Soil Mechanics-I Soil Permeability & Seepage

CHAPTER 3
SOIL PERMEABILITY & SEEPAGE

3.1 INTRODUCTION
From the discussions in the previous chapters, we have seen that water changes the soil states
in fine-grained soils; the greater the water content the weaker it is. Soils are porous materials
due to the presence of interconnected void spaces between the solid grains. Hence, particle
sizes and the structural arrangement of the particles influence the rate of flow.

Water can cause instability and many geotechnical structures such as roads, bridges, dams and
excavations have failed due to instability induced by flow of water. It is therefore necessary to
estimate the quantity of underground seepage under various hydraulic conditions, for
investigating problems involving the pumping of water for underground construction, and for
making stability analyses of earth dams and earth-retaining structures that are subject to
seepage forces.

The key physical property that governs flow of water in soils is permeability. Prior to
discussing permeability in detail, we should first note the following key terms:

Ground Water:- If we dig a hole into a soil mass that has all the voids filled with water, we
will observe water filling the hole upto a certain level. This water level is called groundwater
level or groundwater table and exists under a hydrostatic condition. A hydrostatic condition
occurs when there is no flow; i.e. the flow is zero. The top of the groundwater level is under
atmospheric pressure. We will denote the ground water level by the symbol T.

Head:- Is the mechanical energy per unit weight. From basic fluid mechanics, we know that,
according to Bernoulli’s equation, the total head at a point in water under motion can be
given by the sum of the pressure, velocity, and elevation heads, or

u v2
h= + +Z 3.1
γw 2g
where h = total head
u = water pressure
v = velocity
Z = elevation head or vertical distance of a given point above or below a datum plane

For flow of water through soil, the seepage velocity is very small and can be neglected. The
total head at any point can thus be adequately represented by
u
h= +Z 3.2
γw

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Soil Mechanics-I Soil Permeability & Seepage

Figure 3.1 shows the relationship among pressure, elevation, and total heads for the flow of
water through soil. Open stand pipes known as piezometers are installed at two points A & B.
The levels to which water rises in the piezometer tubes situated at the two points are known as
the piezometric level of their respective point. The pressure head at a point is the height of the
vertical column of water in the piezometer installed at that point.

Figure 3.1: Flow of water through soil

As water flows thorough a soil media as shown in figure 3.1, there will be a head loss
between the two points. This head loss can be given by
⎛ uA ⎞ ⎛ uB ⎞
⎜
∆h = hA – hB = ⎜ + Z ⎟
A⎟ − ⎜
⎜γ + Z ⎟
B⎟
3.3
γ
⎝ w ⎠ ⎝ w ⎠

3.2 Hydraulic Conductivity (Coefficient of Permeability)

Hydraulic Conductivity (coefficient of permeability) is a proportionality constant to determine

the flow velocity of water through soils. Darcy (1856) proposed that average flow velocity
through soils is proportional to the gradient of the total head. The flow in any direction, j, is

dH
vj = kj 3.4
dx j

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Soil Mechanics-I Soil Permeability & Seepage

Where, v = the average flow velocity,

k = the hydraulic conductivity (sometimes called the coefficient of permeability),
dH = the change in total head over a distance dx.

The unit of measurement for k is length/time, and it is usually expressed in cm/sec or

m/sec in SI units. With reference to figure 3.1, Darcy’s law becomes;

∆h 3.5
v=k = ki
L
Where i = ∆h/L is the hydraulic gradient. Darcy’s law is valid for all soils if the flow is
laminar, i.e. where Reynold’s number is less than 2000. Turbulent flow conditions may exist in
very coarse sands and gravels, and Darcy’s law may not be valid for these materials. However,
under a low hydraulic gradient, laminar flow conditions usually exist.

The average velocity calculated from the previous equation is for the cross-sectional area
normal to the direction of flow. Flow through soils, however, occurs only through the
interconnected voids. The velocity through the void spaces is called the seepage velocity (vs)
and is obtained by dividing the average velocity by the porosity of the soil:
kj
vs = n i 3.6

The volume rate of flow, q, or simply, the flow rate, is the product of the average velocity and
the cross-sectional area:

q = vA = Aki 3.7
The unit of measurement for q is m3/s or cm3/s. The conservation of flow (law of continuity)
stipulates that the volume rate of inflow into a soil element must equal the volume rate of
outflow or, simply, inflow must equal outflow: qin = qout.

The hydraulic conductivity of soils depends on several factors: fluid viscosity, pore-size
distribution, grain-size distribution, void ratio, roughness of mineral particles, and degree
of saturation.

Soil Type Kz (cm/s)

Clean gravel >1
Clean sands, clean sand and gravel mixtures 1 to 10-3
Fine sands, silts, mixtures comprising sands, silts, and clays 10-3 to 10-7
Homogeneous clays < 10-7

Table 3.1:- Coefficient of permeability for common soil types

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Soil Mechanics-I Soil Permeability & Seepage

Homogeneous clays are practically impervious. Two popular uses of “impervious” clays are in
dam construction to curtail the flow of water through the dam and as barriers in landfills to
prevent migration of effluent to the surrounding area. Clean sands and gravels are pervious and
can be used as drainage materials or soil filters.

Empirical Relationships for k

Various researchers have proposed several empirical equations for estimating the hydraulic
conductivity of soils.

For fairly uniform sand, i.e. for sand with a small uniformity coefficient, Hazen (1930)
proposed and empirical relationship for hydraulic conductivity in the form
k = c D210 3.8
where k = coefficient of permeability in cm/sec
c = a constant varying from 1.0 to 1.5 (usually taken to be 1.0)
D10 = effective size in mm

This equation is based on Hazen’s observations of loose, clean, filter sands. A small quantity of
silts and clays, when present in a sandy soil, may change the hydraulic conductivity
substantially.

Other empirical relationships have also been suggested by various individuals and institutions.
One has to be extremely cautious in using empirical relationships for k because it is very
sensitive to changes in void ratio, pore size, and homogeneity of the actual soil mass.

3.3 LABORATORY DETERMINATION OF HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY

Two standard laboratory tests are used to determine the hydraulic conductivity of soil – the
constant-head test and the falling-head test.

CONSTANT-HEAD TEST

The constant head test is used to determine the hydraulic conductivity of coarse-grained soils.
A typical constant-head test arrangement is shown below. In this test, water supply at the inlet
is adjusted in such a way that the difference of head between the inlet and the outlet remains
constant during the test period. After a constant flow rate is established, water is collected in a
graduated cylinder for a known duration.

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Figure 3.2: Constant-Head permeability test

The total volume of water collected may be expressed as
V = qt = (Aki)t 3.9
where V = volume of water collected
A = area of cross-section of the soil specimen
t = duration for which water is collected

And since i = ∆h/L = h/L for this test, where L is the length of the specimen (height),
V = Akht/L
or
VL 3.10
k=
Aht
The viscosity of the fluid, which is a function of temperature, influences the value of k. It is
customary to express the value of k at a temperature of 20ºC. The experimental value (kTºC) is
corrected to this baseline temperature of 20ºC using the following relationship.
⎛η ⎞
k 20°C = ⎜⎜ T °C ⎟⎟kT °C 3.11
⎝ η 20°C ⎠
where kTºC = hydraulic conductivity at the test temperature
η20ºC and ηTºC = viscosity water at 20ºC and the test temperature respectively
The ratio ηTºC / η20ºC can be calculated from,
ηTºC / η20ºC = 2.42 – 0.475ln (T) 3.12

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Soil Mechanics-I Soil Permeability & Seepage

FALLING-HEAD TEST
Due to low hydraulic conductivity of fine-grained soils, it will take a considerable time to
obtain reasonable discharge volume using the constant-head test. It is therefore customary to
use the falling-head test for such materials. A typical arrangement of the falling-head
permeability test is shown below.

Figure 3.3: Falling-Head permeability test

During this test water from the standpipe flows through the soil. The head of water (h) changes
with time as flow occurs through the soil. At different times the head of water is recorded. Let
dh be the drop in head over a time period dt. The velocity or rate of head loss in the tube is
dh
v=− 3.13
dt
The rate of flow of water through the specimen at any time to can be given by
h dh
q=k A = −a 3.14
L dt

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Soil Mechanics-I Soil Permeability & Seepage

where q = flow rate

a = cross-sectional area of the standpipe
A = cross-sectional area of the soil specimen
Rearranging equation 3.14 gives,
aL ⎛ dh ⎞
dt = ⎜− ⎟ 3.15
Ak ⎝ h ⎠
Integration of the left side of this equation with limits of time from 0 to t and the right side with
limits of head difference from h1 to h2 gives
aL ⎛ h1 ⎞
t= ln⎜ ⎟ .
Ak ⎜⎝ h2 ⎟⎠
or
aL ⎛h ⎞
k = 2.303 log10 ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ 3.16
At ⎝ h2 ⎠
3.4 EQUIVALENT HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY IN STRATIFIED SOIL

In stratified soil deposits where the hydraulic conductivity for flow in a given direction
changes from layer to layer, an equivalent hydraulic conductivity can be computed to simplify
calculations. Two cases of flow shall be considered here.

i. FLOW PARALLEL TO STRATIFICATION

Figure 3.4: Flow parallel to stratification

When the flow is parallel to the soil layer, the hydraulic gradient is the same at all points. The
flow through the soil mass as a whole is equal to the sum of the flow through each of the
layers.

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There is a similarity here with the flow of electricity through resistors in parallel. If we
consider a unit width perpendicular to flow, then flow rate is given by:

q = v ·1 · H 3.17
= v1 · 1 · H1 + v2 · 1 · H2 + v3 · 1 · H3 + · · · + vn · 1 · Hn
where v = average discharge velocity
v1, v2, v3, · · ·, vn = discharge velocities of flow in layers
It thus follows that
k H ( eq )ieq H = k H1i1H1 + k H 2 i2 H 2 + k H3 i3 H 3 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + k H n in H n
Since ieq = i1 = i2 = i3 = · · · = in ,

k H ( eq ) =
1
H
(
k H1 H 1 + k H 2 H 2 + k H 3 H 3 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + k H n H n ) 3.18

ii. FLOW PERPENDICULAR TO STRATIFICATION

Figure 3.5: Flow perpendicular to stratification

When the flow is perpendicular to stratification, the head loss in the soil mass is the sum of the
head losses in each of the layers. The velocity of flow through all the layers is the same. The
analogy to electricity is flow of current through resistors in series.

v = v 1 = v 2 = v 3 = · · · + vn
h = h1 + h2 + h3 + · · · + hn

Using Darcy’s law these equations can be rewritten as,

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⎛h⎞
kV ( eq ) ⎜ ⎟ = kV1 i1 = kV2 i2 = kV3 i3 = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ = kVn in
⎝H⎠
h = H1i1 + H 2i2 + H 3i3 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + H nin
Solving these two equations for the equivalent hydraulic conductivity,
H
kV ( eq ) =
⎛ H1 ⎞ ⎛ H 2 ⎞ ⎛ H 3 ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟ + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ +⎜ H n ⎟ 3.19
⎜ k V ⎟ ⎜ kV ⎟ ⎜ kV ⎟ ⎜ kV ⎟
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ n ⎠
3.5 PERMEABILITY TEST IN THE FIELD

In the field the average hydraulic conductivity of a soil deposit in the direction of flow can be
determined by performing pumping tests from wells.
A. UNCONFINED AQUIFER
The figure below shows a case where the top permeable layer, whose hydraulic conductivity
has to be determined, is unconfined and underlain by an impermeable layer. During the test,
water is pumped out at a constant rate from a test well that has a perforated casing. Several
observation wells at various radial distances are made around the test well.

Figure 3.6: Unconfined Aquifer

Continuous observations of the water level in the test well and in the observation well are made
after the start of pumping, until a steady state is reached. The steady state is established when
the water level in the test and observation wells becomes constant.
Let dh be the drop in the total head over a distance dr. Then the hydraulic gradient is i = dh/dr
The area of flow at a radial distance r from the center of the pumping well is A = 2πrh
Where h is the thickness of an elemental volume of the pervious layer.
From Darcy’s law, the flow rate is q = 2πrh k (dh/dr)

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Soil Mechanics-I Soil Permeability & Seepage

Rearrange the above equation and integrate it between the limits r1 and r2, and h1 and h2:

Thus, 3.20

Also note that if we substitute h1=H at r1=R and h2=hw at r2=rw, then

3.20(a)

Where, R=radius of influence and H=depth of the original GWT from the impermeable layer.
B. CONFINED AQUIFER
The average hydraulic conductivity for a confined aquifer can also be determined by
conducting a pumping test from a well with perforated casing that penetrates the full depth of
the aquifer and by observing the piezometer level in a number of observation wells at various
radial distances. Pumping is continued at a uniform rate q until a steady state is reached.

Figure 3.7: Confined Aquifer

Because water can enter the test well only from the aquifer of thickness T, the flow rate is;

q = 2πrT k (dh/dr) integrating and 3.21

rearranging;

Also note that if we substitute h1=H at r1=R and h2=hw at r2=rw, then

3.21(a)

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Soil Mechanics-I Soil Permeability & Seepage

3.6 LAPLACE'S EQUATION & FLOW NETS

In many instances the flow of water through soils is neither one-dimensional nor uniform
over the area perpendicular to flow. It is often necessary to know events associated with two
dimensional flow of water through soil media especially in hydraulic and earth retaining
structures.

The flow of water through soils is described by Laplace’s equation. The popular form of
Laplace’s equation for two-dimensional flow of water through soils is

3.22

where H is the total head and kx and kz are the coefficients of permeability in the horizontal
and vertical directions respectively. Laplace’s equation expresses the condition that the
changes of hydraulic gradient in one direction are balanced by the changes in the other
directions.

If the soil were an isotropic material then kx = kz and Laplace’s equation becomes

3.23

3.6.1 FLOW NETS

Laplace’s equation for an isotropic medium represents two orthogonal families of curves. These
curves are known as flow lines and equipotential lines.
A flow line is a line along which a water particle travels from the upstream to the downstream side
An equipotential line is a line along which the potential head at all points is the equal.
If piezometers are installed at different points along an equipotential line, the same water level
will be observed in all.
-The velocity of flow is normal to equipotential lines and the direction of flow is in the direction
of decreasing total head.
-The head difference between two equipotential lines is called a potential drop or head loss.
Since flow lines are normal to equipotential lines, there can be no flow across flow lines.
-The rate of flow between any two flow lines is constant. The area between two flow lines is
called a flow channel. Therefore, the rate of flow is constant in a flow channel.

A flow net must meet the following criteria

1. The boundary conditions must be satisfied.

2. Flow lines and equipotential lines are smooth curves.
3. Flow lines and equipotential lines meet at right angles to each other.
4.The area between flow lines and equipotential lines must be curvilinear squares.
5.The head loss between each consecutive equipotential line is constant.
6. No two flow lines cross each other.
7. No two flow or equipotential lines start from the same point.

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 Soil Mechanics-I Soil Permeability & Seepage

Procedure for Sketching Flow Nets

1. Draw the structure and soil mass to a suitable scale.
2. Identify impermeable and permeable boundaries.
The soil-impermeable boundary interfaces are flow lines because water can flow along these
interfaces. The soil-permeable boundary interfaces are equipotential lines because the total
head is constant along these interfaces.
3. Sketch a series of flow lines (start with four or five) and then sketch an appropriate number of
equipotential lines such that the area between a pair of flow lines and a pair of equipotential
lines (cell) is approximately a curvilinear square. You would have to adjust the flow lines and
equipotential lines to make curvilinear squares. You should check that the average width and
the average length of a cell are approximately equal. You should also sketch the entire flow
net before making adjustments.

b) Flow net under a dam with a cutoff curtain (sheet pile)

a) Flow net for a sheet pile.
on the upstream end.
Figure 3.8: Flow Nets
Flow Nets For Anisotropic Soils
To obtain a flow net for anisotropic soils (soils that have different permeability in the
horizontal and vertical directions), the natural cross-section has to be redrawn to satisfy the
condition of Laplace.
The transformed section can be obtained by using either of the two methods, which are;
1) Multiplying the natural horizontal distances by √(Kz/Kx) while
keeping the vertical dimensions the same.
2) Multiplying the natural vertical distances by √(Kx/Kz) while
keeping the horizontal dimensions the same.
The most common method is the first one, i.e. the vertical dimensions are kept as they are
but the horizontal dimensions are multiplied by√(Kz/Kx). The natural section gets shortened
or lengthened in the x- direction in accordance with the condition that kx is greater or less
than kz. Fig 3.9(a) below is a natural section with flow taking place around a sheet pile wall.
The horizontal permeability, kx, is 4 times that of the vertical permeability, kz.

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Soil Mechanics-I Soil Permeability & Seepage

Fig 3.9(b) is the transformed section with the horizontal dimensions multiplied by a factor
equal to √(Kz/Kx)=√(1/4)=0.5. This section is now assumed to have the same permeability
of √(Kx*Kz) in all directions. The flow nets are constructed on this section in the usual
way. On the natural cross-section the flow net will not be composed of squares but of
rectangles elongated in the direction of greater permeability.

Figure 3.9: Flow net for anisotropic soil.

3.6.2 Interpretation of Flow Nets

The following parameters can be calculated from any flow net. As an example, consider the
flow net for a sheet pile shown below,

k = 1.22 cm/s

Figure 3.10: Flow net under a sheet pile.

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Department of Civil Engineering
Soil Mechanics-I Soil Permeability & Seepage

A) Flow Rate (Discharge)

7KHKHDGORVVǻKEHWZHHQHDFKFRQVHFXWLYHSDLURIHTXLSRWHQWLDOOLQHVLV

3.24

Where ΔH = The head difference between the upstream and downstream sides.
Nd = The number of equipotential drops (number of equipotential lines minus one).
From Darcy’s law,the flow through each flow channel is;

3.25

where B and L are sides of the curvilinear square. For a square, B/L = 1 and therefore the
flow through each flow channel is;

3.26

If the number of flow channels in a flow net is Nf (number of flow lines minus one): the
total rate of flow through all the channels per unit length is;

3.27

The ratio Nf/Nd is called the shape factor. Both Nf and Nd can be fractional. In the case of
anisotropic soils (different permeabilities in X and Z directions), the quantity of flow is;

3.28

In figure 3.10, k = 1.22cm/s =0.0122m/s, ΔH = 20-3=17m, Nf = 4, Nd = 6

B) Total Head & Power water Pressure

The total head at any point can be determined using;

3.29

Where, n = the number of equipotential drops to the point in question.

The Pore water pressure at any point is equal to the total head minus the elevation head.
That is;

3.30

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Department of Civil Engineering
Soil Mechanics-I Soil Permeability & Seepage

In figure 3.10, the head and pore water pressure at pont A are;

C) Hydraulic Gradient
We can find the hydraulic gradient over each square by dividing the head loss by the length, L,
of the cell, that is;

3.31
You should notice that L is not constant. Therefore the hydraulic gradient is not constant. The
maximum hydraulic gradient occurs where L is a minimum, that is,

3.32

Where Lmin is the minimum length of the cells within the flow domain. Usually, Lmin occurs at
exit points or around corners. Since the velocity depends on the hydraulic gradient, the
maximum velocity occurs at the exit points.

D) Determination of Uplift Pressure

Water that seeps below dams or weirs founded on permeable soils exerts pressures on the
bases of structures. These pressures are called uplift pressures. Uplift pressures reduce the
effective weight of the structure and thereby cause instability. It is therefore very essential
to determine the uplift pressures on the base of dams or weirs accurately. Accurate flow nets
should be constructed in cases where uplift pressures are required to be determined. The
method of determining the uplift pressures can be explained as follows.

Consider a concrete dam founded on a permeable foundation at a depth D below the ground
surface. The thickness of the permeable strata is H. The depth of water on the upstream side
is ht and on the downstream side is zero. Water flows from the upstream to the downstream
side. It is necessary to determine the uplift pressure on the base of the dam by means of
flow nets as shown in figure 3.11 below.

The difference in head between the upstream and downstream water levels is ht. Let the
number of equipotential drops be Nd. The head lost per drop is Δh (= ht / Nd). As the water
flows along the side and base of the dam, there will be equal drops of head between the
equipotential lines that meet the dam as shown in the figure. A piezometer tube at point a
(coinciding with the corner of the dam in the figure) gives a pressure head ha. Now the
uplift pressure at point a may be expressed as;

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Similarly, the uplift pressure at any other point, say e (see the figure), may be estimated from
the expression;

where, n = the number of equipotential drops to the point e.

Figure (b) shows the distribution of uplift pressure on the base of the dam.

Figure 3.11: Uplift pressure under a dam.

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Department of Civil Engineering
Soil Mechanics-I Soil Permeability & Seepage

3.7 SEEPAGE THROUGH EARTH DAMS

Seepage occurs through the body of all earth dams and also through their pervious foundations.
The amount of seepage has to be controlled in order to avoid failure. Seepage through an earth
dam is a case of unconfined seepage in which the upper boundary of the flow net is unknown.
Hence it is necessary to first locate this upper boundary. This upper boundary of the flow net is
known as the seepage line or phreatic level.

3.7.1 Seepage Line or Phreatic Line In Earth Dams

The phreatic line is the top boundary condition of the flow net. It divides the dry zone from the
wet zone in the body of the dam. The hydrostatic pressure on the phreatic line is equal to the
atmospheric pressure and hence equals to zero. Below the phreatic line the hydrostatic pressure
is positive. The position of phreatic line will enable us to determine the divide line between the
dry (or moist) and submerged soil. Since it is the top stream line, it helps us in drawing the flow
net. Methods for the drawing of phreatic line and seepage calculation for different earth dams is
discussed below. Note that all the dams shown below have an impervious foundation.

A) Phreatic line for a homogeneous dam with a horizontal filter

Figure 3.12 below shows a homogeneous dam with a horizontal filter. The seepage line is very
nearly parabolic except near its junction with upstream face. The upstream face of the dam that is
covered with water (line GB in the figure below) is an equipotential line; hence the seepage line
shall be perpendicular to the upstream face near its junction point B. The Phreatic line (seepage
line) can be determined graphically or analytically.

Figure 3.12: Homogeneous dam with a horizontal filter

I) Graphical determination of the phreatic line
To draw the phreatic line graphically, follow the following steps
1) Draw the cross-section of the dam to scale.
2) Locate the point H which is vertically above point G and then locate point A which is at
0.3HB distance upstream from point B.
3) With A as center and AF as radius, draw an arc to cut the extended water line at point L.

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4) Through L draw a vertical line LD, which forms the directrix.

5) Locate point C by bisecting line FD. Point C is the vertex of the parabola.
6) Locate point J by drawing line FJ parallel to the directrix and equal to FD.

So far we have obtained three points on the parabola. These points are A, J and C. If
additional point I on the parabola is desired, the following procedure may be used.

7) Through point M draw a line parallel to the directrix. Then with F as center and radius
DM, draw an arc to cut the vertical line through M at I. The base parabola AIJC may now
be drawn.
8) The upper end of the phreatic line is obviously at point B. This point can be connected to
the base parabola by drawing a transition curve BI by hand to intersect the upstream face
of the dam at right angle at point B, thus, BIJC will finally represent the seepage line.

Now we can draw the flow net keeping in mind the following boundary line conditions.
 The phreatic line is the top boundary flow line and the line of contact between the dam
and the impervious foundation (line GF in figure 3.12) will be the bottom boundary flow
line of the flow net.
 The upstream face of the dam (line GB in figure 3.12) represents the up-stream
equipotential boundary. The line of contact between the dam and the drainage filter will
be the downstream equipotential boundary of the flow net.
After drawing the flow net, the rate of seepage (discharge, q) can be calculated in the usual way.

II) Analytical determination of the phreatic line

The equation of the base parabola can be determined from the basic property of a parabola which
is, the distance of any point P (x,y) on the parabola from its focus is the same as the distance of
that point P (x,y) from a line called directrix.
Let a base parabola with focus at F is drawn and produced so as to intersect the water surface at a
point A. taking the focus F as the origin, equation of the parabola can be written as:
x 2 + y 2 = x + FD 3.33
Where; The vertical line through point D is the directrix and FD is the distance of the focus from
the directrix, called focal distance and is represented by S. Hence the equation of the parabola of
the seepage line becomes:
x2 + y2 = x + S 3.34
If the horizontal distance between the already determined point A and the focus F is taken as say
b, then (b, H) represents the coordinates of the point A on the parabola, hence;
b2 + H 2 = b + S ⇒ S = b2 + H 2 − b 3.35
The focal distance S can be calculated using equation 3.35. The center point (C) of FD will then
be the vertex of the parabola.
From equation 3.34: when x = 0, y(0) = S. Hence the vertical ordinate FJ at F will be equal to S.
Hence S is usually represented by y(0). Knowing the points A, C, and J and working out a few
more points from the equation 3.34, the parabola can be easily drawn and corrected for the curve
BI, so as to get the seepage line BIJC.

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Soil Mechanics-I Soil Permeability & Seepage

The discharge (amount of seepage) can also be calculated easily from the equation of the seepage
line without drawing a flow net as explained below.
Consider a unit width of the dam and let q be the seepage discharge per unit width of the dam.
Then, according to Darcy’s law, q = KiA. When steady conditions have reached, the discharge
crossing any vertical plane across the dam section will be the same. Hence, the values of i and A
can be taken for any point on the seepage line.

dy dy
i= A = y *1 q=K y
dx dx
But from equation 3.34; y = S 2 + 2 xS
1 2 
[ ]
1
−1
q = K  ( S + 2 xS ) 2 2 S  S 2 + 2 xS
2 
q = KS 3.36
B) Phreatic line for a homogeneous dam without a horizontal filter
The phreatic line can be determined using the same principle as was done for dam with a filter.
The focus (F) of the parabola, in this case, will be the lowest point of the downstream slope as
shown in figure 3.13. The base parabola BIJC will cut the downstream slope at J and extend
beyond the dam toe up to the point C i.e. the vertex of the parabola.

Figure 3.13: Homogeneous dam without filter

The seepage line will, however, emerge out at K, meeting the downstream face tangentially
there. The portion KF is known as the discharge face and it is always saturated. The correction
JK (say Δa) by which the parabola is to be shifted downward can be determined as follows:

I) Graphical general solution

Cassagrande has proposed a general solution to evaluate Δa for various inclinations of discharge
face. Let α be the angle which the discharge face makes with the horizontal. The various values
of Δa/(a+Δa) have been given by Cassagrande as shown in the table below.

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Soil Mechanics-I Soil Permeability & Seepage

(a+Δa) is the distance FJ (the distance of the focus from the point where the parabola cuts the
downstream face) and its value is known hence Δa can then be evaluated a and Δa can be
connected by a general equation;
1800 − α 
∆a = (a + ∆a )  0  3.37
 400 
The value of α will be equal to 180o for a horizontal filter case and may be equal to or more than
90o in case a rock toe is provided at the downstream end, as shown in the figure below. α will be
less than 90o when no drainage is provided.

Figure 3.14: Various types of discharge faces

II) Analytical solutions

To determine the position of point K (the point at which the seepage line intersects the
downstream slope) analytically, two cases are discussed below.

Case (a):- when α < 30o

In order to find the value of ‘a’ analytically, Schaffernak and Van Iterson assumed that the
hydraulic gradient, i, is equal to the slope of the line of seepage, which is approximately true so
long as the slope is gentle (i.e. α < 30o ).

Unity University
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Soil Mechanics-I Soil Permeability & Seepage

Figure 3.15: Case when α < 30o

The value of ‘a’ for this case is given by;
b' b' 2 H2
a= − − 3.38
cos α cos 2 α sin 2 α
This equation can be derived based on the above assumption as follows;
dy  dy 
i= A = y ⋅1 q = KiA = K  ( y ⋅ 1)
dx  dx 
dy
but = tanα and y = a sinα
dx
dy
∴ q = K ⋅ a ⋅ sinα ⋅ tanα or K y = K ⋅ a ⋅ sinα ⋅ tanα
dx
∴ y ⋅ dy = a ⋅ sinα ⋅ tanα ⋅ dx
integrating both sides between the limits;
x = a ⋅ cosα to x = b' and y = a ⋅ sinα to y = H
y=H x =b '

∫ yα⋅ dy = a ⋅ sinα ⋅ tanα ∫ dxα

y = a⋅sin x = a⋅cos

2ab' H2
⇒a − 2
+ =0
cos α sin 2 α
solving this equation and rearranging;
b' b' 2 H2
a= − −
cos α cos 2 α sin 2 α

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Soil Mechanics-I Soil Permeability & Seepage

To obtain the seepage rate q, without sketching flow nets follow the following procedure
1) Obtain α
2) Calculate the length AB.
3) Calculate the length b and b’.
4) With known values of α and b, calculate a using equation 3.38.
5) With known value of a, calculate q using q=K a sinα tan α

Case (b):- when 30o < α < 60o

It is observed that the previous solution gives satisfactory results for slope < 30o. For steeper
slopes, the deviation from correct values increases rapidly beyond tolerable limits. Cassagrande
suggested the use of sinα instead of tanα for the hydraulic gradient (i). In other words (i = dy/ds)
instead of (i = dy/dx), where s is the distance measured along the phreatic line.

The value of ‘a’ for this case is given by;

a = b 2 + H 2 − b 2 − H 2 cot 2 α 3.39
This equation can be derived based on the above assumption as follows;

Figure 3.16: Case when 30o < α < 60o

dy  dy 
i= A = y ⋅1 q = KiA = K  ( y ⋅ 1)
ds  ds 
dy
but = sinα and y = a sinα
ds
dy
∴ q = K ⋅ a ⋅ sinα ⋅ sinα or K y = K ⋅ a ⋅ sin 2α
ds
∴ y ⋅ dy = a ⋅ sin α ⋅ ds
2

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integrating both sides between the limits;

y = a ⋅ sinα to y = H and s = a to s = S o
Where S o is the total length of the parabola from point A to point F.
y=H s = So

∫ y ⋅ dy =a ⋅ sin α ∫ dx
2

y = a⋅sinα s =a

H2
⇒ a − 2So ⋅ a +
2
=0
sin 2 α
S o can be approximately taken to be;
So = b 2 + H 2
substituting , we get;
a = b 2 + H 2 − b 2 − H 2 cot 2 α
To obtain the seepage rate q, without sketching flow nets follow the following procedure
1) Obtain α
2) Calculate the length AB.
3) Calculate the length b.
4) With known values of α and b, calculate a using equation 3.39.
5) With known value of a, calculate q using q=K a sin2α .

C) Phreatic line for a zoned section

In case of zoned section having central impervious core, the effect of the outer zone can be
neglected altogether. The focus of the base parabola will, therefore, be located at the downstream
toe of the core as shown in the figure below. The phreatic line can then be drawn as usual with
free hand correction required at suitable palaces.

Figure 3.17: Phreatic line for a zoned section

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