the mysterious, the puzzling; often
attracted to it
• Resolution of dichotomies: selfish and unselfish; duty and pleasure;
work and play; strong ego and egolessness
• Able to integrate
• More self-accepting; lack fear of own emotions, impulses, and thoughts
• Have more of themselves available for use, for enjoyment, for creative
purposes; waste less of their time and energy protecting themselves
• Involved in more peak experiences, integration within the person and
between the person and the world, and transcendence
• Capacity to be puzzled
• Ability to concentrate
• Ability to experience self as creative, as the originator of one's acts
• Willingness to be born every day
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• Ability to accept conflict and tension rather than avoiding them

• Courage to let go of certainties, to be different, to be concerned with
truth, to be certain of one's own feelings and thoughts and trust them
• Identify closely with the feelings and expectations of others
• Less repressed and defensive
• More curious
• More maturely autonomous and less dependent on views of others
Physical/Sensing Creative Individuals
• Openness to experience, new ideas
• An internal locus of evaluation
• An ability to toy with elements and concepts
• Perceiving freshly
• Concern with outside and inside worlds
• Ability to defer closure and judgment
• Skilled performance of the traditional arts
• High theoretical and aesthetic values
Intuitive Creative Individuals
• More intuitive and open to admitting turbulent inner conflicts
• Have their energy field accessible
• Have ability to tap and release unconscious and preconscious thought
• Are able to withstand being thought of as abnormal or eccentric
• Are more sensitive
• Have a richer fantasy life and greater involvement in daydreaming
• Are more enthusiastic and impulsive
• Show different brain wave patterns than the less creative, especially
during creative activity
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• Get excited and involved when confronted with novelty of design,

music, or ideas (less creative people get suspicious and hostile)
• When given a new solution to a problem, get enthused, suggest other
ideas (less creative students analyze the defect rather than explore
potentials)
From the above discussion some common traits or characteristic that appears
are:
• Creative people are driven to create.
• Creative people are more sensitive to their emotions.
• Creative people are curious.
• Creative people are unconventional.
• Creative people are visionary (that is, they employ their imagination
freely).
• Creative people are persistent and persevere.
• Creative people enjoy creating.
3.5 Personality Profile of a Creative Scientist
Creativity is the ability and disposition to produce novelty. Children’s

play and high accomplishments in art, science, and technology are traditionally
called creative, but any type of activity or product, whether ideational,
physical, or social, can be creative. Creativity has been associated with a wide
range of behavioral and mental characteristics, associations between remote
ideas and contexts, curiosity, flexibility in thought and action.
When we talk about geniuses, we tend to recall a familiar cast of characters —
centuries-old figures like Albert Einstein, and new-age geniuses like Steve Jobs,
who are regarded for both their intellect as well as their creativity. On paper,
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the world’s most imaginative, driven, innovative, and intelligent people are
really quite different. Their temperaments swing from eventful and
unpredictable to firm and enduring. There are many approaches that can help
practitioners promote creativity in their learners by providing regular
opportunities for hands-on experimentation, problem solving, discussion and
collaborative work.
• Actively encouraging pupils to question, make connections, envisaging
what might be possible and exploring ideas.
• Using failure or setbacks as opportunities to learn.
• Facilitating open discussion of the problems pupils are facing and how
they can solve them.
• Asking open-ended questions such as ‘What if…?’ and ‘How might
you…?’
• Ensuring that assessment procedures reflect and reward creativity,
enterprise and innovation.
Creative scientist possesses following personality characteristics:
1. Curiosity: creative scientists are insatiably curious about life’s ‘every
things’. Curiosity can turn any experience into an adventure: it
prompts us to act, to take risks.
2. Open-minded and free of bias: Creative scientists are objective.
Imagine entering into situations and interactions without prejudice or
tight and tiny opinions. Open-minded scientists suspend judgment
about findings until they are sure.
3. Keen observer: Scientists look and listen at information/data. Never
knowing what is most important, everything is considered and noted.
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On the simplest level, it’s applying curiosity, watching and listening,

for example, to loved ones behavior and actions, without bias.
4. Resourceful: Scientists look for avenues to explore in unexpected ways.
Purposeful: Scientists (often) believe they can change and improve the
world through their research.
5. Persistent: Scientists don’t give up when proving their passion.
Consistently, they can pursue the same hypothesis for many, many,
years, following good scientific protocol changing one variable at a time.
Over time they learn through experimentation, slowly building
evidence to prove or disprove their hypothesis.
6. Creative: Scientists, through observation and open-mindedness come
up with new problems and new ways to problem-solve. Einstein said it
best: “Insanity is doing the same thing over and over and expecting
different results.”
7. Critical Thinker: Of course to get the most bangs from experimental
buck, scientists know all about logical analysis. They remain critical and
emotion-free.
8. Courage: Scientists ‘get’ being laughed at for beliefs and hypothesis
(even outside of social situations). Is the world really round? Imagine
holding strongly to a belief and persistently plotting to prove and
accomplish their passion?
9. Associative orientation: Imaginative, playful, have a wealth of ideas,
ability to be committed, sliding transitions between fact and fiction.
10. Need for originality: Resists rules and conventions. Have a rebellious
attitude because of a need to do things no one else does.
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11. Flexibility: Have the ability to see different aspects of issues and come
up with optimal solutions.
12. Low emotional stability: Have a tendency to experience negative
emotions, greater fluctuations in moods and emotional state, failing self-
confidence.
13. Low sociability: Have a tendency not to be very considerate, are
obstinate and find faults and flaws in ideas and people.
3.6 Personality Profile of a Creative Child
Different experts view creative children with a diversified opinion. The

inconsistencies in perspectives are not so much about the ultimate schedule of traits as
they are about the mixed order of the lists or the style experts tend to portray each
characteristic. For instance, one expert may express highly creative child as
“rebellious,” while another indicates them as “independent thinkers,” and still another
may tag them as having “unique viewpoints.” In essence, all of these descriptors just
point out that extremely creative child tend to think for themselves, they are not simply
influenced or persuaded by others. The main characteristics of s creative children are
as:-
1. Creative children are willing to take risks and are adventurous, or speculative.
2. They exhibit a good deal of rational playfulness, may regularly be caught
daydreaming, and imagining.
3. They have enthusiastic senses of humour and see comicality in conditions that
may not become visible to be humorous for others.
4. Creative children are extraordinarily aware of his or her impulses and are often
more open to the illogical within him or herself.
5. Creative children show a great deal of curiosity about things.
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6. They constantly ask questions about anything and everything and may have
broad interests in many unrelated areas.
7. They may develop collections based on strange things and interests.
8. They are able to generate a diverse range of ideas or solutions to problems and
questions even offer unusual (“way out”), unique and clever responses.
9. They are often not reserved in expressions of opinion and are radical and
spirited in disagreement.
10. They may freely display opposite gender characteristics.
11. They exhibit heightened emotional sensitivity.
12. They may be very sensitive to beauty, and visibly moved by aesthetic
experiences.
13. They criticize constructively, and are unwilling to accept rigid pronouncements
without excessively critical self-examination.
General Characteristics of Creative Individuals
1. Creative Children truly value intellectual and cognitive matters.

2. They value their own independence and autonomy.
3. They are verbally fluent and can express ideas well.
4. They enjoy aesthetic impressions and are aesthetically reactive.
5. They are productive and try to get things done.
6. They are concerned with philosophical problems, for example, religion,
values, the meaning of life.
7. They have high aspiration level for self.
8. They have wide range of interests.
9. They think and associate ideas in unusual ways, have unconventional
thought processes and can make unusual connections to unrelated ideas or
things.
10. They are interesting and arresting persons.
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11. They appear straightforward, forthright and frank in dealings with others.
12. They behave in an ethically consistent manner and have consistent
personal standards.
Positive Vs Negative Characteristics of Creative Children
Positive Characteristics Negative Characteristics
• Less tolerance for monotony

• Willing to undertake stimulating challenges,
• Questions or Challenges Rules
curious and inquisitive
• Temperamental
• Strong imagery ability
• Withdrawn
• Generally unaffected by peer pressure
• Cynical
• Independent, anti-authoritarian
• Shoddy or Careless
• Divergent thinking
• Generally considered intelligent
• Open to new ideas
• Versatile and adaptable • Stubborn
• Score high on Torrance Tests of Creative • Challenges Authority
Ability in the following areas: fluency- • Unconventional
produce numerous ideas, • Uncooperative
• flexibility- produce variety of ideas and • Assertive
approaches
• Self-actualizer
• Aesthetically-inclined
• Originality in novel ideas
• Redefinition present as creative child
perceives in way different from the average
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3.7 Let Us Sum Up
In this unit we have discussed the characteristics of creative person,

scientist and child in detail. We have also learned the specific characteristics of
personality profile of creative, scientist and artist persons. Creative behaviour
occurs in the process of becoming aware of problems, deficiencies, gaps in
knowledge, missing elements, disharmonies, bringing together in new
relationships available information; identifying the missing elements; searching
for solutions, making guesses, or formulating hypotheses. “This is the mark of
the creative person … still making progress, still learning, still producing as long as he
or she lives, despite pain or problems of all kinds. Not producing for the joy or
satisfaction of others, and it brings pleasure and satisfaction.”- E Paul Torrance.

1. Which of following is not recommended for fostering creativity?
a. Encourage new ideas
b. Tolerate failure
c. Provide general objectives
2. Education generally increases creativity True/ False
3. Discuss in detail the personality profile of creative person with the help
of examples.
4. List and compare the personality profile of creative scientist and artist.

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25(3): 81-85.
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Prentice Hall.
Pvt Limited 2006
Bookland.2008.
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UNIT IV
LESSON NO 04: Development of Creativity
Lesson Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Development of Creativity and Creativity in Teaching/Learning
4.4 Techniques of Development of Creativity
• Brainstorming
• Creative Problem Solving
• Synectics Model
4.5 Measurement of Creativity Talent
4.6 Let Us Sum Up
4.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter you have read the personality profile of creative
person, scientist and artist in detail. In this unit you will read about the
development, techniques and measurement of creativity in detail. Creativity is
an important aspect of our lives. The term distinguishes mediocre
achievements from those of excellence. Creativity is a manifestation of thought
processes. Definitions of creativity are not straightforward, and many writers
have contributed to the debate about what constitutes creativity, often hotly
contesting different views. However, most theorists agree that the creative
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process involves a number of components, most commonly imagination,

originality (the ability to come up with ideas and products that are new and
unusual), productivity (the ability to generate a variety of different ideas
through divergent thinking), problem solving (application of knowledge and
imagination to a given situation) and the ability to produce an outcome of
value and worth. Creativity is about generating ideas or producing things and
transforming them into something of value. It often involves being inventive,
ingenious, innovative and entrepreneurial. Creativity is not just about special
people doing special things. We all have the potential to be creative and
creativity is a skill that needs to be developed. Most individuals believe they
are not very creative. Creativity, however, is an increasingly valuable
commodity in the modern world. Creativity embraces both hard and soft
thinking. The most powerful creative thinking occurs when the left and right
hemispheres of the brain combine to apply both generative and evaluative
processes. The forming of collaborative, creative groups and partnerships helps
to foster creativity. To a question, “How important is creativity?” --“Imagination
is more important than knowledge.” Albert Einstein. Whether creativity is a good
thing or not depends on the use to which it is put and on the beliefs and value
systems to which it is attached. In the modern world, the skills and qualities
that we associate with creativity and ingenuity are required to help us work
more effectively together. Being able to come up with new ideas and solve
everyday problems is also important for people on a personal level. It plays a
critically important role in learning and personal development, as well as
building self-esteem.
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4.2 Objectives
After reading this lesson, you should be able to:

• Discuss the nature and meaning of creativity in teaching and learning
• Explain the different aspects of development of creativity
• Describe the utility of Brainstorming technique in development of
creativity
• Explain the importance of Creative Problem-Solving technique in
development of creativity
• Discuss the role of Synectics Model in development of creativity
• Understand the need of Measurement of Creativity Talent.
4.3 Development of Creativity and Creativity in Teaching/Learning
Development of Creativity : Any human endeavor can involve

creativity and is not limited to just the arts. Numerous theories of creativity
were proposed by 20th-century psychologists, educators and other social
scientists. Howard Gruber, who worked to understand creativity by studying
the lives of famous innovators, found broad common characteristics:1) they
engaged in a variety of activities within their chosen fields; 2) they held a
strong sense of purpose about their work; 3) they had a profound emotional
attachment to their work; and 4) they tended to conceptualize problems in
terms of all-encompassing images. Definitions of creativity are not
straightforward, and many writers have contributed to the debate about what
constitutes creativity, often hotly contesting different views. However, most
theorists agree that the creative process involves a number of components,
most commonly:
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• imagination
• originality (the ability to come up with ideas and products that are
new and unusual)
• productivity (the ability to generate a variety of different ideas
through divergent thinking)
• problem solving (application of knowledge and imagination to a
given situation)
• the ability to produce an outcome of value and worth.
Russ (13) has developed a model to explain the relationship between
creativity and psychological processes. This model suggests that the following
three elements are involved:
• personality traits, such as self-confidence, being able to tolerate
ambiguity, curiosity and motivation
• emotional processes, such as emotional fantasy in play, pleasure in
challenge, involvement in tasks and tolerance of anxiety
• cognitive abilities, such as divergent thinking, ability to ‘transform’
thinking (for example, by being able to reorder information or shift
thinking ‘sets’), sensitivity to problems, breadth of knowledge and
judgement.
Creativity is the ability to produce work that is both novel (i.e., original,
unexpected) and appropriate (i.e., useful, adaptive concerning task constraints)
(Lubart, 1994; Ochse, 1990; Sternberg, 1988a; Sternberg &Lubart, 1991, 1995,
1996). Creativity is a topic of wide scope that is important at both the
individual and societal levels for a wide range of task domains. At an
individual level, creativity is relevant, for example, when one is solving
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problems on the job and in daily life. At a societal level, creativity can lead to
new scientific findings, new movements in art, new inventions, and new social
programs. The economic importance of creativity is clear because new products
or services create jobs. Different psychologists have given different definitions
of creativity as under:
According to Guilford, “creativity involves divergent thinking with
respect to the traits of fluency, flexibility and originality of thought process. It
means that creativity involves the thinking process in various forms with the
originality and flexibility in the thought process”.
Torrance, “Creativity is a process sensing gaps or disturbing missing
elements, forming ideas or hypotheses communicating the result, possibly
modifying and re-testing hypotheses.”
Bronowsky, “It is distinguished between discovery, invention and
creativity by saying that fact is discovered, theory is invented by only a
masterpiece is created”.
From the above definitions the concept of creativity will become clearer
and following characteristics of a creative child can be derived from these
definitions. The characteristics and nature of creativity in a person can be
environment.
various types.
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• Creative individuals have a great deal of energy, but they are also often
quiet and at rest. Creative individuals tend to be smart, yet also naive at
the same time.
• Creative individuals have a combination of playfulness and discipline,
or responsibility and irresponsibility.
• Creative individuals alternate between imagination and fantasy ant one
end, and rooted sense of reality at the other.
• Creative people seem to harbour opposite tendencies on the continuum
between extroversion and introversion.
• Creative individuals are also remarkable humble and proud at the same
time.
• Creative individuals to a certain extent escape rigid gender role
stereotyping and have a tendency toward androgyny.
• Generally, creative people are thought to be rebellious and independent.
• Most creative persons are very passionate about their work, yet they can
be extremely objective about it as well.
• The openness and sensitivity of creative individuals often exposes them
to suffering pain yet also a great deal of enjoyment.
Factors Affecting Creativity
The following factors affect the development and /or expression of
creative thinking:
• Educational level
• Differential treatment of boys and girls
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• Premature attempts to eliminate fantasy

• Restrictions on manipulativeness and curiosity
• Conditions resulting in fear and timidity, in both authority and peer
relations
• Misplaced emphasis on certain verbal skills, especially on mechanics
• Overemphasis on prevention and on “success”
• Lack of resources for working out ideas.
• Age – creativity decreases with age unless individual is intentionally
creative
• Intelligence- certain level required for certain measures of creativity
only.
Process of Creativity
The process of creative thinking involves some specific and definite steps these
are:
• Preparation
• Incubation
• Inspiration
• Verification or revision
1. Preparation: Creative thinking in most fields of endeavourer requires
some preparation. It includes much trial and error. For example in
writing a term paper, a student writes something, scratches out what he
has written and starts over again, only to destroy that also. In this way
continuous and persistent efforts are mode. At some point, he finds that
he cannot solve the problem. So he keeps the work aside for the time
being. Deliberately or involuntarily turning away from the problem is
the beginning of the second stage which is known as incubation.
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2. Incubation: This stage is characterized by absence of activity or thinking

about the problem. We can take rest or engage in other activities.
Sometimes when we engaged in other work, this experience provides
clue to the solution of the problem. For example Archimedes found the
solution of the problem when he was taking his bath.
3. Illumination: This experience of sudden appearance of the solution is
known as inspiration or illumination. If occurs at any time, even in
dreaming. A solution may appear when it is least expected. This process
gives the insight or ‘Aha’ experience to the thinker. You know that how
Archimedes came out of the bath-room by telling that “Eureka”,
“Eureka”. This “Eureka” is the ‘Aha’ experience which is also known as
illumination.
4. Verification: During this stage illumination or inspiration is tried out.
We determine whether the idea or solution appears suddenly is correct
or not. In case if does not work well, fresh attempts are made for the
solution. Sometimes the solution needs slight modification are change.
Then in the light of the results of verification or testing revision is made
and the solution or idea is made workable. But at no stage, the creative
thinkers thinks is made workable or idea is made workable. It is open
for essential modification or revision at any time when needed.
The differences between intelligence and creativity are summarized
below:
• Convergent thinking is the basis of intelligence whereas divergent
thinking is the basis of creativity.
• Highly creative persons usually possess intelligence to a high degree,
but it is not always essential for an intelligent person to be creative,
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because one may possess high intelligence capacity without having

creative abilities.
• The speed and accuracy of the cognitive behavior are emphasized in
intelligence testing, while in testing creativity emphasis is given on
flexibility, originality and innovation.
Thus, these are some of the basic points on the basis of which the
differences between intelligence and creativity can be brought out.
Development of Creativity in Educational Settings
Mellou (14) suggests that young children’s creativity can be nurtured
through educational settings in through following three respects: A brief
overview of recommendations in relation to these three elements is given
below:
Creative Environment: Fundamental to the creative environment is the
encouragement of children’s play. Play is strongly featured in many of the
discussions about creativity in young children. Indeed, older children and
adults are often encouraged to be ‘playful’ in order to facilitate creative
thinking. Imaginative play (especially role play) and free choice of activities
would seem to be key components of the early childhood setting in relation to
creativity. Both creativity and play require imagination, insight, problem
solving, divergent thinking, the ability to experience emotion and to make
choices.
Creative Programmes: Can creativity be taught through creative programmes?
The results from research in this area would seem to suggest that it is possible
to enhance children’s creative skills through specific teaching programmes,
including arts-based ones. However, conclusions from two reviews of research
into the transferable effects of arts education have concluded that the impact of
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arts programmes on children’s creativity is not yet proven. The apparent

contradiction probably arises from a lack of sufficient high-quality research,
and the possibility that not all arts activities serve to enhance creativity.
Creative Teachers and Ways of Teaching: Creative teachers and creative
teaching are key components in fostering creativity in young children. Many
writers such as Tegano et al., Mellou, Craft, Runco and Edwards and Springate,
highlight the role of the teacher in providing the optimum balance between
structure and freedom of expression for young children. They explain that
teachers and other early childhood workers can encourage creativity by
behaviours such as: asking open-ended questions, tolerating ambiguity,
modelling creative thinking and behaviour, encouraging experimentation and
persistence praising children who provide unexpected answers.
To foster creativity parents and teachers must encourage learners to think
laterally and make associations between things that are not usually connected.
They must be able to reinterpret and apply their learning in new contexts, look
at things from different points of view and experiment with alternative
approaches to solving problems. Teachers must help learners to see
possibilities and challenges and all of these skills can be taught.
The following approaches can help teachers to promote creativity in the
classroom.
• Ensuring that planning incorporates a range of teaching and learning
styles.
• Providing regular opportunities for hands-on experimentation, problem
solving, discussion and collaborative work.
• Creating opportunities where pupils are encouraged to actively do the
work and question what is going on.
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• Making use of creative thinking techniques such

as Brainstorming, Thinking Hats and PMI.
• Sharing the learning intentions with pupils and providing them with
opportunities for choosing how they are going to work.
• Encouraging pupils to improvise, experiment and think outside the box.
• Actively encouraging pupils to question, make connections, envisaging
what might be possible and exploring ideas.
• Asking open-ended questions such as ‘What if…?’ and ‘How might
you…?’
• Joining in with activities and modelling creative thinking and
behaviour.
• Encouraging pupils to develop criteria that they can use to judge their
own work, in particular its originality and value.
• Facilitating open discussion of the problems pupils are facing and how
they can solve them.
• Encouraging pupils to share ideas with others and to talk about their
progress.
• Using failure or setbacks as opportunities to learn.
• Ensuring that assessment procedures reflect and reward creativity,
enterprise and innovation.
• Making effective use of encouragement, praise and positive language.
• Creating opportunities to learn through the imagined experience, giving
them a safe context to explore ideas using drama techniques
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Creativity in Teaching and Learning: Our current traditional school system seems
to damage creativity. We are suffering badly when compared with developed countries.
It looks like that we are modifying and amending our obsolete structures except school
system. Many institutions are having a crisis that is irrelevance. When we overview the
school system of different countries we may question our own system. The important
requirement that we lack the most is creativity both in teaching as well as in learning.
Tom Peters’ who is very critical of the traditional ways of educating a child, in his book
Re-imagine states, a school system may be successful in real terms and can produce the
learners according to the necessities and needs which recognizes that :
- Learning is natural, a love of learning is normal and real learning is passionate
learning.
- A school curriculum should value questions above answers, creativity above
fact uttering, individuality above uniformity and excellence above standardized
performances,
- A sub system of society that respects its teachers and skilled personalities,
remunerate them well and grants them the autonomy to do their job as the
creative individuals they are, and for the creative individuals in their charge.
“The most important developments in civilization have come through the creative
process, but ironically, most people have not been taught to be creative.” (The Path of
Least Resistance,1994). Here we must challenge that creativity should be taught to the
teachers, which in turn may produce more creative learners. To start with the teaching
and learning creativity let us view an idea of UK National Curriculum Handbook, it
reveals the phenomenon briefly as “By providing rich and varied contexts for pupils to
acquire, develop and apply a broad range of knowledge, understanding and skills, the
curriculum should enable pupils to think creatively and critically, to solve problems and
to make a difference for the better. It should give them the opportunity to become
creative, innovative, enterprising and capable of leadership to equip them for their
future lives as workers and citizens. It should enable pupils to respond positively to
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opportunities, challenges and responsibilities, to manage risk and cope with change and
adversity”.(UK National Curriculum Handbook; p 11-12) Creative students are
treasures for the society if not handled in a proper way or even identified earlier leads
to an irreparable damage. It is really a challenge to deal with creativeness in the
classroom. Students with creativity do not follow the traditional rules and shows
extreme curiosity to know the facts. They question and challenge the previous facts
even start to view the world with a different eye. They keep on finding the connections
and relationships among the things and factors around them. They sometimes find the
links between the phenomena about which the people of average intelligence never
thought. Their view points are divergent with special and extra ordinary aspects. For
example if we consider the foundation of the concept of gravitation propounded by
Newton we clearly attribute here to his distinct and shifted imagination of falling of an
apple. Falling of an apple was not a new phenomenon but an older one viewed from
entirely different frame of reference. Creative people try to develop and play with new
ideas and have stronger imagination and abstract thinking. They reflect critically on the
issues for which a replier should have a strong hold on what is to be discussed in the
classroom. Therefore in the light of above facts there is a need of switching to creative
teaching and learning in the institutions.
“The most powerful way to develop creativity in your students is to be a role model.
Children develop creativity not when you tell them to, but when you show them.”
(Robert J Sternberg, How to develop student creativity) “We humans have not yet
achieved our full creative potential primarily because every child’s creativity is not
properly nurtured. The critical role of imagination, discovery and creativity in a child’s
education is only beginning to come to light and, even within the educational
community, many still do not appreciate or realize its vital importance.”(Ashfaq Ishaq:
International Child Art Foundation) We can define creative teaching in two distinct
ways:
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1) Teaching creativity 2) Teaching for creativity
Teaching creativity is a description of methods, approaches, plans, strategies to the

pupil teachers which help them to explain the content and make it comprehensible to
the students. While as teaching for creativity is conceived as using forms of teaching
that assumes to widen students own creative thinking and behavior patterns. It is worth
to mention that teaching for creativity strictly involves creative teaching. It would be
very difficult for the teachers to build up the creativity among students without
developing their own. Both approaches to creativity consists of all the good
characteristics of teaching such as motivation, expectation, skills to communicate and
understand, ability to engage, interest and inspirations. Creative teachers not only need
mastery over their own subject but techniques to stimulate curiosity, elevate self esteem
and confidence. They should be well aware of the situations where positive
reinforcement is needed. They must know about the individual and group teaching
situations and their complicacies. Creative teaching requires large amount of time to
plan and develop new ideas for evaluation of these creative children. Creative teachers
readily go for experiments and recognize the requirement to learn from experience.
“Thousands of years of history suggest that the schoolhouse as we know it is an absurd
way to rear our young: it’s contrary to everything we know about what it is to be a
human being. For example, we know that doing and talking are what most successful
people are very good at – that’s where they truly show their stuff.” (Deborah Meier:
Dennis Littkys The Big Picture)
In schools and teachers are having less access to the necessary empirical support and
guidance in applying above discussed approaches. Thus we are suffering from issues of
staff improvement. It is necessary to eliminate the reasons which restrain the creative
activity of teachers and learners, bestow priority to those which encourage it. In
education we have extraordinarily high recommendation with respect to content and
methodology of teaching. There seem a number of risks that are killing teacher-skills
and increase the passivity among them. We are having industry analysts stating that, for
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a successful future, we need people who think, are creative and innovative and yet our
education systems seem to be working against this. Now nationwide authorities are
supposed to react over these risks and to promote advanced levels of teacher autonomy
and creativity in teaching and learning.
Teachers should provide all the students an adequate amount of time to explore at their
own and should not interfere while students are productively engaged in any task. An
exciting classroom environment should be generated and behave flexibly with students
regarding their unfinished work. Plentiful supply of constructive materials and
resources should be provided from the teacher’s side. Construct classroom atmosphere
should be maintained in such a way that students may feel free to take risks without
threats to do something productive.
4.4 Techniques for Enhancing Creativity
Creativity is an important human characteristic. It is perhaps best

thought of as a process, requiring a mixture of ingredients, including
personality traits, abilities and skills. In this chapter following three techniques
for enhancing creativity are discussed in detail.
i) Brainstorming
ii) Creative Problem Solving
iii) Synectics Model
(i) Brainstorming (Osborn): The term Brainstorming has become a commonly
used word in the English language as a generic term for creative thinking. The
basis of brainstorming is a generating idea in a group situation based on the
principle of suspending judgment - a principle which scientific research has
proved to be highly productive in individual effort as well as group effort.
The generation phase is separate from the judgment phase of thinking. The
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term was invented by Alex Osborn and described in his book “Applied
Imagination”. Other authors have explained brainstorming, and I quote from
Michael Morgan’s book Creative Workforce Innovation, that to give the
following guidelines: Brainstorming is method of thinking up solutions, ideas
or new concepts. It can be a difficult process for many reasons: sometimes
people are unwilling to suggest a solution for fear of criticism or the problem
may just be a very difficult one, and one that no existing solutions exist for yet.
Brainstorming works by focusing on a problem, and then deliberately coming
up with as many solutions as possible and by pushing the ideas as far as
possible. One of the reasons it is so effective is that the brainstormers not only
come up with new ideas in a session, but also spark off from associations with
other people’s ideas by developing and refining them. Brainstorming is a
process that works best with a group of people when you follow the following
four rules.
1. Have a well-defined and clearly stated problem
2. Have someone assigned to write down all the ideas as they occur
3. Have the right number of people in the group
4. Have someone in charge to help enforce the following guidelines:
o Suspend judgment
o Every idea is accepted and recorded
o Encourage people to build on the ideas of others
o Encourage way-out and odd ideas
There are four basic rules in brainstorming (Osborn, 1963) intended to reduce
social inhibitions among team members, stimulate idea generation, and
increase overall creativity:
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• No criticism: Criticism of ideas are withheld during the brainstorming

session as the purpose is on generating varied and unusual ideals and
extending or adding to these ideas. Criticism is reserved for the
evaluation stage of the process. This allows the members to feel
comfortable with the idea of generating unusual ideas.
• Welcome unusual ideas: Unusual ideas are welcomed as it is normally
easier to “tame down” than to "tame up" as new ways of thinking and
looking at the world may provide better solutions.
• Quantity Wanted: The greater the number of ideas generated the greater
the chance of producing a radical and effective solution.
• Combine and improve ideas: Not only are a variety of ideals wanted,
but also ways to combine ideas in order to make them better.
Brainstorming combines a relaxed, informal approach to problem solving with
lateral thinking. It encourages people to come up with thoughts and ideas that
can, at first, seem a bit crazy. Some of these ideas can be crafted into original,
creative solutions to a problem, while others can spark even more ideas. This
helps to get people unstuck by “jolting” them out of their normal ways of
thinking. All criticisms and judgments are deferred, if not discouraged. The
temptation to point out a faulty answer is very strong among conservative-
minded teachers and needs to be checked. Integration and combination of ideas
should be welcomed and encouraged. The point of view of this policy is to
remove inhibitions and stimulate involvement. Osborne assumed that early
solutions tend to be commonplace while unique, potentially ingenious
solutions occur later in people’s “thought chain”.
Brainstorming is not useful as a technique where the problem has a unique
solution that can be reached by analyses, e.g. No brainstorming is needed if the
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problem is to find the square root of 20 million. On the other hand,

brainstorming is useful for problems that can have multiple solutions of which
some may be better than the others, such as “How can school be improved?”
“How can energy be saved?” Brainstorming is not very useful unless the topic
selected is specific. If the topic is vague the brainstormers will carry different
frames of reference and the ideas generated will have a diffused applicability.
Brainstorming is not only a technique, it is also a culture. During a
brainstorming session people drop their defensiveness, and instead of
competing for power and status, they compete for excellence and creativity of
their ideas. Brainstorming reinforces a sense of participation.
Types of Brainstorming
a. Individual Brainstorming
While group brainstorming is often more effective at generating ideas than
normal group problem solving, several studies have shown that individual
brainstorming produces more – and often better – ideas than group
brainstorming. This can occur because groups aren't always strict in following
the rules of brainstorming, and bad behaviors creep in. Mostly, though, this
happens because people pay so much attention to other people that they don't
generate ideas of their own – or they forget these ideas while they wait for their
turn to speak. This is called “blocking”. When you brainstorm on your own,
you don’t have to worry about other people's egos or opinions, and you can be
freer and more creative. For example, you might find that an idea you'd
hesitate to bring up in a group develops into something special when you
explore it on your own. However, you may not develop ideas as fully when
you're on your own, because you don't have the wider experience of other
group members to draw on. Individual brainstorming is most effective when
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you need to solve a simple problem, generate a list of ideas, or focus on a broad
issue. Group brainstorming is often more effective for solving complex
problems.
b. Group Brainstorming
Here, you can take advantage of the full experience and creativity of all team
members. When one member gets stuck with an idea, another member's
creativity and experience can take the idea to the next stage. You can develop
ideas in greater depth with group brainstorming than you can with individual
brainstorming. Another advantage of group brainstorming is that it helps
everyone feel that they've contributed to the solution, and it reminds people
that others have creative ideas to offer. It's also fun, so it can be great for team
building. Group brainstorming can be risky for individuals. Unusual
suggestions may appear to lack value at first sight – this is where you need to
chair sessions tightly, so that the group doesn't crush these ideas and stifle
creativity. Where possible, participants should come from a wide range of
disciplines. This cross-section of experience can make the session more creative.
However, don't make the group too big: as with other types of teamwork,
groups of five to seven people are usually most effective.
(ii) Creative Problem Solving (CPS): Creative ideas do not suddenly appear in
people’s minds for no apparent reason. Rather, they are the result of trying to
solve a specific problem or to achieve a particular goal. Albert Einstein's
theories of relativity were not sudden inspirations. Rather they were the result
of a huge amount of mental problem solving trying to close a discrepancy
between the laws of physics and the laws of electromagnetism as they were
understood at the time. Albert Einstein, Leonardo da Vinci, Thomas Edison
and other creative geniuses have always worked in the same way. They do not
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wait for creative ideas to strike them. Rather they focus on trying to solve a
clearly stated, at least in their minds, problem. This approach has been
formalised as Creative Problem Solving (CPS). CPS is a simple process that
involves breaking down a problem to understand it, generating ideas to solve
the problem and evaluating those ideas to find the most effective solutions.
Highly creative people tend to follow this process in their heads, without
thinking about it. Less naturally creative people simply have to learn to use this
very simple process. Although creative problem solving has been around as
long as humans have been thinking creatively and solving problems, it was
first formalised as a process by Alex Osborn, who invented traditional
brainstorming, and Sidney Parnes. Their Creative Problem Solving Process
(CPSP) has been taught at the International Center for Studies in Creativity at
Buffalo College in Buffalo, New York since the 1950s.However, there are
numerous different approaches to CPS. It involves seven straightforward steps.
Creative Problem Solving is the mental process of creating a solution to a
problem. It is a special form of problem solving in which the solution is
independently created rather than learned with assistance. Creative problem
solving always involves creativity. However, creativity often does not involve
creative problem solving, especially in fields such as music, poetry, and art.
Creativity requires newness or novelty as a characteristic of what is created,
but creativity does not necessarily imply that what is created has value or is
appreciated by other people. To qualify as creative problem solving the
solution must either have value, clearly solve the stated problem, or be
appreciated by someone for whom the situation improves. The situation prior
to the solution does not need to be labelled as a problem. Alternate labels
include a challenge, an opportunity, or a situation in which there is room for
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improvement. Solving school-assigned homework problems does not usually

involve creative problem solving because such problems typically have well-
known solutions. If a created solution becomes widely used, the solution
becomes an innovation and the word innovation also refers to the process of
creating that innovation. A widespread and long-lived innovation typically
becomes a new tradition. “All innovations [begin] as creative solutions, but not
all creative solutions become innovations.” Some innovations also qualify as
inventions. Inventing is a special kind of creative problem solving in which the
created solution qualifies as an invention because it is a useful new object,
substance, process, software, or other kind of marketable entity.
Tools and Techniques
Many of the techniques and tools for creating an effective solution to a problem
are described in creativity techniques and problem solving. Creative-problem-
solving techniques can be categorized as follows:
• Creativity techniques designed to shift a person's mental state into one
that fosters creativity. These techniques are described in creativity
techniques. One such popular technique is to take a break and relax or
sleep after intensively trying to think of a solution.
• Creativity techniques designed to reframe the problem. For example,
reconsidering one's goals by asking “What am I really trying to
accomplish?” can lead to useful insights.
• Creativity techniques designed to increase the quantity of fresh ideas.
This approach is based on the belief that a larger number of ideas
increases the chances that one of them has value. Some of these
techniques involve randomly selecting an idea (such as choosing a word
from a list), thinking about similarities with the undesired situation, and
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hopefully inspiring a related idea that leads to a solution. Such

techniques are described in creativity techniques.
• Creative-problem-solving techniques designed to efficiently lead to a
fresh perspective that causes a solution to become obvious. This
category is useful for solving especially challenging problems. Some of
these techniques involve identifying independent dimensions that
differentiate (or separate) closely associated concepts. Such techniques
can overcome the mind's instinctive tendency to use “oversimplified
associative thinking” in which two related concepts are so closely
associated that their differences, and independence from one another,
are overlooked.
CPS Steps
1. Clarify and identify the problem
2. Research the problem
3. Formulate creative challenges
4. Identify insights
5. Generate ideas
6. Combine and evaluate the ideas
7. Draw up an action plan
8. Do it! (i.e. implement the ideas)
These CPS steps are discussed in detail as under:
1. Clarify and identify the problem: Arguably the single most important step
of CPS is identifying your real problem or goal. This may seem easy, but
very often, what we believe to be the problem is not the real problem or
goal.
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2. Research the Problem: The next step in CPS is to research the problem in
order to get a better understanding of it. Depending on the nature of the
problem, you may need to do a great deal of research or very little. The best
place to start these days is with your favourite search engine. But do not
neglect good old fashioned sources of information and opinion. Libraries
are fantastic for in-depth information that is easier to read than computer
screens. Friends, colleagues and family can also provide thoughts on many
issues. Fora on sites like LinkedIn and elsewhere are ideal for asking
questions. There's nothing an expert enjoys more than imparting her
knowledge. Take advantage of that. But always try to get feedback from
several people to ensure you get rounded information.
3. Formulate One or More Creative Challenges: By now, you should be clear
on the real issues behind your problems or goals. The next step is to turn
these issues into creative challenges. A creative challenge is basically a
simple question framed to encourage suggestions or ideas. In English, a
challenge typically starts with “In what ways might I [or we]...?” or “How
might I...?” or “How could I...?” Creative challenges should be simple,
concise and focus on a single issue. For example: “How might I improve my
English language skills and find a job in Delhi?” is two completely separate
challenges. Trying to generate ideas that solve both challenges will be
difficult and, as a result, will stifle idea generation. So separate these into
two challenges: "How might I improve my Chinese language skills" and
"How might I find a job in Shanghai". Then attack each challenge
individually. Once you have ideas for both, you may find a logical
approach to solving both problems in a coordinated way. Or you might find
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that there is not co-ordinate way and each problem must be tackled
separately.
4. Identify Insights and Inspiration: You are almost ready to start generating
ideas, but before you work on ideas in response to your challenge, think
about what might provide insight and inspiration that will help you
generate ideas. Some forms of inspiration are unrelated to the challenge. For
instance, I like to go for long walks for inspiration.
5. Generate Ideas: Finally, we come to the part most people associate with
brainstorming and creative problem solving: idea generation. And you
probably know how this works. Take only one creative challenge. Give
yourself some quiet time and try to generate at least 10 ideas that may or
may not solve the challenge. You can do this alone or you can invite some
friends or family members to help you. Irrespective of your idea generation
approach, write your ideas on a document. You can simply write them
down in linear fashion, write them down on a mind-map.
6. Combine and Evaluate Ideas: After you have written down all of your
ideas, take a break. It might just be an hour. It might be a day or more. Then
go through the ideas. Related ideas can be combined together to form big
ideas (or idea clusters).
Then, using the criteria you devised earlier, choose all of the ideas that
broadly meet those criteria. This is important. If you focus only on the "best"
ideas or your favourite ideas, the chances are you will choose the less creative
ones! Nevertheless, feel free to include your favourite ideas in the initial list of
ideas. Now get out that list of criteria you mad earlier and go through each idea
more carefully. Consider how well it meets each criterion and give it a rating of
0-5 points with five indicating a perfect match. If an idea falls short of a
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criterion, think about why this is so. Is there a way that it can be improved in
order to increase its score? If so, make a note. Once you are finished, all of the
ideas will have an evaluation score. Those ideas with the highest score best
meet your criteria. They may not be your best ideas or your favourite ideas, but
they are most likely to best solve your problem or enable you to achieve your
goal.
Depending on the nature of the challenge and the winning ideas, you
may be ready to jump right in and implement your ideas. In other cases, ideas
may need to be developed further. With complex ideas, a simple evaluation
may not be enough. You may need to do a SWOT (strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats) or discuss the idea with others who will be affected
by it. If the idea is business related, you may need to do a business case, market
research, build a prototype or a combination of all of these. Also, bear in mind
that you do not need to limit yourself to one winning idea. Often you can
implement several ideas in order to solve your challenge. From the above
discussion it can concluded that, “If the doors of perception were cleansed,
everything would appear to man as it is, infinite.--William Blake. CPS is a five-
step process: Fact-finding, Problem-finding, Idea-finding, Solution-finding and
Acceptance-finding. Each Step has two phases, one is that Divergent thinking
processes (curiosity, inventiveness, activity) and other is Convergent thinking
processes (knowledge, decision, valuation).
(iii) Synectics (Gordon)
This term is derived from the Greek word synectikos, which means ‘fitting
together diverse elements’ or ‘bringing forth together’. Synectics Inc. is a
Boston based organization that specializes in finding solutions to complex
technical or other problems that have defied solutions by experts. It was
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founded by a brilliant thinker named William J.J Gordon. He was earlier a

raiser of pigs, a school teacher, a horse handler an inventor, an author, a college
lecture during his college years. Since creativity involves the coordination of
things into new structures, every creative thought or action draws on synectic
thinking. Creative behaviour occurs in the process of becoming aware of
problems, deficiencies, gaps in knowledge, missing elements, disharmonies,
bringing together in new relationships available information; identifying the
missing elements; searching for solutions, making guesses, or formulating
hypotheses. Buckminster Fuller summed up the essence of Synectics when he
said all things regardless of their dissimilarity can somehow be linked together,
either in a physical, psychological or symbolic way. Synectic thinking is the
process of discovering the links that unite seemingly disconnected elements. It
is a way of mentally taking things apart and putting them together to furnish
new insight for all types of problems. William Gordon set forth three
fundamental precepts of synectic theory: Creative output increases when
people become aware of the psychological processes that control their
behaviour, the emotional component of creative behaviour is more important
than the intellectual component; the irrational is more important than the
intellectual component and the emotional and irrational components must be
understood and used as "precision: tools in order to increase creative output.
Synectics was first developed in consumer industry. Normally an individual
feels threatened by anything strange and attempts to force it into some
acceptable, traditional pattern. In Synectics we use the technique of “making
the strange familiar”. Then the individuals are advised to distance themselves
from the problems by “making the familiar strange. “The question is to be
viewed from new perspective. Founders of Synectics have devised systematic
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ways of accessing and harnessing the preconscious. They have sought to

imitate the process of “incubation” in the preconscious mind. Synectics uses
four types of analogies.
1. Direct analogy: It involves seeking a direct comparison of the
phenomenon with some other phenomenon that is similar enough e.g. if
aerodynamics of a plane is under discussion, the group may explore
how birds manage to fly and thereby seek insights into a plane’s
aerodynamics.
2. Fantasy analogy: Here the group members are urged to imagine a
constraint free solution in much the same way of our wish-fulfilling
daydreams.
3. Personal analogy: It is a peculiar kind of empathizing. The person is
simultaneously asked to transpose himself into a situation and report
what he feels, hears, thinks etc.
4. Symbolic analogy: It is also called a book title. In this, the leader may
take a few words or even some discussion and ask group members to
come up with a short, provocative phrase that captures the essence of
the word under discussion but in such a way that it is aesthetically
satisfying or paradoxical.
Whenever a potentially interesting approach is found it is fielded as a
“viewpoint”. Synectics does not necessarily aim at finding full-fledged
solutions to problems. More commonly it aims at identifying promising
approaches or viewpoints that would possibly lead to novel solutions to vexing
problems.
6.1 Measurement of Creativity Talent
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Creativity researchers are often accused of not knowing what they are
talking about. The definition and assessment of creativity has long been a
subject of disagreement and dissatisfaction among psychologists, creating a
criterion problem that researchers have tried to solve in a variety of ways.
Some have proposed that creativity can be identified with particular,
specifiable features of products or persons or thought processes. Others have
suggested that creativity be defined by the quality of the response that a
product elicits from an observer. And there are those who suggest that
creativity cannot be defined— that it is unknown and unknowable. I will argue
in this chapter that, in different ways, each of these approaches can be useful
for solving the criterion problem in creativity research. Here are four different
ways to assess creativity, each designed for different settings:
• Measuring How Creative a Person Is - The Guilford Model
• Measuring How Creative a Work Is - The Taxonomy of Creative Design
• Measuring Creative Work against a Program - The Requirements Mode
• Measuring the Social Value of Creative Work - Csikszentmihalyi’s
Model
Notably, in each of these cases, what we mean by “creative” changes a
little. Sometimes “creativity” refers to divergent production (how much one
produces, or how varied it is). Sometimes "creativity" refers to novelty in form.
Understanding this--understanding the reason for measuring creativity or the
kind of creative work one aims to assess--is the first step to demystifying the
creative space. Each definition is included in the measures below.
1. The Guilford Measures: measuring a person's creativity
Psychologist J. P. Guilford devised four measures of a person’s divergent
production. Each of the measures can be practiced and improved, and each
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focuses on creative output in the context of a prompt (any prompt) that asks for
a quantity of responses. Here’s an overview of the measures:
Fluency: how many responses
Flexibility: how many types of responses
Originality: the unusualness of the responses
Elaboration: the detail of the responses
So, if I were to ask five people to take two minutes to use circles as a starting
point for drawings, I might receive the following responses.
These responses might be evaluated in the following way:
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Anna drew the most drawings, even though her drawings were all faces.
She has the highest fluency.
Benji drew the most types of responses, even though he has fewer total
responses than Anna.
He has the highest flexibility.
Carol drew two wheels and a ball--nice geometry!
No prize, alas.
Darlene drew only two responses, but no one else drew a balloon or a bomb.
She has the highest originality.
Edward drew only three faces, but with more detail than the others.
He has the highest elaboration.
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The Guilford approach (like all approaches here) is not comprehensive in

measuring “creativity,” but it achieves a kind of psychometric evaluation of an
individual--it measures a kind of productivity quotient, if that’s what you’re
going for.
Strengths: Measures output in a clear, quantifiable way.
Weaknesses: Tells nothing of the relevance or value of the creative output.
Note: Guilford and others have expanded on these foundational measures to
create a full battery of creativity tests that further refine these categories. Most
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notably, psychologist Ellis Torrance created a series of tests that measure each
category both verbally (e.g. name as many uses for a brick as possible) and
visually (as above).
2. The Taxonomy of Creative Design: measuring how creative a work is
The Taxonomy of Creative Design refers to changes in form and content, and it
can be used to analyse or assess the novelty or the derivation of a creative
work. It looks at a creative work as a product. It classifies creative work as an
imitation of another work, a variation on a single work, a combination of two
or more works, a transformation of a work into a completely new form, or a
creation that is previously unrecognizable. It takes the scientific approach of
reduction to a creative work in order to understand its component parts.
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The Taxonomy enables the analysis of a work in the context of its antecedents.
How far does it step away from previous works? How great a leap in form or
content has the creator taken?
Let’s imagine, for example, that a group is tasked with solving a water
transportation challenge: how can people in a remote village transport water
by foot from a town well to their homes several miles away? Using the
Taxonomy of Creative Design, their responses can be assessed for their
creativity:
• Alex proposes they use five-gallon water jugs like the ones in water
coolers; people can carry the jugs in their arms. This solution, however,
really doesn't offer anything new. It is an imitation of something that
Alex has seen before.
• Beatrice, however, suggests designing a five-gallon water jug that has a
handle on it. This is a variation on the kind of cooler that Alex
suggested. It takes a core idea and tweaks it a little bit, which adds some
novelty to it, but it very much remains of the category of the original
object.
• Carl, however, has kids who have backpacks that they pull behind them
on wheels, and he imagines a five-gallon water jug like those backpacks:
with wheels and with an extendable handle. This is a combination of
two ideas: the water jug for holding liquid, and the wheels for pulling it
around. In the end, it is both a water jug and a roller, and not one or the
other.
• Dexter, on the other hand, decides that a backpack can be repurposed
entirely to hold water instead of other contents. It requires a re-
imagining of the materials and design of the backpack: the seams,
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openings, valves, and more, making it more than just a combination of a

backpack and something else, for it only serves water-specific purposes
and couldn't accurately be called a backpack. In this way, it is
a transformation of a backpack rather than a combination of it with
something else.
• But Eveline imagines something completely different. She imagines a
cylindrical tank of water that rolls on the ground on its side and can be
pushed like a lawnmower. It's not quite a jug, not quite a wagon or a
plow, and not quite like anything else. It might be a combination of
many things, but in any case it appears to be an original creation. This
has the greatest novelty in form, and so it could be said to be the most
creative.
(Note: these are all actual products!)
In this way, one can assess how creative a work is, one can assess the
creativity of the solution by determining where the new creation fits on the
Taxonomy of Creative Design. The more novel the work is in form and/or
content, the more creative it is, and this classification can be clarified with
several questions:
Imitation: Is the creation the same or virtually the same as something that
already exists?
Variation: Is it a slight change to an existing object, such that it is different, but
still retains the identity of the original object?
Combination: Is it a mixture of two or more things, such that it can be said to
be both or all?
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Transformation: Is it a re-creation of something in a new context, such that it

has some characteristics of the original object, but it cannot be said to
still be that kind of object?
Original Creation: Does it appear to have no discernible qualities of pre-
existing objects or ideas?
With these questions, the Taxonomy of Creative Design becomes an analytical
tool for assessing the originality of an object. It does not measure difficulty, but
instead how far an object reaches beyond what has come before, and some of
the mechanics for how it achieved those gains.
Strengths: Measures creative work in relation to other works. Assesses novelty
and influence.
Weaknesses: Tells nothing of the relevance, value, or effectiveness of the work.
Note: For teachers, the Taxonomy of Creative Design functions primarily as a
planning tool, suggesting the various kinds of creative activities or assignments
that students might engage in. For assessment, these kinds of activities are best
partnered with detailed program requirements
3. The Requirements Model: measuring creative work against criteria
In the Requirements Model creative work is assessed based on criteria
(requirements) established before the work is made. In architecture for
example, the design of a house begins with the program requirements: How
many bedrooms? What style kitchen? Cost limits? A feeling of openness or
cosiness? Efficient use of space? These are intentional requirements,
restrictions, boundaries, within which the architect creates a new plan.
When the project is done, some assessments are straightforward: Are there the
right number of rooms? Is the kitchen the right style? Did the project end up
at the expected cost? Check, check, check. Other assessments are slightly more
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complex: does the house feel open or cozy, as desired? Is space used
efficiently? These seem more subjective.
4. Csikszentmihalyi’s Systems Model: measuring the social value of creative
work
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi has a name that is harder to learn than his
theory. His name is pronounced: MEE-high CHEEK-sent-me-HIGH-ee. Say it
four times, and you’ve learned it, but we’ll call him MC for short, anyway. MC
suggests that the value of a work lies in the relationship between three parties:
the person (or his or her work), the category to which the work belongs, and
the other people who engage the work. These parties broadly go under three
names: the person, the domain, and the field.
Person: the artist, an individual work, or a body of work.
Domain: the genre, the area of knowledge (e.g. painting, rock music, classical
music, etc.)
Field: the authorities or gatekeepers of the domain (e.g. other artists, critics,
consumers, etc.)
In MC’s model, creativity is what happens when a Person creates a work, the
Field embraces it, and the Domain changes as a result. If a writer pens a novel
that expands how we understand novels, and if the field of critics, consumers,
and other writers embrace it, then it is a work of creativity. This model
measures value by the social or cultural response to the work. In this way,
being creative means more than simply offering up any old divergent
production--the term creativity isn’t slapped on any piece of work. Acceptance
by the Field is key. When an Artist creates a work, the Field determines
whether the work is held highly in the Domain or whether it sinks into
anonymity.
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These four models offer four ways to assess creativity or creative work: one can
look at output, influence, program criteria, or sociocultural acceptance. Which
model one uses depends on the situation? Are you trying to measure the
individual? Guilford’s model is likely best. Trying to assess the origin or
influences of a work? The Taxonomy is likely best. Looking to design
objectively measured creative assignments? Use a strict program. Trying to
assess the cultural value of a work, then follow MC’s model and research the
Field’s response.
6.2 Let Us Sum Up
In this unit we have discussed the development of creativity, different

techniques of development of creativity and Measurement of Creativity Talent.
1. Discuss in detail any two techniques of development of creativity.

2. Q.2 How creativity can be measured, discuss in detail the various
techniques.

25(3): 81-85. India Pvt, Ltd; New Delhi.
4. Passi B.K. (1982). Creativity Ineducation NPC Agra.
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Prentice Hall.
Prentice Hall.
8. Alex Osborn, Applied Imagination: Principles and Procedures of Creative
Problem Solving, Creative Education Foundation Press, 1953/2001, ISBN 0-
930222-73-3
9. Edward de Bono, Lateral Thinking : Creativity Step by Step, Harper &
Row, 1973, trade paperback, 300 pages, ISBN 0-06-090325-2
10. Altshuller, Henry. 1994. The Art of Inventing (And Suddenly the Inventor
Appeared). Translated by Lev Shulyak. Worcester, MA: Technical
Innovation Center. ISBN 0-9640740-1-X
11. McFadzean, E.S. (1996), New Ways of Thinking: An Evaluation of K-
Groupware and Creative Problem Solving, Doctoral Dissertation, Brunel
University, Uxbridge, Middlesex.
12. McFadzean, E.S. (1997), “Improving Group Productivity with Group
Support Systems and Creative Problem Solving Techniques”, Creativity
and Innovation Management, Vol. 6, No. 4, pp. 218-225.
163

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Paper : Creativity and Education

Directorate of Distance Education

Unit 1st and 2nd

Dr. Habibullah Shah

Dr. Kuldeep Singh Katoch

Prof. (Dr.) Neelofar Khan

Year of Publication: 2018

© Directorate of Distance Education

Unit I Structure of Ability

i) Meaning and Concept of intelligence

ii) Major Theories of intelligence

iii) Some tests of intelligence (verbal, Non-verbal & Performance)

Unit II Conceptual Framework of Creativity Thinking.

i) Nature and Meaning of Creativity

ii) Creativity as a process.

iii) Theories of Creativity

Unit III Identification of Creativity Talent.

ii) Personality Characteristics of a Creative child

iii) Personality Characteristics of a Creative person.

Unit IV Development of Creativity

i) Creativity in Teaching and learning.

ii) Different methods to foster creative Thinking

a) Creative problems – solving

Lesson No. Theme Page No

1. Structure of Ability 1-56

2. Creative Thinking 57-107

3. Identification of Creative Talent 108-125

4. Development of Creativity 126-163

LESSON NO 01: Structure of Ability

Creative children are assets to the society. Development and progress in

happen only at an individual level and must stem from an ideology or

• Give a brief account of Measurement of Intelligence;

2.3 Nature of Intelligence

It is recognized that the concept of intelligence is a product of the

make good responses and is demonstrated by capacity to deal effectively

necessary to know what the culture of a particular society values

2.4 Types of Intelligence

Gardner (1993) has identified seven distinct types of intelligence:

2.5 Theories of intelligence

We all know that some people are talented in science, some In

as general intelligence (a single factor) and there are many independent

activities. The total ability or .intelligence of such an individual

of groups of mental abilities each of which has its own primary

or school activity sample some of these' bonds. It is possible that

7. Guilford’s theory of intellect: J. P. Guilford and his associates have

1. Figural (visual)- The properties of stimuli we can experience

5. Transformation -altering or restructuring intellectual contents.

(Guilford's Intellect Model). However, for understanding what goes

2.6 Measurement of Intelligence

2. Nonverbal and non-language tests: These tests involve such

Individual Tests Individual Tests

Verbal Tests Performance Tests Verbal Tests Non Verbal Tests

Now we will discuss these one by one:

intelligence test construction movement along with Theodore Simon

Limitations of Non-Verbal and Performance Test:

2.7 Uses of Intelligence Tests

• Admission in a particular course of instruction.

contents that should. be utilized to guide the learner to use his

2.8 Limitations of Intelligence Tests

2.9 Extremes of intelligence

of living independently. Usually there are four levels of mental

individual’s LQ. "is supposed to remain constant throughout life or at

2.10 Creativity and Intelligence-An Introduction

Creativity & Education

Creativity & Education