Assignment of

Chemistry
Submitted To:
Sir. Zulfiqar
Submitted By:
Umer Ali
Roll No:
124
Class:
Bs Zoology (4th Semester)
Topic:
Aluminum and Its Uses

Govt.Postgraduate
College Gojra

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 Introduction
Aluminum (also spelled aluminum) is a chemical element with the symbol Al and atomic number 13.
It is a silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic and ductile metal in the boron group. By mass, aluminum makes
up about 8% of the Earth's crust; it is the third most abundant element after oxygen and silicon and
the most abundant metal in the crust, though it is less common in the mantle below. The chief ore of
aluminum is bauxite. Aluminum metal is so chemically reactive that native specimens are rare and
limited to extreme reducing environments. Instead, it is found combined in over 270 different minerals.
Aluminum is remarkable for its low density and its ability to resist corrosion through the phenomenon
of passivation. Aluminum and its alloys are vital to the aerospace industry and important
in transportation and building industries, such as building facades and window frames.
The oxides and sulfates are the most useful compounds of aluminum.
Despite its prevalence in the environment, no known form of life uses aluminum salts metabolically,
but aluminum is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of these salts' abundance, the potential
for a biological role for them is of continuing interest, and studies continue.

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Natural occurrence:

In space
Aluminum’s per-particle abundance in the Solar System is 3.15 ppm (parts per million). It is the twelfth
most abundant of all elements and third most abundant among the elements that have odd atomic
numbers, after hydrogen and nitrogen. The only stable isotope of aluminum, Al, is the eighteenth most
abundant nucleus in the Universe. It is created almost entirely after fusion of carbon in massive stars
that will later become Type II supernovae: this fusion creates 26Mg, which, upon capturing free protons
and neutrons becomes aluminum. Some smaller quantities of 27Al are created in hydrogen
burning shells of evolved stars, where Mg can capture free protons. Essentially all aluminum now in
existence is 27Al; 26Al was present in the early Solar System but is currently extinct. However, the trace
quantities of 26Al that do exist are the most common gamma ray emitter in the interstellar gas.

On Earth

Bauxite, a major aluminum ore. The red-brown color is due to the presence of iron oxide minerals.

Overall, the Earth is about 1.59% aluminum by mass (seventh in abundance by mass). Aluminum
occurs in greater proportion in the Earth than in the Universe because aluminum easily forms the oxide
and becomes bound into rocks and aluminum stays in the crust while less reactive metals sink to the
core. In the Earth's crust, aluminum is the most abundant (8.3% by mass) metallic element and the
third most abundant of all elements (after oxygen and silicon). A large number of silicates in the Earth's
crust contains aluminum. In contrast, the Earth's mantle is only 2.38% aluminum by mass.
Because of its strong affinity for oxygen, aluminum is almost never found in the elemental state;
instead it is found in oxides or silicates. Feldspars, the most common group of minerals in the Earth's
crust, are aluminosilicates. Aluminum also occurs in the minerals beryl, cryolite, garnet, spinel,
and turquoise. Impurities in Al2O3, such as chromium and iron, yield
the gemstones ruby and sapphire, respectively. Native aluminum metal can only be found as a minor
phase in low oxygen fugacity environments, such as the interiors of certain volcanoes. Native
aluminum has been reported in cold seeps in the northeastern continental slope of the South China
Sea. It is possible that these deposits resulted from bacterial reduction of tetrahydroxoaluminate
Al(OH)4−.
Although aluminum is a common and widespread element, not all aluminum minerals are economically
viable sources of the metal. Almost all metallic aluminum is produced from the ore bauxite (A lox(OH)3–
2x). Bauxite occurs as a weathering product of low iron and silica bedrock in tropical climatic

conditions. In 2017, most bauxite was mined in Australia, China, Guinea, and India

History

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The analysis of a curious metal ornament found in the tomb of Chou-Chu, a military leader
in 3rd century China, turned out to be 85% aluminum. How it was produced remains a
mystery. By the end of the 1700s, aluminum oxide was known to contain a metal, but it
defeated all attempts to extract it. Humphry Davy had used electric current to extract
sodium and potassium from their so-called ‘earths’ (oxides), but his method did not
release aluminum in the same way. The first person to produce it was Hans Christian
Oersted at Copenhagen, Denmark, in 1825, and he did it by heating aluminum chloride
with potassium. Even so, his sample was impure. It fell to the German chemist Friedrich
Wohler to perfect the method in 1827, and obtain pure aluminum for the first time by using
sodium instead of potassium.

Uses of Aluminum
Transportation
Aluminum is used in transportation because of its unbeatable strength to weight ratio. Its lighter weight
means that less force is required to move the vehicle, leading to greater fuel efficiency. Although aluminum
is not the strongest metal, alloying it with other metals helps to increase its strength. Its corrosion
resistance is an added bonus, eliminating the need for heavy and expensive anti-corrosion coatings.

While the auto industry still relies heavily on steel, the drive to increase fuel efficiency and reduce CO2
emissions has led to a much wider use of aluminum. Experts predict that the average aluminum content
in a car will increase by 60% by 2025.

A Shinkansen E6 train
High-speed rail systems like the Shinkansen in Japan
and the Maglev in Shanghai also uses aluminum. The
metal allows designers to reduce the weight of the
trains, cutting down on friction resistance.

Aluminum is also known as the ‘winged metal’

because it is ideal for aircraft; again, due to being light,
strong and flexible. In fact, aluminum was used in the
frames of Zeppelin airships before airplanes had even
been invented. Today, modern aircraft use aluminum
alloys throughout, from the fuselage to the cockpit
instruments. Even spacecraft, such as space shuttles, contain 50% to 90% of aluminum alloys in their
parts.

Construction
Buildings made with aluminum are virtually maintenance free due to aluminum’s resistance to corrosion.
Aluminum is also thermally efficient, which keeps homes warm in winter and cool in summer. Add the
fact that aluminum has a pleasing finish and can be curved, cut and welded to any desired shape, it allows

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modern architects unlimited freedom to create buildings that would be impossible to make from wood,
plastic, or steel.

The London Aquatics Centre

The first building in which aluminum was widely used was the Empire State Building in New York, built
in 1931. Today, aluminum is regularly used in the construction of high-rise buildings and bridges. The
lighter weight of aluminum makes it easier, faster and more convenient to work with. It also helps reduce
other costs. A building constructed of steel would require much deeper foundations due to the added
weight, which would drive up construction costs.

Notable modern buildings made from aluminum include the Bank of China headquarters in Hong Kong
and Zaha Hadid’s London Aquatics Centre in London.

Electrical
Although it has just 63% of the electrical conductivity of copper, aluminum’s low density makes it the best
option for long distance power lines. If copper was used, support structures would be heavier, more
numerous, and more expensive. Aluminum is also more ductile than copper, enabling it to be formed into
wires much more easily. Lastly, its corrosion-resistance helps protect wires from the elements.

In addition to power lines and cables, aluminum is used in motors, appliances, and power systems.
Television antennae and satellite dishes, even some LED bulbs are made of aluminum.

Consumer Goods
Aluminum’s appearance is the reason it is used frequently in consumer goods.

Smartphones, tablets, laptops, and flat screen TVs are being made with an increasing amount of aluminum.
Its appearance makes modern tech gadgets look sleek and sophisticated while being light and durable. It
is the perfect combination of form and function which is critical for consumer products. More and more,
aluminum is replacing plastic and steel components, as it is stronger and tougher than plastic and lighter
than steel. It also allows heat to dissipate quickly, keeping electronic devices from overheating.

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 Apple’s MacBook
Apple uses predominantly aluminum parts in its iPhones and MacBook’s. Other hi-end electronics brands
like audio manufacturer Bang & Olufsen also heavily favor aluminum.

Interior designers enjoy using aluminum as it’s easy to shape and looks great. Furniture items made from
aluminum include tables, chairs, lamps, picture frames and decorative panels.

Of course, the foil in your kitchen is aluminum, as well as pots and frying pans which are frequently made
from aluminum. These Aluminum products conduct heat well, are non-toxic, resistant to rust, and are easy
to clean.

Aluminum cans are used to package food and beverages. Coca-Cola and Pepsi have been using aluminum
cans since 1967.

Metal
Aluminum is the most widely used non-ferrous metal. The global production of aluminum in 2016 was
58.8 million metric tons. It exceeded that of any other metal except iron (1,231 million metric tons).
Aluminum is almost always alloyed, which markedly improves its mechanical properties, especially
when tempered. For example, the common aluminum foils and beverage cans are alloys of 92% to
99% aluminum. The main alloying agents are copper, zinc, magnesium, manganese,
and silicon (e.g., duralumin) with the levels of other metals in a few percent by weight.

Aluminum can

The major uses for aluminum metal are in.

• Transportation (automobiles, aircraft, trucks, railway cars, marine vessels, bicycles, spacecraft,
etc.). Aluminum is used because of its low density;
• Packaging (cans, foil, frame etc.). Aluminum is used because it is non-toxic, non-adsorptive,
and splinter-proof;

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• Building and construction (windows, doors, siding, building wire, sheathing, roofing, etc.). Since
steel is cheaper, aluminum is used when lightness, corrosion resistance, or engineering features
are important;
• Electricity-related uses (conductor alloys, motors and generators, transformers, capacitors, etc.).
Aluminum is used because it is relatively cheap, highly conductive, has adequate mechanical
strength and low density, and resists corrosion;
• A wide range of household items, from cooking utensils to furniture. Low density, good
appearance, ease of fabrication, and durability are the key factors of aluminum usage;
• Machinery and equipment (processing equipment, pipes, tools). Aluminum is used because of its
corrosion resistance, non-pyrophoricity, and mechanical strength.
Compounds
The great majority (about 90%) of aluminum oxide is converted to metallic aluminum. Being a very
hard material (Mohs hardness 9), alumina is widely used as an abrasive; being extraordinarily
chemically inert, it is useful in highly reactive environments such as high pressure sodium lamps.
Aluminum oxide is commonly used as a catalyst for industrial processes; e.g. the Claus process to
convert hydrogen sulfide to sulfur in refineries and to alkylate amines. Many
industrial catalysts are supported by alumina, meaning that the expensive catalyst material is
dispersed over a surface of the inert alumina. Another principal use is as a drying agent or absorbent.

Laser deposition of alumina on a substrate

Several sulfates of aluminum have industrial and commercial application. Aluminum sulfate (in its
hydrate form) is produced on the annual scale of several millions of metric tons. About two-thirds is
consumed in water treatment. The next major application is in the manufacture of paper. It is also used
as a mordant in dyeing, in pickling seeds, deodorizing of mineral oils, in leather tanning, and in
production of other aluminum compounds. Two kinds of alum, ammonium alum and potassium alum,
were formerly used as mordants and in leather tanning, but their use has significantly declined
following availability of high-purity aluminum sulfate. Anhydrous aluminum chloride is used as a
catalyst in chemical and petrochemical industries, the dyeing industry, and in synthesis of various
inorganic and organic compounds. Aluminum hydroxy chlorides are used in purifying water, in the
paper industry, and as antiperspirants. Sodium aluminate is used in treating water and as an
accelerator of solidification of cement.
Many aluminum compounds have niche applications, for example:

• Aluminum acetate in solution is used as an astringent.

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• Aluminum phosphate is used in the manufacture of glass, ceramic, pulp and paper
products, cosmetics, paints, varnishes, and in dental cement.
• Aluminum hydroxide is used as an antacid, and mordant; it is used also in water purification, the
manufacture of glass and ceramics, and in the waterproofing of fabrics.
• Lithium aluminum hydride is a powerful reducing agent used in organic chemistry.[127][128]
• Organoaluminium are used as Lewis acids and cocatalysts.
• Methyl aluminoxane is a cocatalyst for Ziegler–Natta olefin polymerization to produce vinyl
polymers such as polyethene
• Aqueous aluminum ions (such as aqueous aluminum sulfate) are used to treat against fish
parasites such as Gyrodactylus salaris.
• In many vaccines, certain aluminum salts serve as an immune adjuvant (immune response
booster) to allow the protein in the vaccine to achieve sufficient potency as an immune stimulant

• Biology

•
• Schematic of aluminum absorption by human skin.
• Despite its widespread occurrence in the Earth's crust, aluminum has no known function in
biology. Aluminum salts are remarkably nontoxic, aluminum sulfate having an LD50 of
6207 mg/kg (oral, mouse), which corresponds to 500 grams for an 80 kg (180 lb.) person.
• Toxicity
• In most people, aluminum is not as toxic as heavy metals. Aluminum is classified as a non-
carcinogen by the United States Department of Health and Human Services. There is little
evidence that normal exposure to aluminum presents a risk to healthy adult, and there is
evidence of no toxicity if it is consumed in amounts not greater than 40 mg/day per kg of body
mass. Most aluminum consumed will leave the body in feces; most of the small part of it that
enters the bloodstream, will be excreted via urine. Aluminum that does stay in the body is
accumulated in, above all, bone; and apart from that, in brain, liver, and kidney. Aluminum
metal cannot pass the blood–brain barrier and natural filters before the brain, but some
compounds, such as the fluoride, can.
• Effects
• Aluminum, although rarely, can cause vitamin D-resistant osteocalcin, erythropoietin-
resistant microcytic anemia, and central nervous system alterations. People with kidney
insufficiency are especially at a risk. Chronic ingestion of hydrated aluminum silicates (for
excess gastric acidity control) may result in aluminum binding to intestinal contents and
increased elimination of other metals, such as iron or zinc; sufficiently high doses (>50 g/day)

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 can cause anemia. Since aluminum is excreted by kidneys, their function may be impaired by
toxic amounts of aluminum.

•
• There are five major aluminum forms absorbed by human body: the free solvated trivalent cation (Al3+(a));
low-molecular-weight, neutral, soluble complexes (LMW-Al0(a)); high-molecular-weight, neutral, soluble
complexes (HMW-Al0(a)); low-molecular-weight, charged, soluble complexes (LMW-Al(L)n+/−(a)); Nano and
micro-particulates (Al(L)n(s)). They are transported across cell membranes or cell epi-/endothelia through
five major routes: (1) paracellular; (2) transcellular; (3) active transport; (4) channels; (5) adsorptive or
receptor-mediated endocytosis.
• An accident in England revealed that millimolar quantities of aluminum in drinking water cause
significant cognitive deficits. Orally ingested aluminum salts can deposit in the brain. There is
research on correlation between neurological disorders, including Alzheimer's disease, and
aluminum levels, but it has been inconclusive so far.
• Aluminum increases estrogen-related gene expression in human breast cancer cells cultured
in the laboratory. In very high doses, aluminum is associated with altered function of the blood–
brain barrier. A small percentage of people have contact allergies to aluminum and experience
itchy red rashes, headache, muscle pain, joint pain, poor memory, insomnia, depression,
asthma, irritable bowel syndrome, or other symptoms upon contact with products containing
aluminum.
• Exposure to powdered aluminum or aluminum welding fumes can cause pulmonary
fibrosis. Fine aluminum powder can ignite or explode, posing another workplace hazard.
• Exposure routes
• Food is the main source of aluminum. Drinking water contains more aluminum than solid food;
however, aluminum in food may be absorbed more than aluminum from water. Major sources
of human oral exposure to aluminum include food (due to its use in food additives, food and
beverage packaging, and cooking utensils), drinking water (due to its use in municipal water
treatment), and aluminum-containing medications (particularly antacid/antiulcer and buffered
aspirin formulations). Dietary exposure in Europeans averages to 0.2–1.5 mg/kg/week but can
be as high as 2.3 mg/kg/week. Higher exposure levels of aluminum are mostly limited to
miners, aluminum production workers, and dialysis patients.
• Excessive consumption of antacids, antiperspirants, vaccines, and cosmetics provide
significant exposure levels. Consumption of acidic foods or liquids with aluminum enhances
aluminum absorption, and maltol has been shown to increase the accumulation of aluminum
in nerve and bone tissues.
• Treatment
• In case of suspected sudden intake of a large amount of aluminum, the only treatment
is deferoxamine mesylate which may be given to help eliminate aluminum from the body
by chelation. However, this should be applied with caution as this reduces not only aluminum
body levels, but also those of other metals such as copper or iron. Nutritionally, treatment of

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 similar to those of other toxic metals and includes removal of sources of aluminum from
environment, enhancing cellular energy production, enhancing activity of the eliminative
organs, and chelating aluminum with nutrients.
• Environmental effects

•
• "Bauxite tailings" storage facility in Stade, Germany. The aluminum industry generates about 70
million tons of this waste annually.
• High levels of aluminum occur near mining sites; small amounts of aluminum are released to
the environment at the coal-fired power plants or incinerators. Aluminum in the air is washed
out by the rain or normally settles down but small particles of aluminum remain in the air for a
long time.
• Acidic precipitation is the main natural factor to mobilize aluminum from natural sources and
the main reason for the environmental effects of aluminum however, the main factor of
presence of aluminum in salt and freshwater are the industrial processes that also release
aluminum into air.
• In water, aluminum acts as a toxic agent on gill-breathing animals such as fish by causing loss
of plasma- and hemolymph ions leading to osmoregulatory failure. Organic complexes of
aluminum may be easily absorbed and interfere with metabolism in mammals and birds, even
though this rarely happens in practice.
• Aluminum is primary among the factors that reduce plant growth on acidic soils. Although it is
generally harmless to plant growth in pH-neutral soils, in acid soils the concentration of toxic
Al3+ cations increases and disturbs root growth and function. Wheat has developed a
tolerance to aluminum, releasing organic compounds that bind to harmful
aluminum cations. Sorghum is believed to have the same tolerance mechanism.
• Aluminum production possesses its own challenges to the environment on each step of the
production process. The major challenge is the greenhouse gas emissions. These gases
result from electrical consumption of the smelters and the byproducts of processing. The most
potent of these gases are perfluorocarbons from the smelting process. Released sulfur
dioxide is one of the primary precursors of acid rain.
• A Spanish scientific report from 2001 claimed that the fungus Goodrich candida consumes the
aluminum in compact discs. Other reports all refer back to that report and there is no
supporting original research. Better documented, the bacterium Pseudomonas
aeruginosa and the fungus Cladosporium retinae are commonly detected in aircraft fuel tanks
that use kerosene-based fuels (not avgas), and laboratory cultures can degrade aluminum.
However, these life forms do not directly attack or consume the aluminum; rather, the metal is
corroded by microbe waste products

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