DC To AC Conversion (Inverter)

Chapter 4
DC to AC Conversion
(INVERTER)
• General concept
• Basic principles/concepts
• Single-phase inverter
– Square wave
– Notching
– PWM
• Harmonics
• Modulation
• Three-phase inverter
Power Electronics and 1

Drives (Version 2): Dr.
Zainal Salam, 2002
DC to AC Converter
(Inverter)
• DEFINITION: Converts DC to AC power
by switching the DC input voltage (or
current) in a pre-determined sequence so as
to generate AC voltage (or current) output.
• TYPICAL APPLICATIONS:
– Un-interruptible power supply (UPS), Industrial
(induction motor) drives, Traction, HVDC
• General block diagram
IDC Iac
+ +
VDC Vac
−
−

Zainal Salam, 2002
Types of inverter
• Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
• Current Source Inverter (CSI)
"DC LINK" Iac
+ +
C
VDC Load Voltage
− −
L ILOAD
+ IDC Load Current

VDC
−

Zainal Salam, 2002
Voltage source inverter (VSI)
with variable DC link
DC LINK
+ +
+
Vs C Vin Vo
-
- -
CHOPPER INVERTER
(Variable DC output) (Switch are turned ON/OFF
with square-wave patterns)
• DC link voltage is varied by a DC-to DC converter

or controlled rectifier.
• Generate “square wave” output voltage.
• Output voltage amplitude is varied as DC link is

varied.
• Frequency of output voltage is varied by changing

the frequency of the square wave pulses.
Zainal Salam, 2002
Variable DC link inverter (2)
• Advantages:
– simple waveform generation
– Reliable
• Disadvantages:
– Extra conversion stage
– Poor harmonics
Vdc2 Higher input voltage

Higher frequency
Vdc1 Lower input voltage

Lower frequency
T1 T2
t

Zainal Salam, 2002
VSI with fixed DC link
INVERTER
+
+
Vin
C Vo
(fixed)
− −
Switch turned ON and OFF

with PWM pattern
• DC voltage is held constant.
• Output voltage amplitude and frequency

are varied simultaneously using PWM
technique.
• Good harmonic control, but at the expense

of complex waveform generation

Zainal Salam, 2002
Operation of simple square-
wave inverter (1)
• To illustrate the concept of AC waveform
generation
SQUARE-WAVE
INVERTERS
T1 T3
D1 D3
+ VO -
VDC
IO
T4 T2
D2 D4
S1 S3
EQUAVALENT
CIRCUIT
S4 S2

Zainal Salam, 2002
Operation of simple square-
wave inverter (2)
S1,S2 ON; S3,S4 OFF for t1 < t < t2
vO
S1 S3 VDC
VDC
t
+ vO − t1 t2
S4 S2
S3,S4 ON ; S1,S2 OFF for t2 < t < t3

vO
S1 S3
VDC t2 t3
+ vO − t
S4 S2
-VDC

Zainal Salam, 2002
Waveforms and harmonics of
square-wave inverter
INVERTER
OUTPUT
Vdc
-Vdc
FUNDAMENTAL
V1
4VDC
π
3RD HARMONIC
V1
3
5RD HARMONIC
V1
5

Zainal Salam, 2002
Filtering
• Output of the inverter is “chopped AC
voltage with zero DC component”.In some
applications such as UPS, “high purity” sine
wave output is required.
• An LC section low-pass filter is normally

fitted at the inverter output to reduce the
high frequency harmonics.
• In some applications such as AC motor

drive, filtering is not required.
(LOW PASS) FILTER

L
+ +
C
vO 1 vO 2 LOAD
−
−
vO 1 vO 2

Zainal Salam, 2002
Notes on low-pass filters
• In square wave inverters, maximum output voltage
is achievable. However there in NO control in
harmonics and output voltage magnitude.
• The harmonics are always at three, five, seven etc

times the fundamental frequency.
• Hence the cut-off frequency of the low pass filter is

somewhat fixed. The filter size is dictated by the
VA ratings of the inverter.
• To reduce filter size, the PWM switching scheme

can be utilised.
• In this technique, the harmonics are “pushed” to

higher frequencies. Thus the cut-off frequency of
the filter is increased. Hence the filter components
(I.e. L and C) sizes are reduced.
• The trade off for this flexibility is complexity in

the switching waveforms.
Zainal Salam, 2002
“Notching”of square wave
Notched Square Wave
Vdc
−Vdc
Fundamental Component
Vdc
−Vdc
• Notching results in controllable output

voltage magnitude (compare Figures
above).
• Limited degree of harmonics control is

possible
Zainal Salam, 2002
Pulse-width modulation
(PWM)
• A better square wave notching is shown
below - this is known as PWM technique.
• Both amplitude and frequency can be

controlled independently. Very flexible.
1
pwm waveform
desired
1 sinusoid
SINUSOIDAL PULSE-WITDH MODULATED

APPROXIMATION TO SINE WAVE

Zainal Salam, 2002
PWM- output voltage and
frequency control

Zainal Salam, 2002
Output voltage harmonics
• Why need to consider harmonics?
– Waveform quality must match TNB supply.
“Power Quality” issue.
– Harmonics may cause degradation of
equipment. Equipment need to be “de-rated”.
• Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is a measure to
determine the “quality” of a given waveform.
• DEFINITION of THD (voltage)

∞ ∞
∑ (Vn, RMS ) 2
∑ (VRMS )2 − (V1, RMS )2
THDv = n = 2 = n=2
V1, RMS V1, RMS
where n is the harmonics number.

Current THD can be obtained by replacing
the harmonic voltage with harmonic current :
∞
∑ (I n, RMS )2
THDi = n = 2
I1, RMS
V
In = n
Zn
Z n is the impedance at harmonic frequency.
Zainal Salam, 2002
Fourier Series
• Study of harmonics requires understanding
of wave shapes. Fourier Series is a tool to
analyse wave shapes.
Fourier Series
1 2π
ao = ∫ f (v)dθ
π 0
1 2π
an = ∫ f (v) cos(nθ )dθ
π 0
1 2π
bn = ∫ f (v) sin (nθ )dθ
π 0
Inverse Fourier
∞
1
f (v) = ao + ∑ (an cos nθ + bn sin nθ )
2 n =1
where θ = ωt
Zainal Salam, 2002
Harmonics of square-wave (1)
Vdc
θ=ωt
π 2π
-Vdc
1 π 2π 
ao =  ∫ Vdc dθ + ∫ − Vdc dθ  = 0
π 0 π 
Vdc π 2π 
an =  ∫ cos(nθ )dθ − ∫ cos(nθ )dθ  = 0
π 0 π 
Vdc π 2π 
bn =  ∫ sin (nθ )dθ − ∫ sin (nθ )dθ 
π 0 π 

Zainal Salam, 2002
Harmonics of square wave (2)
Solving,
bn =
Vdc
nπ
[ π
− cos(nθ ) 0 + cos(nθ ) π
2π
]
Vdc
= [(cos 0 − cos nπ ) + (cos 2nπ − cos nπ )]
nπ
Vdc
= [(1 − cos nπ ) + (1 − cos nπ )]
nπ
2Vdc
= [(1 − cos nπ )]
nπ
when n is even, cos nπ = 1
bn= 0
when n is odd, cos nπ = −1

4V
bn= dc
nπ

Zainal Salam, 2002
Spectra of square wave
Normalised
Fundamental
1st
3rd (0.33)
5th (0.2)
7th (0.14)
9th (0.11)
11th (0.09)
1 3 5 7 9 11
n
• Spectra (harmonics) characteristics:

– Harmonic decreases as n increases. It decreases
with a factor of (1/n).
– Even harmonics are absent
– Nearest harmonics is the 3rd. If fundamental is
50Hz, then nearest harmonic is 150Hz.
– Due to the small separation between the
fundamental an harmonics, output low-pass
filter design can be quite difficult.
Zainal Salam, 2002
Quasi-square wave (QSW)
Vdc
α α α
π 2π
-Vdc
Note that an = 0.
Due to half - wave symmetry,
 1 π −α  2Vdc
bn = 2  ∫ Vdc sin (nθ )dθ  = [
π −α
− cos nθ α ]
π α  nπ
2V
= dc [cos(nα ) − cos n(π − α )]
nπ
Expanding,
cos n(π − α ) = cos(nπ − nα )

= cos nπ cos nα + sin nπ sin nα
= cos nπ cos nα

Zainal Salam, 2002
Harmonics control
2Vdc
⇒ bn = [cos(nα ) − cos nπ cos nα ]
nπ
2V
= dc cos(nα )[1 − cos nπ ]
nπ
If n is even, ⇒ bn = 0,
4Vdc
If n is odd, ⇒ bn = cos(nα )
nπ
In particular, amplitude of the fundamental is :
4V
b1 = dc cos(α )
π
The fundamental , b1, is controlled by varying α
Harmonics can also be controlled by adjusting α ,

For example if α = 30o , then b3 = 0, or the third
harmonic is eliminated from the waveform. In
general, harmonic n will be eliminated if :
90o
α=
n

Zainal Salam, 2002
Example
A full - bridge single phase inverter is fed by square wave
signals. The DC link voltage is 100V. The load is R = 10R
and L = 10mH in series. Calculate :
a) the THDv using the " exact" formula.
b) the THDv by using the first three non - zero harmonics
c) the THDi by using the first three non - zero harmonics
Repeat (b) and (c) for quasi - square wave case with α = 30
degrees

Zainal Salam, 2002
Half-bridge inverter (1)
S1 ON
Vdc S2 OFF
+
S1 2
VC1
-
− V +
Vdc o
G 0
t
RL
+
VC2 S2
- Vdc
−
2 S1 OFF
S2 ON
• Also known as the “inverter leg”.

• Basic building block for full bridge, three
phase and higher order inverters.
• G is the “centre point”.
• Both capacitors have the same value.
Thus the DC link is equally “spilt”into
two.

Zainal Salam, 2002
Half-bridge inverter (2)
• The top and bottom switch has to be

“complementary”, i.e. If the top switch is
closed (on), the bottom must be off, and
vice-versa.
• In practical, a dead time as shown below is

required to avoid “shoot-through” faults.
S1
signal
+ S1 (gate)
Ishort
Vdc G
S2
RL
signal
− (gate)
S2
"Shoot through fault" . td td

Ishort is very large
"Dead time' = td

Zainal Salam, 2002
Single-phase, full-bridge (1)
• Full bridge (single phase) is built from two
half-bridge leg.
• The switching in the second leg is “delayed
by 180 degrees” from the first leg.
VRG
Vdc
2
LEG R LEG R' π 2π ωt
+
Vdc Vdc
S1 S3 −
2 VR 'G 2
+ - Vdc
+ Vo - 2
Vdc R R'
G π 2π ωt
-
+ Vdc
−
2
Vdc S4 S2 Vo
2
Vdc
-
π 2π ωt
Vo = V RG − VR 'G
G is " virtual groumd"
− Vdc

Zainal Salam, 2002
Three-phase inverter
• Each leg (Red, Yellow, Blue) is delayed by
120 degrees.
• A three-phase inverter with star connected

load is shown below
+Vdc
+
Vdc/2 S1 S3 S5
−
G R Y B
iR iY iB
+
S4 S6 S2
Vdc/2
−
ia ib
ZR ZY ZB

Zainal Salam, 2002
Square-wave inverter
waveforms
VDC/2
VAD t
-VDC/2
VB0 t
VC0
t
(a) Three phase pole switching waveforms

VDC
600 1200
VAB t
-VDC
(b) Line voltage waveform
2VDC/3
VDC/3
VAPH t
-VDC/3
-2VDC/3
(c) Phase voltage waveform (six-step)
Interval 1 2 3 4 5 6
Positive device(s) on 3 3,5 5 1,5 1 1,3
Negative devise(s) on 2,4 4 4,6 6 2,6 2
Quasi-square wave operation voltage waveforms

Zainal Salam, 2002
Three-phase inverter
waveform relationship
• VRG, VYG, VBG are known as “pole

switching waveform” or “inverter phase
voltage”.
• VRY, VRB, VYB are known as “line to line

voltage” or simply “line voltage”.
• For a three-phase star-connected load, the

load phase voltage with respect to the “N”
(star-point) potential is known as VRN ,VYN,
VBN. It is also popularly termed as “six-
step” waveform

Zainal Salam, 2002
MODULATION: Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM)
Modulating Waveform Carrier waveform
+1
M1
−1
Vdc
2
0 t0 t1 t 2 t 3 t 4 t5
Vdc
−
2
• Triangulation method (Natural sampling)

– Amplitudes of the triangular wave (carrier) and
sine wave (modulating) are compared to obtain
PWM waveform. Simple analogue comparator
can be used.
– Basically an analogue method. Its digital
version, known as REGULAR sampling is
widely used in industry.

Zainal Salam, 2002
PWM types
• Natural (sinusoidal) sampling (as shown
on previous slide)
– Problems with analogue circuitry, e.g. Drift,
sensitivity etc.
• Regular sampling
– simplified version of natural sampling that
results in simple digital implementation
• Optimised PWM
– PWM waveform are constructed based on
certain performance criteria, e.g. THD.
• Harmonic elimination/minimisation PWM
– PWM waveforms are constructed to eliminate
some undesirable harmonics from the output
waveform spectra.
– Highly mathematical in nature
• Space-vector modulation (SVM)
– A simple technique based on volt-second that is
normally used with three-phase inverter motor-
drive
Zainal Salam, 2002
Natural/Regular sampling
MODULATION INDEX = M I :
Amplitude of the modulating waveform
MI =
Amplitude of the carrier waveform
M I is related to the fundamental (sine wave)
output voltage magnitude. If M Iis high, then
the sine wave output is high and vice versa.
If 0 < M I < 1, the linear relationship holds :
V1 = M I Vin
where V1, Vin are fundamental of the output

voltage and input (DC) voltage, respectively.
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
MODULATION RATIO = M R (= p )
Frequency of the carrier waveform

MR = p =
Frequency of the modulating waveform
M R is related to the " harmonic frequency". The
harmonics are normally located at :
f = kM R ( f m )
where f m is the frequency of the modulating signal

and k is an integer (1,2,3...)
Zainal Salam, 2002
Asymmetric and symmetric
regular sampling
T
+1 M1 sin ω mt
sample
point
t
T 3T 5T π
4 4 4 4
−1
Vdc
2 asymmetric
sampling
t
t0 t1 t2 t3
symmetric
sampling
V
− dc
2
Generating of PWM waveform regular sampling

Zainal Salam, 2002
Bipolar and unipolar PWM
switching scheme
• In many books, the term “bipolar” and
“unipolar” PWM switching are often
mentioned.
• The difference is in the way the sinusoidal

(modulating) waveform is compared with
the triangular.
• In general, unipolar switching scheme

produces better harmonics. But it is more
difficult to implement.
• In this class only bipolar PWM is

considered.

Zainal Salam, 2002
Bipolar PWM switching
∆ modulating
∆ δ= carrier
4 waveform waveform
π 2π
kth
pulse
π 2π
δ 1k
δ 2k
αk

Zainal Salam, 2002
Pulse width relationships
∆ modulating
∆ δ= carrier
4 waveform waveform
π 2π
kth
pulse
π 2π
δ 1k
δ 2k
αk

Zainal Salam, 2002
Characterisation of PWM
pulses for bipolar switching
∆
δ0 δ0 δ0 δ0
+ VS
2
δ 2k
δ1k
V
− S
2
αk
The kth PWM pulse

Zainal Salam, 2002
Determination of switching
angles for kth PWM pulse (1)
AS2
v Vmsin( θ )
AS1
+ Vdc
2
Ap1 Ap2
V
− dc
2
Equating the volt - second,

As1 = Ap1
As 2 = Ap 2

Zainal Salam, 2002
PWM Switching angles (2)
The average voltage during each half cycle
of the PWM pulse is given as :
 Vdc  δ1k − (2δ o − δ1k ) 

V1k =   
 2  2δ o 
 Vdc  δ1k − δ o   Vs 
=   = β1k  
 2  δ o  2
 δ1k − δ o 
where β1k =  
 δo 
Similarly,
 Vdc   δ 2k − δ o 
V2 k = β 2 k   ; where β 2 k =  
 2   δo 
The volt - second supplied by the sinusoid,
αk
As1 = ∫ Vm sin θdθ = Vm [cos(α k − 2δ o ) − cos α k ]
α k − 2δ o
= 2Vm sin δ o sin(α k − δ o )

Zainal Salam, 2002
Switching angles (3)
Since,
sin δ o → δ o for small δ o ,
As1 = 2δ oVm sin(α k − δ o )
Similarly,
As 2 = 2δ oVm sin(α k + δ o )
The volt - seconds of the PWM waveforms,

 Vdc   Vdc 
Ap1 = β1k  2δ o ; Ap 2 = β 21k  2δ o
 2   2 
To derive the modulation strategy,
Ap1 = As1; Ap 2 = As 2
Hence, for the leading edge

 Vdc 
β1k  2δ o = 2δ oVm sin(α k − δ o )
 2 
Vm
⇒ β1k = sin(α k − δ o )
(Vdc 2)

Zainal Salam, 2002
PWM switching angles (4)
The voltage ratio,
Vm
MI = is known as modulation
(Vdc 2 )
index or depth. It varies from 0 to 1.
Thus,
β1k = M I sin(α k − δ o )
Using similar method, the trailing edge

can be derived :
β 2 k = M I sin(α k − δ o )
Substituting to solve for the pulse - width,

δ −δo
β1k = 1k
δo
⇒ δ1k = δ o [1 + M I sin(α k − δ o )]
and
δ 2k = δ o [1 + M I sin(α k + δ o )]

Zainal Salam, 2002
PWM Pulse width
Thus the switching angles of the kth pulse is :
Leading edge : α k − δ1k
Trailing edge : α k + δ1k
The above equation is valid for Asymmetric

Modulation, i.eδ1k and δ 2k are different.
For Symmetric Modulation, δ1k = δ 2k = δ k
⇒ δ k = δ o [1 + M I sin α k ]

Zainal Salam, 2002
Example
• For the PWM shown below, calculate the switching
angles for all the pulses.
carrier
2V
waveform
1.5V
π 2π
modulating
waveform
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
π t13 t15 t17

t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 t9 t10 t11 t12 t14 t16 t18 2π
α1

Zainal Salam, 2002
Harmonics of bipolar PWM
Assuming the PWM waveform is half - wave
symmetry,harmonic content of each (kth)
PWM pulse can be computed as :
1T 
bnk = 2 ∫ f (v) sin nθdθ 
π 0 
2  k 1k  Vdc  
α −δ
=  ∫ −  sin nθdθ 
π α −2δ  2  
 k o
2  k 2 k  Vdc  
α +δ
+  ∫   sin nθdθ 
π α −δ  2  
 k 1k
2  k o  Vdc  
α + 2δ
+  ∫ −  sin nθdθ 
π α +δ  2  
 k 2k
Which can be reduced to :

V
bnk = − dc {cos n(α k − 2δ o ) − cos n(α k − δ1k )
nπ
+ cos n(α k + δ 2 k ) − cos n(α k − δ1k )
+ cos n(α k + δ 2 k ) − cos n(α k + 2δ o )}
Zainal Salam, 2002
Harmonics of PWM
Yeilding,
2V
bnk = dc [cos n(α k − δ1k ) − cos n(α k − 21k )
nπ
+ 2 cos nα k cos n 2δ o ]
This equation cannot be simplified

productively.The Fourier coefficent for the
PWM waveform isthe sum of bnk for the p
pulses over one period, i.e. :
p
bn = ∑ bnk
k =1
The slide on the next page shows the

computation of this equation.

Zainal Salam, 2002
PWM Spectra
M = 0.2
Amplitude
M = 0.4
1.0
0.8 M = 0. 6
0.6
Depth of
Modulation
0.4 M = 0.8
0.2
0 M = 1.0
p 2p 3p 4p
Fundamental
NORMALISED HARMONIC AMPLITUDES FOR
SINUSOIDAL PULSE-WITDH MODULATION

Zainal Salam, 2002
PWM spectra observations
• The amplitude of the fundamental decreases or
increases linearly in proportion to the depth of
modulation (modulation index). The relation ship is
given as: V1= MIVin
• The harmonics appear in “clusters” with main

components at frequencies of :
f = kp (fm); k=1,2,3....
where fm is the frequency of the modulation (sine)
waveform. This also equal to the multiple of the
carrier frequencies. There also exist “side-bands”
around the main harmonic frequencies.
• The amplitude of the harmonic changes with MI. Its

incidence (location on spectra) is not.
• When p>10, or so, the harmonics can be normalised

as shown in the Figure. For lower values of p, the
side-bands clusters overlap, and the normalised
results no longer apply.

Zainal Salam, 2002
Bipolar PWM Harmonics
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
h
MI
1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
MR 1.242 1.15 1.006 0.818 0.601
MR +2 0.016 0.061 0.131 0.220 0.318
MR +4 0.018
2MR +1 0.190 0.326 0.370 0.314 0.181

2MR +3 0.024 0.071 0.139 0.212
2MR +5 0.013 0.033
3MR 0.335 0.123 0.083 0.171 0.113

3MR +2 0.044 0.139 0.203 0.716 0.062
3MR +4 0.012 0.047 0.104 0.157
3MR +6 0.016 0.044
4MR +1 0.163 0.157 0.008 0.105 0.068

4MR +3 0.012 0.070 0.132 0.115 0.009
4MR+5 0.034 0.084 0.119

4MR +7 0.017 0.050

Zainal Salam, 2002
Bipolar PWM harmonics
calculation example
Note : for full bridge single - phase bipolar PWM,
vo = vRR, = vRG − vR 'G
= 2vRG
The harmonics are computed from :

(VˆRG )n  VDC 

 2 
as a function of M I
Example :
In the full - bridge single phase PWM inverter,

VDC = 100V, M I = 0.8, M R = 39. The
fundamentalfrequency is 47Hz. Calculate
the values of the fundamental - frequency
voltage and some of the dominant harmonics.

Zainal Salam, 2002
Three-phase harmonics:
“Effect of odd triplens”
• For three-phase inverters, there is
significant advantage if p is chosen to be:
– odd and multiple of three (triplens) (e.g.

3,9,15,21, 27..)
– the waveform and harmonics and shown on the
next two slides. Notice the difference?
• By observing the waveform, it can be seen

that with odd p, the line voltage shape
looks more “sinusoidal”.
• The even harmonics are all absent in the

phase voltage (pole switching waveform).
This is due to the p chosen to be odd.

Zainal Salam, 2002
Spectra observations
• Note the absence of harmonics no. 21, 63
in the inverter line voltage. This is due to p
which is multiple of three.
• In overall, the spectra of the line voltage is

more “clean”. This implies that the THD is
less and the line voltage is more sinusoidal.
• It is important to recall that it is the line

voltage that is of the most interest.
• Also can be noted from the spectra that the

phase voltage amplitude is 0.8
(normalised). This is because the
modulation index is 0.8. The line voltage
amplitude is square root three of phase
voltage due to the three-phase relationship.
Zainal Salam, 2002
Waveform: effect of “triplens”
Vdc
π 2π
2 V RG
Vdc
−
2
Vdc
2 VYG
Vdc
−
2
Vdc
V RY
− Vdc
p = 8, M = 0.6
Vdc
2 V RG
Vdc
−
2
Vdc
2 VYG
Vdc
−
2
Vdc
VRY
− Vdc
p = 9, M = 0.6
ILLUSTRATION OF BENEFITS OF USING A FREQUENCY RATIO
THAT IS A MULTIPLE OF THREE IN A THREE PHASE INVERTER

Zainal Salam, 2002
Harmonics: effect of
“triplens”
Amplitude
0.8 3 (Line to line voltage)

1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0. 6
B
0. 4
41 43 61 65 83 85
19 23 37 47 59 67 79 89
0. 2
0 A
21 63
83 85
19 23 41 43 61 65 81 87
39 45 59 67 79 89
37 47 57 69 77 91 Harmonic Order
Fundamental
COMPARISON OF INVERTER PHASE VOLTAGE (A) & INVERTER LINE VOLTAGE
(B) HARMONIC (P=21, M=0.8)

Zainal Salam, 2002
Comments on PWM scheme
• It is desirable to push p to as large as

possible.
• The main impetus for that when p is high,
then the harmonics will be at higher
frequencies because frequencies of
harmonics are related to: f = kp(fm), where
fm is the frequency of the modulating
signal.
• Although the voltage THD improvement is
not significant, but the current THD will
improve greatly because the load normally
has some current filtering effect.
• In any case, if a low pass filter is to be
fitted at the inverter output to improve the
voltage THD, higher harmonic frequencies
is desirable because it makes smaller filter
component.

Zainal Salam, 2002
Example
The amplitudes of the pole switching waveform harmonics of the red
phase of a three-phase inverter is shown in Table below. The inverter
uses a symmetric regular sampling PWM scheme. The carrier frequency
is 1050Hz and the modulating frequency is 50Hz. The modulation
index is 0.8. Calculate the harmonic amplitudes of the line-to-voltage
(i.e. red to blue phase) and complete the table.
Harmonic Amplitude (pole switching Amplitude (line-to

number waveform) line voltage)
1 1
19 0.3
21 0.8
23 0.3
37 0.1
39 0.2
41 0.25
43 0.25
45 0.2
47 0.1
57 0.05
59 0.1
61 0.15
63 0.2
65 0.15
67 0.1
69 0.05

Zainal Salam, 2002

DC To AC Conversion (Inverter)

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Chapter 4

Power Electronics and 1

• General block diagram

Power Electronics and 2

"DC LINK" Iac

+ IDC Load Current

Power Electronics and 3

• DC link voltage is varied by a DC-to DC converter

• Generate “square wave” output voltage.

• Output voltage amplitude is varied as DC link is

• Frequency of output voltage is varied by changing

Vdc2 Higher input voltage

Vdc1 Lower input voltage

Power Electronics and 5

Switch turned ON and OFF

• DC voltage is held constant.

• Output voltage amplitude and frequency

• Good harmonic control, but at the expense

Power Electronics and 6

Power Electronics and 7

S3,S4 ON ; S1,S2 OFF for t2 < t < t3

Power Electronics and 8

Power Electronics and 9

• An LC section low-pass filter is normally

• In some applications such as AC motor

(LOW PASS) FILTER

Power Electronics and 10

• The harmonics are always at three, five, seven etc

• Hence the cut-off frequency of the low pass filter is

• To reduce filter size, the PWM switching scheme

• In this technique, the harmonics are “pushed” to

• The trade off for this flexibility is complexity in

• Notching results in controllable output

• Limited degree of harmonics control is

• Both amplitude and frequency can be

SINUSOIDAL PULSE-WITDH MODULATED

Power Electronics and 13

Power Electronics and 14

• DEFINITION of THD (voltage)

where n is the harmonics number.

Power Electronics and 17

when n is odd, cos nπ = −1

Power Electronics and 18

• Spectra (harmonics) characteristics:

Due to half - wave symmetry,

cos n(π − α ) = cos(nπ − nα )

Power Electronics and 20

Harmonics can also be controlled by adjusting α ,

Power Electronics and 21

Power Electronics and 22

• Also known as the “inverter leg”.

Power Electronics and 23

• The top and bottom switch has to be

• In practical, a dead time as shown below is

"Shoot through fault" . td td

Power Electronics and 24

Power Electronics and 25

• A three-phase inverter with star connected

Power Electronics and 26

(a) Three phase pole switching waveforms

Power Electronics and 27

• VRG, VYG, VBG are known as “pole