EARTH AS A BUILDING MATERIAL

An Objective and Subjective Analysis

1. Objective:
The objective of this paper is to comprehensively cover the conventional and contemporary uses
of Earth as a building material. Much has been written and discussed about this wonderful
material. However, I have made a humble attempt to project a broad overview of the multifarious
possibilities as well as limitations of using Earth as a building material across different
geographical regions.
2. Introduction:
For centuries, Earth has been the basic building block for human shelters- a material inherently
human and yet unimaginably strong when used appropriately and carefully.
Vernacular earthen architecture of all geographical regions is an example of a perfectly
harmonious and symbiotic relationship between Man and Nature. In many ways, Earth has proven
to be the ideal material for human habitat- locally available, easily constructible, thermally efficient,
versatile, aesthetically satisfying and truly sustainable.

2.1 Some facts:

 40 % of the world population lives
in earthen dwellings
 25 % of the world population does
not have access to decent housing
 17 % of the “world cultural heritage
sites” is built with earth
 25 % of the “world heritage sites in
danger” is built with earth

 1.7 billion people of the world’s

 14 % of the “hundred most endangered
population live in earthen houses.
world heritage sites” is built with earth
( Statistics from UNESCO)
( Statistics from UNCHS)

Every single continent, and nearly every country,

possesses a rich heritage of earthen buildings.
From the roof of the world in Tibet, or the Andes
Mountains in Peru, to the Niles shore in Egypt or
the fertile valleys of China, there are several
examples of earth being used as an effective
building material.Earth is being revived as a
building material the world over, thanks to the
effort of various individuals and organizations,
and proving to be the material of the future due
to it’s immense potential.

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 3.0 Performance Matrix:
The paper attempts to cover the performance of Earth across the following matrix.
Properties Ease of execution Durability Aesthetics Limitations

4.0 Physical Properties

Soil is the result of the transformation of the underlying rock under the influence of a range of
physical, chemical and biological processes related to biological and climatic conditions and to
animal and plant life.

A soil is an earth concrete

Composition of a soil

Soil= Gravel + Sand + Silt + Clay

Like a concrete that contains gravel, sand and cement as a binder, a soil contains gravel, sand,
and, silt & clay which act as binders as well. But silt and clay are not stable under water. Hence
the purpose of stabilization is to stabilize silt and clay against water. Nevertheless, earthen
buildings proved that they could last very long, especially when people mastered the material and
when they maintained properly their buildings over the ages.

4.1 Fundamental Properties

Soils are composed of solid components, water and air. Soils are characterized by four
fundamental properties:

4.1.1 Granularity or texture

It corresponds to the grain size distribution of a soil. It is a percentage by weight of the different
grain sizes. For building with earth, pebbles should normally be removed.

4.1.2 Compressibility

It is the ability of a soil to be compressed to the maximum. It is related to the energy of

compaction. The Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) defines the compressibility.
The OMC is a percentage by weight of water to achieve the highest compression of a soil.

4.1.3 Plasticity

This property of a soil refers to its possibility to be submitted to deformation without elastic failure.
It defines its ability to be moulded.

4.1.4 Cohesion

It defines the capacity of soil grains to remain together. This property is strongly linked with the
plasticity.

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 4.2 Thermal Properties:

“There is a certain magic to living in buildings with thick earth walls. It’s hard to describe, but
easy to notice. Just take a step inside one on some warm summer day and you’ll feel it
immediately. It’s cool, of course—everyone knows adobe houses are “warm in winter and cool
in summer” but there’s something else, too, a little harder to put your finger on. “It’s quiet, feels
somehow incredibly solid and sturdy, very different from other houses, timeless even.” I once
had a happy homeowner tell me walking into her rammed earth house was like walking into
her lover’s outstretched arms.--from The Rammed Earth House, David Easton.

4.2.1 Thermal Mass Basics

Thermal mass refers to materials that have the capacity to store thermal energy for extended
periods. Thermal mass can be used effectively to absorb daytime heat gains (reducing cooling
load) and release the heat during the night (reducing heat load). The use of thermal mass in
shelter dates back to the dawn of humans, and until recently has been the prevailing strategy
for building climate control in hot regions. Today, passive techniques such as thermal mass are
ironically considered “alternative” methods to mechanical heating and cooling, yet the
appropriate use of thermal mass offers an efficient integration of structure and thermal
services. Just as Mass is an important constituent property for Inertia, Thermal Mass is an
important constituent property for Thermal Inertia.

4.2.2 Heat Storage and Diffusivity

The basic properties that indicate thermal behavior of materials are the density, specific heat,
and conductivity. For earth and most masonry materials the specific heat ranges from 0.2 to
0.25Wh/kgC. The total heat storage capability is related to the density and volume of material .

Diffusivity is the measure of how fast heat travels through the material, and is a function of the
conductivity divided by the product of the density and specific heat (units: area/time). The time
lag between outside and inside peak temperatures is a function of the thickness of the material
divided by the square root of the diffusivity.
For solid masonry materials, conductivity can be approximated as a function of density, though
precise values will vary according to moisture content.
Using these relations, we find that diffusivity has a non-linear relation to density. For example,
the diffusivity of 2200kg/m earth walls (k=1.3) is only 1.8 times the diffusivity of 600kg/m
(k=0.2) earth walls.

4.2.3 Thermal Time Constant

One of the more important mathematical constructs to imagine the behavior of thermal mass is
the Thermal Time Constant of a building envelope, defined as the product of the heat capacity
(Q) and the resistance (R) to heat transmission. The TTC is representative of the effective
thermal capacity of a building.

4.2.4 Diurnal Heat Capacity

The DHC is a measure of the building’s capacity to absorb solar energy coming into the interior of
the space, and to release the heat to the interior during the night hours. The DHC is of particular
importance for buildings with direct solar gain. The DHC of a material is a function of building
material’s density, specific heat, conductivity, and thickness.
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 4.2.5 Impact of TTC and DHC on behavior of the structure

Relative values of TTC indicate the thermal capacity of the building when a building is
Affected mostly by heat flow across the opaque parts of the envelope (i.e., when it is
unventilated, and when solar gain is small relative to the total heat transfer through the building
envelope). Relative values of DHC, on the other hand, indicate the thermal capacity for
buildings where solar gain is considerable. The DHC also is a measure of how much “coolth”
the building can store during the night in a night ventilated building. Both measures indicate the
amount of interior temperature swing that can be expected based on outdoor temperatures
(higher values indicate less swing).

4.2.6 TTC and DHC Examples

a) Building which is externally insulated with internal exposed mass.

Here, both TTC and DHC are high. When the building is ventilated at night and closed during
the day, it can absorb the heat in the mass with relatively small indoor temperature rise.
Ideally suited for hot-dry regions.
b) Building with mass insulated internally.
Here, both the TTC is and DHC are low. The mass will store energy and release energy mostly
to the exterior, and the thermal response is similar to a low mass building.
Recommended for moderate climates
c) Building with high mass insulated externally and internally.
Here, the building has a high TTC, but a negligible DHC, as the interior insulation separates
the mass from the interior. When the building is closed and the solar gain is minimized, the
mass will dampen the temperature swing, but if the building is ventilated, the effect of the mass
will be negated. With solar gain, the inside temperature will rise quickly, as the insulation
prevents absorption of the energy by the mass. There is little Thermal Lag. Recommended for
regions not having high Diurnal temperature variation.
d) Building with core insulation inside two layers of mass.
Here the TTC is a function of mostly the interior mass and the amount of insulation, and the
DHC is a function on the interior mass. The external mass influences heat loss and gain by
affecting the delta T across the insulation.

4.3 Methods of Energy Transfer

Following are the four methods of how the body transfers energy from and to the
environment:

a) Conduction
b) Convection
c) Radiation
d) Evaporation

Of these, the last two (radiation and evaporation) play an important role in earth construction.

4.3.1Radiative Heat Transfer

Radiation heat transfer is concerned with the exchange of thermal radiation energy between two
or more bodies. Thermal radiation is defined as electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range
of 0.1 to 100 microns (which encompasses the visible light regime), and arises as a result of a
temperature difference between 2 bodies.
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 No medium need exist between the two bodies for heat transfer to take place (as is needed
by conduction and convection). Rather, the intermediaries are photons which travel at the speed
of light. The heat transferred into or out of an object by thermal radiation is a function of several
components. These include its surface reflectivity, emissivity, surface area, temperature, and
geometric orientation with respect to other thermally participating objects. In turn, an object's
surface reflectivity and emissivity is a function of its surface conditions (roughness, finish, etc.)
and composition.
Globally, the earth receives electromagnetic radiation from the sun which is typically
defined as short-wave radiation and emits it at longer wavelengths known typically as longwave
radiation. This absorption and re-emission of radiation at the earth’s surface level which forms a
part of the heat transfer in the earth’s planetary domain yields the idea for the concept of Passive
Heat Storage System. When averaged globally and annually, about 49% of the solar radiation
striking the earth and its atmosphere is absorbed at the surface (meaning that the atmosphere
absorbs 20% of the incoming radiation and the remaining 31% is reflected back to space). This
absorbed 49% of the solar radiation presents a premise for energy efficiency in building design.
The concept of Passive Heat Storage System design focuses fundamentally on the utilization of
the absorbed/retained heat from this annual absorption and re-emission of radiation for indoor
thermal environment control.

4.3.2 Thermal behaviour of adobe buildings

Adobe is able to absorb heat during the day keeping the house cool and then release this stored
heat at night, warming the interior of the house. This behaviour is due to the high specific heat
capacity of adobe which is an important factor that allows this material to reduce the thermal
gradient of earthen houses .On the other hand, the ability of adobe to conduct heat is highly
dependent on its moisture content, with a strong relationship between water content and heat
conduction .

4.3.3 Evaporation--the Miracle of Earth Walls

Humidity is another major factor in experiencing comfortable conditions. The ability of earth
walls to balance the indoor climate by absorbing and releasing humidity and thus creating a
healthy interior is unmatched by other materials. Research by the University of Kassel in
Germany has shown that the first 1.5cm thick layer of an unfired mud brick wall is able to
absorb about 300grams of water per square meter of wall surface in 48 hours if the humidity is
increased from 50% to 80%. In addition, recent research has shown that earth walls can
actually absorb air pollutants. The choice of interior finish is critical if the absorption quality of
earth walls is to be preserved.

5.0 Ease of execution

5.1 Soil Suitability According to the Technique

The techniques of using Earth vary according to the soil quality. The following table indicates the
suitable techniques for different soil types:

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SOIL TYPE TECHNIQUE REMARKS
Gravely Filled in None
Rammed Earth It can be used for raw rammed
CSEB earth if the soil is cohesive
enough and it has enough clay.

Poured If the clay content is enough

Sandy Filled in None

Covered None
Rammed Earth It can be used for raw rammed
CSEB earth if the soil is cohesive
enough and it has enough clay.
Poured If the silt and clay are not too
active.
Silty Filled in None
Covered None
CSEB It might be improved with
coarse content if the clay
content is enough
Cob Mixing a soil slightly more
clayey might be needed if the
soil is not cohesive enough

Adobe Mixing a soil slightly more

clayey might be needed if the
soil is not cohesive enough

Clayey Filled in None

Covered None
Rammed Earth An improvement with sand and
CSEB a cement stabilization will be
needed
Shaped A stabilization with sand ,
natural fibres or cow dung
might be needed
Cob A stabilization with sand or
straw might be needed

Adobe A stabilization with sand or

straw might be needed

Extruded Improvement with sand and a

stabilization with lime might be
needed
Wattle & Daub Stabilization with sand or
natural fibers needed
Straw Clay None

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 5.2 Soil Suitability Techniques

a) Rammed Earth
Rammed earth has been used since ages worldwide like many other earth techniques. The
worldwide tradition of rammed earth construction has shown that it is possible to achieve long
lasting and majestic buildings from single to multi storey. Wonderful heritage can be found in
countries such as France, Spain, Morocco, China, and all over the Himalayan area. One can see
numerous and wonderful examples with all kinds of buildings, including a) Farms, or rural houses,
chateaux and apartments in Europe b) Entire villages in North Africa c) Parts of the great wall of
China d) Buildings in most of the Himalayan regions of Tibet, Bhutan, Nepal and Ladakh
The earth is mixed thoroughly with water to get a homogeneous humid mix. This humid earth is
poured in a form in thin layers and then rammed to increase its density. The increase of density
increases as well the compressive strength and the water resistance. Ramming was traditionally
done by hand. Since a few decades, ramming is being done mechanically with pneumatic
rammers .Two techniques of formwork have traditionally been developed- horizontal and vertical.

Horizontal Technique

The horizontal technique was used in many

parts of the world. Strips of walls were built
horizontally and their height varied from 30 to
90 cm. The formwork consisted of 2 wooden
panels held together with wooden clamps and
keys, which were tightened with ropes. Once
one portion of a wall was completed, the
formwork was immediately dismantled and
moved further along the side of the wall.

Vertical Technique

The vertical technique was used in a few

places in the world: mainly in Tibet, China
and one region of France (Bugey).The walls
were built vertically to their full height at once.
Long poles were anchored in the ground to
hold side panels, which were made of wood
and tightened with rope. The entire height of
the wall was built course after course. Once a
course was completed, the side panel was
raised to ram a next course and the process
went on till the entire height of the wall was
completed.

Illustrations of Rammed Earth Construction

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 b) Adobe Construction

Sun dried clay brick, named Adobe, is undoubtedly one of the oldest building materials used by
mankind. The oldest identified adobes were produced around 9000 BC at Dja’ De EI Mughara in
Syria. Adobes are made of thick malleable mud, often added with straw. After being cast they are
left to dry under the sun. They are traditionally either hand shaped or shaped in prallael piped
wooden moulds.

Illustrations of Adobe Construction

c) Cob Construction

Plastic soil is usually formed in balls, which are freshly stacked upon each other. This technique
has been used a lot long ago in Europe, where it was named cob in England and bauge in France.
This technique is still used a lot in Africa, India and in Saudi Arabia, where beautiful examples can
be seen. The most beautiful examples are encountered in Yemen with Shibam. This old historic
capital of Southern Yemen has been named “The Manhattan of the Desert”.

Illustrations of Cob Construction

d) Wattle and Daub

A load bearing structure, generally made with wood, is closed with infill wall panels. The latter are
made of a lattice plastered on both sides with a plastic soil. The lattice frame holds the soil and
gives rigid panels. This lattice is often made of reeds, sticks or bamboo. It has been extensively
used in many parts of the world: in developing countries as well as in Europe. In France
(Normandy & Bretagne) the earth was often stabilized with the urine of horse: the ammonia
contained in the urine gave water resistant properties, to a certain extent, to the soil.

Illustrations of Wattle and Daub Construction

e) Shaped earth

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Direct shaping makes use of plastic earth and does not require a mould or formwork. Plastic earth
is shaped, as a potter would do it. The quality of the soil, its preparation and the water consistency
are known only to the builders. This technique presents the advantage to use minimal and very
simple tools, and to use a minimum of labour which is necessarily skilled. This technique allows
very fluid architecture with a great variety. The limitation of this technique is mostly the know-how
for the soil quality and controlling the shrinkage when the wall dries.

Illustrations of Shaped Earth Construction

6.0 Durability

The durability of building materials can be defined as their resistance to functional deterioration
over time. Durability can be divided into three sections:
a) Physical- Deterioration caused by physical process such as abrasion or reversal of stress.
b) Chemical- Deterioration caused by chemical reactions such as rusting of steel
c) Biological- Deterioration caused by organic break down

The predominant cause of loss of functionality in earth

walls is the loss of surface area due to erosion or
physical attack by wind driven rain. The breakdown of
the surfaces of Earth wall units can be influenced by
material properties, stabilizers, compaction, freeze
thaw and / or chemical attack by airborne salts, micro
climate/position of façade, surface texture, the
wetting/ drying cycle, physical deterioration and
surface coating.

6.1 Material Properties

While this is certainly a major factor in mud brick buildings, where increased clay content generally
leads to greater erosion resistance, it does not seem to be a major concern in soil stabilized or
rammed earth buildings. For these types, the soil generally contains less than 15% clay
.Generally; there are little variations in performance between soil types suitable in this case;
although in some cases, when particularly reactive clay is present, some problems may arise.

6.2 Compaction

Loose materials provide very little resistance to the erosive power of rain. In general, durability
increases exponentially with the degree of compaction.

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 6.3 Influence of Freeze/ Thaw and /or Chemical Attack by Airborne salts

It has been shown by Sherwood that the sulphate attack can cause the deterioration of clays and
it is conceivable that freeze / thaw attacks will be potentially problematic for some countries. This
will cause destabilization of surface units and make them more susceptible to attack by wind
driven rain

6.4 Effect of Micro Climate and Position of Elements in the Façade

Real buildings generate their own micro climate due to their size and shape, which results in
considerable variation in rain drop impact velocities and directions on particular facades.
Additionally, the local effect of projections such as window cills and splashing at the base of the
walls has an impact on the projected erosion.

6.5 Influence of Surface Texture

The surface texture of earth wall units can vary significantly depending on the manner in which
they have been formed. This can significantly affect the erosion resistance of the wall.

6.6 Influence of Wetting/ Drying Cycle

Cycles of wetting and drying increase surface stress. This technique in comparison to a constant
stream of rain can lead to a rapid break down of the unit.

6.7 Effect of Physical Deterioration

The physical deterioration caused by structural effects such as differential shrinkage or any
structural cracking within the units will lead to a weakening of the wall’s ability to resist attacks by
wind driven rain- thereby making them less durable.

6.8 Influence of surface coating:

Many earth walls are coated with protective coating such as renders. These coatings help to
improve durability.

6.9 Accidental abrasion

Accidental abrasion is also a significant agent of deterioration
Some studies have also noted relationship between compressive strength and durability and
accelerated durability test performance

7.0 Aesthetics

Earth as a building material has natural aesthetics associated with it. Versatile in nature, it has the
ability to lend itself to a variety of forms- rectilinear as well as curved.
The inherent capability of earth structures to blend with the surroundings, somewhat akin to Frank
Lloyd wright’s “Hill and house should live together each the happier for the other” comes perhaps
from the properties of the material itself. If the basic principles are respected with sensitivity, Earth
does not need ‘dressing up’. The versatility of the material can be assessed from the following
parameters:

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 a)The variety of forms that it can
lend itself to –Rectilinear forms ,
Arches, Vaults and Domes

b)The inherent complimentary

characteristics in the material- it
complements both organic and
inorganic materials seamlessly well-
Concrete, Brick, Timber

c)The variety of finishes and

textures that it lends itself to

d) It’s capacity to functionally

integrate with other materials like
concrete and steel-example-
Composite Columns and Beams

8.0 Limitations

Some of the limitations of using Earth are highlighted below.

a) Sensitivity-
As much as the sensitivity of Earth is one of it’s primary plus points, it is also a severe
limitation. If not handled correctly and sensitively by hands that understand the material
well, the results can be devastating and unexpected.
b) Structural Limitations –
Wide spans, High and Long buildings are difficult to construct.
c) Performance Limitations-
Low technical performance compared to concrete. Especially, being quite weak in
tension requires special care.
d) Possibility of over or under stabilisation.
All soils have different characteristics, and need to be understood correctly before
deciding the necessity and extent of stabilisation.
e) Low social acceptance-
Earth continues to be seen as a poor man’s material, which is actually a mind-set.
f) Inadequate information including Lack of sufficient codes and adequate research
g) Variation in strength due to changes in the moisture content. Some of these variations
can sometimes be unpredictable.
h) Variations in soil quality, and hence in the quality of blocks and the production of blocks
on site
i) Mechanical qualities are less regular compared to brick and concrete.
j) Sensible building details are required
k) The constraints of organizing and managing the production of one’s own building
material on site

Conclusions
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Undoubtedly, Earth is as much a material of the past as of the future. It has enormous potential in
contributing towards genuine global sustainability. A lot of attempts are being made to rediscover it
and there is a lot more to be discovered. It’s potentialities far outweigh its limitations. As the world
moves towards sustainability, Earth is one versatile material that would be able to meet the
growing and varied demands of housing, efficient construction, functionality and aesthetics.

Acknowledgement

a) ‘ Building with Earth ‘ by The Earth Unit, Auroville, India

b) ‘Developing Rammed Earth for UK Housing’ by Vasilios Maniatidis & Peter Walker
Natural Building Technology Group, Department of Architecture & Civil Engineering
University of Bath, UK
c) ‘Influence of Arabic and Chinese Rammed Earth Techniques in the Himalayan Region’ by Paul
Jaquin, Integral Engineering Design, Tollbridge Studios, Bath, UK
d)‘Adobe as a Sustainable Material : A Thermal Performance by J.D. Revuelta- Acosta, A.Garcia-
Diaz, G.M.Soto-Zarazua, E.Rico-Garcia,Journal of Applied Sciences
e)Sustainable earth walls to meet the building regulations Steven Goodhewa , Richard Griffithsb,
School of Civil Engineering, University of Plymouth, Reynolds Building, Drake Circus, Plymouth
PL4 8AA, UK b School of Architecture and Design, University of Plymouth, Hoe Centre, Notte
Street, Plymouth PL1 2AR, Devon, UK
f) ‘Earth Shelters; A Review of Energy Conservation Properties in Earth Sheltered Housing’ by
Akubue Jideofor Anselm
g) Sanjay Prakash, SHIFT, New Delhi, India
h) ‘Building with Earth Design and Technology of a Sustainable Architecture’ by Gernot Minke