Milk Quality & Hygiene:

Definition of Milk

Standard definition of milk is a lacteal secretion which is

 Practically free from the colostrum
 Obtained from complete milking of one or more cow(s)
 Should contain not less than 8.25 % SNF (Solid Not Fat) and 3.25% Fat.
Milk contains many diversified nature of substances which are usually not present in any other
compound.
Terminologies :
TS (Total Solids):
 It can be defined as: Milk fat + Milk proteins + Lactose + Ash contents
SNF (Sold-not-fat):
 It can be defined as: Milk protein + Lactose + Ash contents
Milk Plasma or Skimmed Milk:
 It consists of all the milk constituents except milk fat.
Milk Serum or Milk Whey:
 It comprises of all the milk contents except milk fat and casein protein.
Milk composition:
Water:
Water is major constituent of milk as it constitute more than 80% of whole milk. The
amount of water in milk is regulated by the amount of lactose synthesized by the
secretary cells of the mammary gland. The water that goes into the milk is delivered
to the mammary gland by the blood. Milk production is very rapidly affected by a
shortage of water and drops the same day drinking water is limited or unavailable. This is
one reason why the cow should have free access to a plentiful supply of drinking water at
all times.
Carbohydrates;
The principal carbohydrate in milk is lactose. The concentration of lactose in the milk is
relatively constant and averages about 5% (4.8-5.2%). As opposed to the concentration of fat
in milk, lactose concentration is similar in all dairy breeds and cannot be altered easily by
feeding practices.

Proteins:
Milk protein is very exclusive in nature and it is the natural source of amino acids. More than
95 amino acids of total declared amino acids are available in the milk protein. Milk protein is
regarded as high resource and matchless resource of amino acids. Particularly it contains
many essentials amino acids which are not synthesized in our body and required for normal
metabolism. The concentration of protein in milk varies from 3.0 to 4.0%. The percentage
varies with the breed of the cow and in proportion to the amount of fat in the milk. There is a
close relationship between the amount of fat and the amount of protein in milk—the higher
the fat, the higher the protein. The protein falls into two major groups: caseins (80%) and
whey proteins (20%). Casein is always present in the form of calcium caseinate. It is present
in the suspicion / colloidal form in the milk.

Fat:
Normally, fat (or lipid) makes up from 3.5 to 6.0% of milk, varying between breeds of cattle
and with feeding practices. A ration too rich in concentrates that do not elicit rumination in
the cow may result in milk with a depressed percentage of fat (2.0 to 2.5%).

Fat is present in milk in small globules suspended in water. Each globule is surrounded by a
layer of phospholipids, which prevents the globules from clumping together by repelling other
fat globules and attracting water. As long as this structure is intact, the milk fat remains as an
emulsion.

The majority of milk fat is in the form of triglycerides formed by the linking of glycerol and
fatty acids. The proportions of fatty acids of different lengths determine the melting point of
fat and thus the consistency of the butter derived from it. Milk fat contains predominantly
short-chain fatty acids (chains of less than eight carbon atoms) built from acetic acid units
derived from fermentation in the rumen. This is a unique feature of milk fat compared with
other kinds of animal and plant fats. The long chain fatty acids in milk are primarily the
unsaturated acids, with the predominant one being oleic (18-carbon chain), and
polyunsaturated linoleic and linoleic acids.

Minerals and vitamins:

Milk is an excellent source of most minerals and vitamins required for the growth of the
young. Different minerals found in milk are potassium, calcium, chloride, phosphorus,
sodium, sulfur, magnesium and small amounts of trace minerals. The digestibility of calcium
and phosphorus are unusually high, in part because they are found in association with the
casein of the milk. Vitamin A, D, E, K, C and B complex are also found in milk.

Factors Affecting composition of milk

 The milk composition depends on the various factors; it may vary from:

 Animal to animal

 Breed to breed of same specie

 Season to season: Seasonal variation is very important. In winter, milk is usually high in
nitrogenous contents and in summer season, it is high is chloride contents.

 Milking to milking and lactation to lactation.

 Availability of feed to the animal.

Numerical values of various components of milk for different species are as follows
(These values vary with breed to breed):

Species Water Fat Casein Whey Lactose Ash

Protein

Cow 87.3 4.4 2.8 0.6 4.6 0.7

Buffalo 82.2 7.8 3.2 0.6 4.9 0.8

Goat 86.7 4.5 2.6 0.6 4.4 0.8

Sheep 82.0 7.6 3.9 0.7 4.8 0.9

Camel 86.5 4.0 2.7 0.9 5.4 0.7

Spoilage of milk:

Spoilage makes the milk unwholesome. It occurs in different ways and in a variety of shapes.
Microorganisms cause deterioration of milk and these may come from the environment or
may come from the person (s) involved in the milking process.

Spoilage may be prevented in the raw milk as it contains:

 Lactoperoxidase

 Agglutinins

 Lyzozymes
These are also called inhibitory substances of spoilage.
 Types of Spoilage
There are six different types of spoilage as follows:

 Gas production
 Proteolysis

 Sliminess / Ropiness

 Changes in milk fat

 Changes in milk flavor

 Changes in milk color

 Gas production:
Milk contains lactose which produces acids (such as propionic, lactic, and
butyric) and CO2 on fermentation. When this fermentation occurs at faster rate,
then raw milk present a foamy layer on the upper surface. If it continues then
air bubbles becomes entrapped and gas becomes saturated throughout the body
of the milk. It is also termed as “Stormy Fermentation”. Such milk is not fit for
human consumption. Gas production may be due to gas producing bacteria such
as: Colliforms, clostridium and bacillus species.
 Proteolysis:
It is the destruction of milk proteins especially of casein. There are different
types of proteolysis:
 Acid Proteolysis:
Milk whey separated and pH >5.2. Milk taste will be soured.
 Alkaline Proteolysis:
Milk whey separated and pH >6.9 (towards neutral and alkaline). Milk taste
will be bitter.
 Sweet curdling:
It is due to bacterial contamination i.e. bacillus cerus – it release enzymes
“protease” which targets the casein. Bacteria use lactose and convert into acids
and aldehyde components. Milk is sweet in taste.
 Slow Proteolysis:
If raw milk is heated to certain pasteurized temperature or boiling temperature,
it will cause destruction of bacteria which results into release of endogenous
proteases in the milk. These proteases cause slow proteolysis of the milk.
 Proteolysis due to Anaerobic Bacteria:
Bacillus and clostridial species are heat resistant. Their presence is not
eliminated easily at any stage. That’s why result into specific kind of smell
names as butyrine smell. Clostridium species are mostly involved in the
alkaline proteolysis of milk.

 Roppiness or Sliminess:
In case of roppiness or sliminess milk viscosity is increased. If you touch the
surface of milk, a cord/rope like structure is formed. Roppiness or sliminess
may be bacterial or non-bacterial in origin:
 Non-bacterial:
It may be due to normal thickness of cream itself. Such milk is not regarded as
spoiled milk.
 It may be due thin film of casein and lactalbumin. These when mix together at
refrigeration temperature, sliminess may be seen in the bottom part of the milk
 If there is non-infectious mastitis to the animal, then leukocytes and fibrin
contents enhanced. These two make the milk thicker and produce roppiness or
sliminess in the milk.
 Bacterial:
Conditions are irreversible. Certain microorganisms have properties to produce
sliminess at the top and other produce throughout the body of the milk. Mostly
capsulated bacteria produce sliminess.
Changes in Milk Fat:
There are three particular conditions which cause changes in the milk fat.

Oxidation of Unsaturated Fatty Acids:

Upon oxidation, milk fat yields a lot of aldehydes, ketones and variety of acids.
Oxidation imparts tellowy odour.

Hydrolysis of Overall Milk Fat:

Hydrolysis occurs due to the acidity of enzyme “lipase” which separates the
molecules of glycerols from fatty acids and results into release of free fatty acids in
the milk which brought obnoxious change in the milk. Hydrolysis gives rise to
putrefied odour (rotten egg like smell).

Combined Condition of Above:

Change in milk fat may be due to certain bacteria which gives a combination of both
odours discussed before:

Change in the Color of Milk:

Normal color of milk is light or off-white (cow) and shining white (buffalo). Variety of
bacteria responsible for bringing change in the color of the milk:

Blue color -------------------------- Pseudomonas synciani

Red color --------------------------- Brubibacterium erythrogenes, Sarcinia marcense

Yellow color ----------------------- Pseudomonas synxantha

Brown color ------------------------ Pseudomonas putrificians

Green color ------------------------- Pseudomonas aurogenosa

These above are all bacteria except brubibacterium which is yeast. Milk with any abnormal
discoloration must be declared as unwholesome and spoiled.
Change in the Flavour of Milk:
The change in the flavour of the milk is discussed as follows:

Sour Flavour:
It is due to acidic changes in the milk. Sourness in the milk is described in 3 different
forms:

Clean: Low contents of acids due to environment of Streptococcus lactis. There will
be sour acidic flavour.

Aromatic: It is due to bacteria which are responsible for moderated type of acidic
components.

Sharp: It is due to the environment of clostridial species; high acidic contents.

Bitter Flavour:
It is due to alkaline changes in the milk.
Potato-like Flavor:
Pseudomonas mucidolense (a bacterium) produces potato like flavour in the milk.
Fishiness:
A typical flavour of fishiness is produced by Acromian hydrophila. It is due to
formation of tri-methyl amine. Trimethyl amine gives fishiness flavour to the milk.

Milk Adulteration and Detection:

Addition of Water in Milk

Water is added in the milk to increase the volume of milk. Addition of water dilutes the

Components of milk leading to decrease in energy value. Addition of water in the milk is

an unlawful practice and it is regarded as adulteration as it makes the milk

Unwholesome. It changes the whole composition of the milk and enzymatic activity of

the milk also goes down.

 Detection of Added Water in the Milk:

Certain techniques and methods are used to detect this adulteration as follows:

Lactometer method:

This is an old method and it tells us about the specific gravity of the milk. Specific
gravity value decrease when we add water into the milk. Disadvantage of this method
is that it only gives the result when we add water more than 10%.

Refractive index method:

Rays of specific wavelength are passed via the body of the milk and absorbed on the
other side. Zeiss Immersion Refractometer is used made by a Germen company; it is a
handy instrument and has digital display.
Addition of Vegetable Fat
Milk fat is the natural source of variable variety of fatty acids diversified in nature. It
is separated to make the cream and sold at high prices. People separate the cream from
the milk and add vegetable fat into the milk and then sell it after homogenization.
Vegetable fat is unsaturated and it get oxidized and becomes rancid when exposed to
air so become hepato-toxic and may cause liver cirrhoses. Small milk globules become
rancid when oil and vegetable fat is being added and interesting thing is that colour and
consistency of t milk remains normal.

Addition of Formaldehyde in the Milk

 It is frequently used in the milk as preservative. It is highly toxic to the kidneys (nephrotxic).
It forms aldehyde compounds and fix the proteins that leads to toxic syndrome. Adulteration
of formaldehyde in the milk is not recommended and discouraged all over the world. Its use is
illegal from any point of view. Under specific circumstances (for research purpose), it is
allowed to use 1 part of formaldehyde in 200,000 parts of milk as milk preservative
(1:200,000). It is recommended for those patients having gastric ulcers. As formaldehyde will
precipitate the protein, so in such patients it will absorbed from the intestine rather than the
stomach.

Boiled Milk:

Boiling practice of milk is done in order to enhance the keeping quality of the milk. Boiling
procedure is safe, and milk does not contain any toxin after boiling. But a variety of vitamins,
essentials enzymes and amino acids are lost through boiling of milk.

Drug Residues in Milk

Treatment of animals with various antibiotics is a normal phenomenon. Physicians neglect the
withdrawal period of every product which depends upon the half life of drug. As a result drug
residues come in milk.

Effects of Drug Residues:

 Consumers may acquire drug resistance

 Allergic reactions may occur

 Sensitization to various kinds of drugs may occur

 Consumer may have complaint for vomiting, diarrhea and enteritis

 Beside other effects, economic impact of industry is also hampered due to presence of
drug residues in the milk.

Permissible Level of Drug:

It is level of drug residue in the milk which has no deleterious effect on the consumers’
health. It is determined by FDA. FDA recommendations for standard drug residues are
 accepted by health monitoring authorities of all countries irrespective to the quality of the
milk

Preservation:

There are three different methods for preservation of milk:

 Pasteurization
 Use of antimicrobial agents
 Use of GRAS (Generally regarded as safe) substances. These substances are used in
two forms:
o Act as a food additive
o Act as a food stabilizer
Pasteurization:
It was started in early 1980’s. It is defined as “Heating of milk at 62 oC for 30 minutes”.
Objective is to kill and target all the microorganisms present in the milk. Mycobacterium
tuberculosis (human and bovine type) is also sensitive to pasteurization.

In modified forms of pasteurization holding time is decreased but on the other hand
temperature is increased.