A Brief History of CALL

Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is the general term for the range of
processes and activities that employ computers in the teaching and learning of a new
langauge.

In the history of CALL we can see the confluence of the latest technology as well as the most
widely accepted language theories of the day.

The history of CALL is often divided into three phases:

1. Structural CALL
2. Communicative CALL
3. Integrative CALL
Starting in the ’50s and developing through the ’70s, we have what’s
called Structural/Behaviorist CALL by Warschauer. This marked the era of Stimulus and
Response. The computer prompts the student with a question (stimulus) and the student
gives an answer (response) by filling in the blanks or choosing from a given set of choices.
The methods du jour were the Grammar-Translation and Audiolingualmethods.
Language was seen as made up of discrete units, and these units were considered to be
closely interconnected and interacting according to a predictable and explainable set of
rules (grammar). Teachers taught the different rules of grammar and repetitively drilled
their classes on different ways the rules can be correctly applied.

Computers at this stage were mainly utilized as devices that could present stimuli
repetitively in exactly the same manner without ever getting tired. An example of this are
the “listen-and-repeat” programs running in language labs at that time.

In the ’80s and ’90s came Communicative CALL. The Communicative Approach to
language teaching came into being as a reaction to the Grammar-Translation and
Audiolingual methods. This time, instead of teaching the language—its rules, syntax,
phonemes and morphemes—teachers found ways to provide opportunities for students to
actually use the language. They gave students tasks that can only be completed by using
language. Communication and interaction were important.

And because such technology always comes in service of the language paradigm of the day,
computers were used to reflect these ideas. Language drills were increasingly placed in the
context of a communicative task—like programs that feature some cartoon character
where students help him find his way home. Computer programs were designed to gauge
comprehension with drills like paced reading and sentence reconstruction.
And developments in computer technology didn’t just affect the “testing” part of CALL. It
really made teaching language more vivid. For example, the continued development in
computer capabilities has resulted into crisper audio and video. So in addition to the drill
formats, students can learn by watching videos of how native speakers actually interact.
They can see how language is used in different situations, like in meeting a new person or
asking for directions. Computers have given language learners a more vivid idea of what
language is beyond the subject-verb agreements and the endless list of vocabulary words to
be memorized.

The next phase of CALL is the Integrative Phase (which has reigned from 2000 onwards).
First came the drills of the structural approach, then followed the skills in the
communicative approach. Critics of the second phase say that the skills taught may be
limited to the number and types of situations that may be presented to students. (We are
not asking for directions or ordering food at the restaurant the whole time.)

There needs to be an integration of the (general language) knowledge presented in the first
phase as well as the communicative skills of the second phase. So we have the integrative
phase which blended the virtues of the previous decades into a technology that, for its part,
has found its stride.

The development of the internet and hypermedia that can integrate, video and audio
streaming, graphic-interactive content and virtual worlds, have redefined how learning is
done. With today’s technology, you can develop speaking, listening, reading and writing
skills concurrently and in the comfort of one’s private space and schedule.

The perfect example of this Integrative CALL is FluentUwith its interactive videos. You have
a slew of different types of video content involving different types of topics, themes and
situations (Phase 2). You have an interactive transcription where when you scroll over any
word, out pops its own dictionary entry that explains various usage and rules of grammar
and syntax for that specific word (Phase 1). With technologies like FluentU, you get the best
of both worlds.

And that, briefly, is how CALL has developed over the years.

What technology can do to redefine the concepts of teaching and learning language will be
up for grabs for the next game changer.
Advantages: The 2 I’s of CALL
Individualized

One of the advantages of CALL, in its present form, is the ability to cater to individual
differences. Differences in learning styles, language skills desired, pacing and learning
schedules can be easily accommodated.

It used to be that computer programs deliver a one-size-fits-all, cookie cutter material that
can only be accessed after signing your university’s computer lab log book. Today, learning
a language has not only been democratized, it has been individualized.

For example, you create a free account in any of the major language learning sites
like Busuu and Babbel and you start your own learning journey without interference from
others. There are no classmates, no group lectures and no chorus of students repeating
after teacher.

You decide how much time you want to put in and when you want to access it. There’s no
calendar for classes where you’ll be marked absent when you don’t show up.

You can access the materials anytime and anywhere you want. Actually, one way of looking
at the history of CALL is by noticing how technology has individualized language learning.
The university’s mainframes and language labs used to have a monopoly on some clunky
software. Then came the PC in the 90s and were computers found a home in practically
every home. Today, with mobile technology, language learning can be had on the go, while
sitting on the bus, while waiting in line at the Apple store or even while taking a shower.

Interactive
CALL has come so far along that it can virtually replace an actual teacher asking the class,
“So, what do you guys think? What do you want to do next?”

Well, not all teachers want input from their students. The advantage computers have is that
they do need an input in order to run. That means they’re inherently interactive. Over the
decades, the complexity of this interaction has been increasing. From the simple stimulus-
response in early computers where students are practically passive learners, we now have
CALL actually “learning” and “remembering” student preferences. From a simple text
presentation, we now have gamified graphics like Mindsnacks.
The individualized nature of CALL has led to the second “I.” Interactive means that when
you click on something, the computer responds. There’s enough flexibility built into
the technology so that what happens in the lesson is largely up to you. Do you want to take
it in this or that direction? Not only can the students choose which topics to study, skip or
which ones to tackle first, they can click also forward and backward, and the computer
obliges their commands.

The interactive nature of today’s CALL ensures that learning is always a two-way street.
Students do have a say in what they want to learn. CALL is dynamic, not static. Robust not
rigid.

How Is CALL Used?

To Teach

CALL applications can be used by teachers as technology partners in running their

classrooms from the initial intro of language concepts to the giving of electronic homework.
Students are using computers in practically every other aspect of their lives anyway, from
locating the nearest coffee shop to shopping for new shoes. So why not throw learning a
new language to the mix?

CALL, in addition to integrating technology in the learning process, also helps solve classic
teacher problems like capturing student attention, maintaining student interest, holding
focus and increasing engagement. Teachers can benefit from the great variety of interactive
activities, games, songs and stories that make language learning not only painless but also
fun.
Applications like the award-winning Language Nut was developed for this very purpose
and looks to be a complete solution and curriculum partner for language teachers. (It was
developed, after all, by former language teachers.) It supports four language skills—
listening, reading, writing, speaking—and has an immersive interface that’s easily
addictive. In the world of Language Nut, you sing songs, play games, listen to stories and
remember vocabulary all the way to fluency.
To Reinforce

CALL can also be used to reinforce a teacher’s classroom lessons and activities. When
educators need help in making lessons more vivid and when they need the concepts to
come alive, instead of pasting cut-outs and visual aids on the board they can make use of
multimedia lessons offered in CALL.

FluentU is one example of CALL that can be used in every phase of teaching language. Its
concerts, interviews and music video clips, for instance, can scaffold linguistic discussions
given by the teacher, providing a different look and a new approach to the lesson. They put
new language in context and breathe life into it. Multimedia content can effectively
substantiate topical lessons, from greetings and introductions to talking about the weather,
food and even sports.
But CALL doesn’t only give students a clear line of sight (and sound) on what the teacher is
talking about. It has capabilities beyond what any human can do. FluentU has interactive
transcripts, which means practically everything you need to know about a specific word—
like definitions, in-context usage and pronunciation—pops out the moment you roll the
cursor over said word. The learn mode of this program employs SRS to introduce and
reinforce new vocabulary, grammar patterns, expressions and even full sentences, and
incorporates video clips into its flashcards and dynamic learning games.

CALL doesn’t have the physical limitations that cap humans. That’s why it can bridge the
gap when human endurance and consistency need a boost. For example, a teacher can only
repeat the lessons so many times. But repetition is key if no child in class is to be left
behind. CALL apps, videos and programs can be run and rerun as many times as necessary,
without fatigue and diminishing returns, and irrespective of geography or time. That means
students can review and study the lessons long after the teacher has gone home and sound
asleep.

To Test
There will probably never be a substitute for a teacher or a native speaker to determine
whether a student has actually become fluent with the language, but CALL has become very
good at assessing competency with subsets of a language. For example, it can easily
determine if a student has mastered specific topics, like grammar and vocabulary.

But beyond simple testing really, CALL has been able to integrate both teaching and testing
in a single stroke of a mouse. With programs like Duolingo, Memrise and Brainscape,
there’s very little time gap between teaching and testing, or rather, very little difference
between teaching and testing at all.
For example, in a simple translation exercise, the French word for smile (sourire) might be
presented in a slide or flashcard with pics and an audio feed. With a simple click of the
“next” button, a user might immediately be shown a slide that testing “What is French for
smile?” This encourages the learner to recognize the word and produce the word in
different contexts.

CALL is free of subjective biases and can faithfully follow a predetermined set of
algorithms. That is, if a user shows mastery over certain topics or words then the program
proceeds to other more difficult material. If they don’t have this knowledge ingrained yet,
then it repeats the material until it has determined that the user has exhibited sufficient
knowledge of the subject. In a way, the program tells the student, “Hey, you haven’t really
learned this word yet, so I’m going to present it a couple more times so you can have it
saved in your long-term memory.”

To Practice

CALL can be used even when classes are out and in the teacher’s absence. Language
learning technology in its present form is student-initiated and student-centered, giving all
the time and all the room in the world for students to practice. Language practice can be
had in the privacy of one’s room and at a moment’s notice. And the kicker is that students
get to do all this without fear of being negatively judged by others.

And of course, CALL practice is equal parts learning and fun as exemplified
by Mindsnacks—a gamified approach to language learning. For example, it has a game
called Dam Builder where you shift wooden logs around so that, in the end, you’re able to
pair corresponding words/phrases.
But probably one of the most important contribution technology has to language learning is
that it has given learners access to the native speakers. Technologies
like italki and Skype took language learners from hammering at the language alone, to
working with native speakers, tutors or teachers sitting in their own rooms half a world
away. In the past, this kind of practice could only be had by flying across oceans.
CALL makes everything that much easier. From the teaching, reinforcing, testing and
practicing, CALL presents itself as a capable and consistent partner to both teacher and
student. It changed the way languages are being tamed.

But for all its virtues, there’s one thing that will always remain in the human
province. Motivation. The zeal to learn a new language will always be alien to technology.
Technology can’t manufacture drive out of thin air, for it’s fashioned into the inner recesses
of the human spirit.

Using computers in language teaching

Computers have made a triumphal entry into education in the past decade, and only a
dyed-in-the wool Luddite would deny that they have brought significant benefits to
teachers and students alike. However, an uncritical use of computers can be just as
disadvantageous to students as a refusal to have anything to do with them. In this
article I discuss some of the ways that computers can be used in English language
teaching, with a view to helping colleagues make the most of the opportunities they
offer to ESL students.

It is helpful to think of the computer as having the following main roles in the
language classroom:

 teacher - the computer teaches students new language

 tester - the computer tests students on language already learned
 tool - the computer assists students to do certain tasks
 data source - the computer provides students with the information they need to
perform a particular task
 communication facilitator - the computer allows students to communicate
with others in different locations

Computer as teacher. In the early days of computers and programmed learning,

some students sat at a terminal for extended periods following an individualized
learning program. Although we have come a long way from the rather naïve thought,
held by some at that time, that the computer could eventually come to replace the
teacher, there has been a return to a much more sophisticated kind of computerized
teaching using multimedia CD ROMS. In such programs, students can listen to
dialogues or watch video clips. They can click on pictures to call up the names of the
objects they see. They can speak into the microphone and immediately hear a
recording of what they have said. The program can keep a record of their progress,
e.g. the vocabulary learned, and offer remedial help if necessary. Many of these CD
ROM programs are offered as complete language courses. They require students to
spend hours on their own in front of the computer screen, usually attached to a
microphone headset. For this reason alone I prefer not to use them in my language
teaching. Another of their serious drawbacks, in my view, is the fact that in many
cases the course content and sequence is fixed. The teacher has no chance to include
materials that are of interest and importance to the particular students in his or her
class.

As an alternative to large CD ROM packages, there is an increasing number of useful

sites on the World Wide Web, where students can get instruction and practice in
language skills such as reading, listening and writing. Some examples.

Computer as a tester. The computer is very good at what is known as drill and
practice; it will tirelessly present the learner with questions and announce if the
answer is right or wrong. In its primitive manifestations in this particular role in
language teaching, it has been rightly criticised. The main reason for the criticism is
simple: many early drill and practice programs were very unsophisticated; either
multiple-choice or demanding a single word answer. They were not programmed to
accept varying input and the only feedback they gave was Right or Wrong. So for
example, if the computer expected the answer "does not" and the student typed
"doesn't" or " doesnot" or " does not ", she would have been told she was wrong
without any further comment. It is not surprising that such programs gave computers a
bad name with many language teachers. Unfortunately, there are now very many of
these primitive drill and kill programs flooding the Internet.

Despite their obvious disadvantages, such programs are nevertheless popular with
many students. This is probably because the student is in full control, the computer is
extremely patient and gives private, unthreatening feedback. Most programs also keep
the score and have cute animations and sounds, which many students like.

There are some programs which do offer more useful feedback than right or wrong, or
that can accept varying input. Such programs blur the role of the computer as teacher
or tester and can be recommended to students who enjoy learning grammar or
vocabulary in this way. If two or more students sit at the same computer, then they
can generate a fair amount of authentic communication while discussing the answers
together.

Computer as a tool. It is in this area that I think the computer has been an
unequivocal success in language teaching. Spreadsheets, databases, presentation slide
generators, concordancers and web page producers all have their place in the language
classroom, particularly in one where the main curricular focus is task-based or
project-work. But in my opinion, by far the most important role of the computer in the
language classroom is its use as a writing tool. It has played a significant part in the
introduction of the writing process, by allowing students easily to produce multiple
drafts of the same piece of work.. Students with messy handwriting can now do a
piece of work to be proud of, and those with poor spelling skills can, after sufficient
training in using the spell check, produce a piece of writing largely free of spelling
mistakes.

Computer as a data source. I'm sure I don't need to say much about the Internet as a
provider of information. Anyone who has done a search on the World Wide Web will
know that there is already more information out there than an individual could process
in hundred lifetimes, and the amount is growing by the second. This huge source of
information is an indispensable resource for much project work, but there are serious
negative implications. I shudder to think of how much time has been wasted and will
continue to be wasted by students who aimlessly wander the Web with no particular
aim in mind and with little or no guidance. I generally do not turn my students free to
search the web for information. Instead, I find a few useful sites beforehand and tell
the students to start there; anyone who finishes the task in hand can then be let loose!

As an alternative to the Web, there are very many CD ROMs, e.g. encyclopaedias,
that present information in a more compact, reliable and easily accessible form.

Computer as communication facilitator. The Internet is the principal medium by

which students can communicate with others at a distance, (e.g. by e-mail or by
participating in discussion forums). In fact at Frankfurt International School the single
most popular use of computers by students in their free time is to write e-mails to their
friends. Some teachers have set up joint projects with a school in another location and
others encourage students to take part in discussion groups. There is no doubt that
such activities are motivating for students and allow them to participate in many
authentic language tasks. However, cautious teachers may wish to closely supervise
their students' messages. Recent research has shown up the extremely primitive
quality of much of the language used in electronic exchanges!

.............................

Computers in education have been disparaged as: Answers in search of a problem.

And certainly many computer activities of dubious pedagogical value have been
devised in the past simply to justify the existence of an expensive computer in the
classroom. Nowadays, however, I think it is much more clearly understood that the
computer can play a useful part in the language class only if the teacher first
asks: What is it that I want my students to learn today, and what is the best way for
them to learn it? In most cases, the answer will probably not involve the computer,
but there will be occasions when the computer is the most suitable and, for the
students, most enjoyable way to get the job done.

References

 The Internet and ELT Eastment, D. 1999 The British Council

This is a brief but useful overview of the issues concerning the use of the
Internet in English language teaching.

 CALL Environments Egbert, J & Hanson-Smith, E (eds.) 1999 TESOL, Va.

Despite the unpromising title, this is a good and very comprehensive account of
the use of computers in language teaching. It contains detailed discussions of
the pedagogical value of the entire spectrum of computer-based language
activities.

 Dave Sperling's Internet Guide Sperling, D. 1998 Prentice Hall, New Jersey

This is a comprehensive listing of Internet sites for English language learners

and teachers. Sperling also runs a very good ESL website called Dave's ESL
Café at http://www.eslcafe.com.

COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE

TEACHING: LEARNING WITHOUT DUST

Edgar R Eslit

Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is one of the many tools and techniques that can
help improve the students’ language competencies. This new technology in language education
has increased learner autonomy, creativity, productivity and team work. Interactive Teaching
Approach and Computer-Assisted Language Learning have been used to tutor language learners
through language drills or skills practice; as stimulus for discussion and interaction; or as a tool
for writing and research.
Overall, this paper aims to improve an existing Comarts Syllabus using Computer Assisted
Language Learning (CALL) materials imparted through the use of a Personal Website. It is
limited among the purposive samples of thirty five (35) Comarts students of STI-Iligan. As it is,
it is expected to contribute to the area of ESL teaching and to foster interactive and
communicative English grammar learning.
Further, the study seeks to answer the following questions: (1) How will the CALL
materials provide interactive English grammar and writing exercises? (2) Will the CALL create
interaction among the students and teacher? (3) How will the needs analysis justify the
modification of the old Comarts syllabus? (4) What areas in the old Comarts syllabus should be
modified? (5) How will the lessons be made interactive and communicative? And (6) Will the
modified Comarts syllabus be found satisfactory by its users?
The findings of the study showed that there is a need to modify the existing Comarts
syllabus of STI-Iligan. Students found the CALL lessons more interactive and
communicative. The areas modified include the language structure (grammar lessons/drills)
reading, writing, speaking, and the communicative use of language. Overall findings reflect
general satisfaction by the users of the modified Comarts syllabus.
Show less ▴
Computer-Assisted Language Learning

 1,026 Views


Abstract
Computer as a medium for language learning has been acknowledged by many
educators in the past years. Using computers for language learning has proved
not only interesting but also positive and stimulating for many language
teachers and learners. The present paper tries to show the impact/s of
computers in the field of second and foreign language learning. First of all, the
advantages inherent in the use of computers for language learning will be
discussed. Secondly, the technical preparation and requirements of language
teachers and learners for the use of computers will be presented. And finally,
the application of computers in the development of the four language skills
will be analysed. We illustrate the computer capabilities to support different
classroom activities, group-work and pair-work tasks; independent work; to
stimulate student-centered learning and the individualization in language
learning.
Description
Teachers faced with integrating computers into a second language curriculum will appreciate this
helpful, straightforward resource. Unlike the existing scholarly and theoretical texts on computer-
 assisted language learning (CALL), A Practical Guide to Using Computers in Language
Teaching gives context and meaning to the computer environment with immediate classroom needs
in mind. The text introduces teachers to CALL, offering tips for getting started, and providing an
overview of current CALL pedagogy. The author also describes a variety of CALL exercises that
teachers can use, including:
 Writing activities
 Internet activities
 Audio/video activities
 Project activities
 Text-based activities
 Content activities
Appendices with useful terminology, software tips, and suggestions for further research are also
included in the final section of the book. This textbook applies to a broad spectrum of users and
computing environments, and deals with capabilities commonly available on both Macs and PCs.

Abstract
Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) or in another word collaborating computer with the classroom
component to enhance language learning has a long history of pedagogical development since 1950 until nowadays
which started with the simple program into microcomputers. It covers all learning processes using computers which
advance the language skills of the learners. In the language courses, CALL is implemented by using several
applications but this essay will solely mention 8 applications out of many. The study cases prove that those
implementations offer several great values toward academic life. However, in order to achieve successful
implementation, the pre-conditions or requirements of the CALL implementation must be fulfilled. In Indonesia, the
advent of some hindrances such as cost, teacher trainings are the main issues to fulfil those requirements.
Alternatively, several recommendations are proposed to refute the problems such as schools and local government
cooperation, customisation learning technology and peer school teaching.

Using computers in language teaching

Computers have made a triumphal entry into education in the past decade,
and only a dyed-in-the wool Luddite would deny that they have brought
significant benefits to teachers and students alike. However, an uncritical
use of computers can be just as disadvantageous to students as a refusal to
have anything to do with them. In this article I discuss some of the ways
that computers can be used in English language teaching, with a view to
helping colleagues make the most of the opportunities they offer to ESL
students.

It is helpful to think of the computer as having the following main roles in

the language classroom:

 teacher - the computer teaches students new language

 tester - the computer tests students on language already learned
 tool - the computer assists students to do certain tasks
 data source - the computer provides students with the information
they need to perform a particular task
  communication facilitator - the computer allows students to
communicate with others in different locations

Computer as teacher. In the early days of computers and programmed

learning, some students sat at a terminal for extended periods following an
individualized learning program. Although we have come a long way from
the rather naïve thought, held by some at that time, that the computer could
eventually come to replace the teacher, there has been a return to a much
more sophisticated kind of computerized teaching using multimedia CD
ROMS. In such programs, students can listen to dialogues or watch video
clips. They can click on pictures to call up the names of the objects they see.
They can speak into the microphone and immediately hear a recording of
what they have said. The program can keep a record of their progress, e.g.
the vocabulary learned, and offer remedial help if necessary. Many of these
CD ROM programs are offered as complete language courses. They require
students to spend hours on their own in front of the computer screen,
usually attached to a microphone headset. For this reason alone I prefer not
to use them in my language teaching. Another of their serious drawbacks, in
my view, is the fact that in many cases the course content and sequence is
fixed. The teacher has no chance to include materials that are of interest and
importance to the particular students in his or her class.

As an alternative to large CD ROM packages, there is an increasing number

of useful sites on the World Wide Web, where students can get instruction
and practice in language skills such as reading, listening and writing. Some
examples.

Computer as a tester. The computer is very good at what is known as drill

and practice; it will tirelessly present the learner with questions and
announce if the answer is right or wrong. In its primitive manifestations in
this particular role in language teaching, it has been rightly criticised. The
main reason for the criticism is simple: many early drill and practice
programs were very unsophisticated; either multiple-choice or demanding a
single word answer. They were not programmed to accept varying input and
the only feedback they gave was Right or Wrong. So for example, if the
computer expected the answer "does not" and the student typed "doesn't" or
" doesnot" or " does not ", she would have been told she was wrong without
any further comment. It is not surprising that such programs gave
computers a bad name with many language teachers. Unfortunately, there
are now very many of these primitive drill and kill programs flooding the
Internet.

Despite their obvious disadvantages, such programs are nevertheless

popular with many students. This is probably because the student is in full
control, the computer is extremely patient and gives private, unthreatening
feedback. Most programs also keep the score and have cute animations and
sounds, which many students like.

There are some programs which do offer more useful feedback than right or
wrong, or that can accept varying input. Such programs blur the role of the
computer as teacher or tester and can be recommended to students who
enjoy learning grammar or vocabulary in this way. If two or more students
sit at the same computer, then they can generate a fair amount of authentic
communication while discussing the answers together.

Computer as a tool. It is in this area that I think the computer has been an
unequivocal success in language teaching. Spreadsheets, databases,
presentation slide generators, concordancers and web page producers all
have their place in the language classroom, particularly in one where the
main curricular focus is task-based or project-work. But in my opinion, by far
the most important role of the computer in the language classroom is its use
as a writing tool. It has played a significant part in the introduction of the
writing process, by allowing students easily to produce multiple drafts of the
same piece of work.. Students with messy handwriting can now do a piece of
work to be proud of, and those with poor spelling skills can, after sufficient
training in using the spell check, produce a piece of writing largely free of
spelling mistakes.

Computer as a data source. I'm sure I don't need to say much about the
Internet as a provider of information. Anyone who has done a search on the
World Wide Web will know that there is already more information out there
than an individual could process in hundred lifetimes, and the amount is
growing by the second. This huge source of information is an indispensable
resource for much project work, but there are serious negative implications.
I shudder to think of how much time has been wasted and will continue to
be wasted by students who aimlessly wander the Web with no particular aim
in mind and with little or no guidance. I generally do not turn my students
free to search the web for information. Instead, I find a few useful sites
beforehand and tell the students to start there; anyone who finishes the task
in hand can then be let loose!

As an alternative to the Web, there are very many CD ROMs, e.g.

encyclopaedias, that present information in a more compact, reliable and
easily accessible form.

Computer as communication facilitator. The Internet is the principal

medium by which students can communicate with others at a distance, (e.g.
by e-mail or by participating in discussion forums). In fact at Frankfurt
International School the single most popular use of computers by students in
their free time is to write e-mails to their friends. Some teachers have set up
joint projects with a school in another location and others encourage
students to take part in discussion groups. There is no doubt that such
activities are motivating for students and allow them to participate in many
authentic language tasks. However, cautious teachers may wish to closely
supervise their students' messages. Recent research has shown up the
extremely primitive quality of much of the language used in electronic
exchanges!

.............................

Computers in education have been disparaged as: Answers in search of a

problem. And certainly many computer activities of dubious pedagogical
value have been devised in the past simply to justify the existence of an
expensive computer in the classroom. Nowadays, however, I think it is much
more clearly understood that the computer can play a useful part in the
language class only if the teacher first asks: What is it that I want my
students to learn today, and what is the best way for them to learn it? In
most cases, the answer will probably not involve the computer, but there will
be occasions when the computer is the most suitable and, for the students,
most enjoyable way to get the job done.

References

 The Internet and ELT Eastment, D. 1999 The British Council

This is a brief but useful overview of the issues concerning the use of
the Internet in English language teaching.

 CALL Environments Egbert, J & Hanson-Smith, E (eds.) 1999 TESOL,

Va.

Despite the unpromising title, this is a good and very comprehensive

account of the use of computers in language teaching. It contains
detailed discussions of the pedagogical value of the entire spectrum of
computer-based language activities.

 Dave Sperling's Internet Guide Sperling, D. 1998 Prentice Hall, New

Jersey
 This is a comprehensive listing of Internet sites for English language
learners and teachers. Sperling also runs a very good ESL website
called Dave's ESL Café at http://www.eslcafe.com.

Abstract
Computer technology provides spaces and locales for language learning.
However, learning style preference and demographic variables may affect the
effectiveness of technology use for a desired goal. Adapting Reid's pioneering
Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire (PLSPQ), this study
investigated the relations of university students' learning styles and the use of
computer technology for language learning, and whether the demographic
variables of gender and age would make a difference. Chinese students aged
17–36 years (M = 20.31, SD = 3.42) from two universities in Hong Kong (N =
401: male = 140 and female = 261) responded to a survey about four learning
styles and computer technology. Principal components analysis and confirmatory
factor analysis established the five factors, which were all positively correlated.
No gender differences were found in technology application and learning styles
(visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile). Only some subtle age differences were
found in kinesthetic and tactile styles but not in technology use. Structural
equation modeling found significant relations of computer use with visual and
kinesthetic learning styles but not auditory and tactile styles. Evidence points to
the benefit of helping the learners to discover their own learning styles, and
optimizing learners’ visual and kinesthetic learning for the use of computer
resources and activities for language learning.

Computer-assisted language learning

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Computer-assisted language learning (CALL), British, or Computer-Aided
Instruction (CAI)/Computer-Aided Language Instruction (CALI), American,[1] is briefly defined in
a seminal work by Levy (1997: p. 1) as "the search for and study of applications of the computer in
language teaching and learning".[2] CALL embraces a wide range of information and communications
technology applications and approaches to teaching and learning foreign languages, from the
"traditional" drill-and-practice programs that characterised CALL in the 1960s and 1970s to more
recent manifestations of CALL, e.g. as used in a virtual learning environment and Web-
based distance learning. It also extends to the use of corpora and concordancers, interactive
whiteboards,[3] Computer-mediated communication (CMC),[4] language learning in virtual worlds,
and mobile-assisted language learning (MALL).[5]
The term CALI (computer-assisted language instruction) was in use before CALL, reflecting its
origins as a subset of the general term CAI (computer-assisted instruction). CALI fell out of favour
among language teachers, however, as it appeared to imply a teacher-centred approach
 (instructional), whereas language teachers are more inclined to prefer a student-centred approach,
focusing on learning rather than instruction. CALL began to replace CALI in the early 1980s (Davies
& Higgins 1982: p. 3)[6] and it is now incorporated into the names of the growing number
of professional associations worldwide.
An alternative term, technology-enhanced language learning (TELL),[7] also emerged around the
early 1990s: e.g. the TELL Consortium project, University of Hull.
The current philosophy of CALL puts a strong emphasis on student-centred materials that allow
learners to work on their own. Such materials may be structured or unstructured, but they normally
embody two important features: interactive learning and individualised learning. CALL is essentially
a tool that helps teachers to facilitate the language learning process. It can be used to reinforce what
has already been learned in the classroom or as a remedial tool to help learners who require
additional support.
The design of CALL materials generally takes into consideration principles of language pedagogy
and methodology, which may be derived from different learning theories (e.g. behaviourist, cognitive,
constructivist) and second-language learning theories such as Stephen Krashen's monitor
hypothesis.
A combination of face-to-face teaching and CALL is usually referred to as blended learning. Blended
learning is designed to increase learning potential and is more commonly found than pure CALL
(Pegrum 2009: p. 27).[8]
See Davies et al. (2011: Section 1.1, What is CALL?).[9] See also Levy & Hubbard (2005), who raise
the question Why call CALL "CALL"?[10]

Contents

 1History
 2Typology and phases
 3Flashcards
 4Software design and pedagogy
 5Multimedia
 6Internet
 7Corpora and concordancers
 8Virtual worlds
 9Human language technologies
 10Impact
 11Professional associations
 12See also
 13References
o 13.1Further reading
 14External links

History[edit]
CALL dates back to the 1960s, when it was first introduced on university mainframe computers. The
PLATO project, initiated at the University of Illinois in 1960, is an important landmark in the early
development of CALL (Marty 1981).[11] The advent of the microcomputer in the late 1970s brought
computing within the range of a wider audience, resulting in a boom in the development of CALL
programs and a flurry of publications of books on CALL in the early 1980s.
Dozens of CALL programs are currently available on the internet, at prices ranging from free to
expensive,[12] and other programs are available only through university language courses.
There have been several attempts to document the history of CALL. Sanders (1995) covers the
period from the mid-1960s to the mid-1990s, focusing on CALL in North America.[13]Delcloque (2000)
documents the history of CALL worldwide, from its beginnings in the 1960s to the dawning of the
new millennium.[14] Davies (2005) takes a look back at CALL's past and attempts to predict where it is
going.[15] Hubbard (2009) offers a compilation of 74 key articles and book excerpts, originally
published in the years 1988-2007, that give a comprehensive overview of the wide range of leading
ideas and research results that have exerted an influence on the development of CALL or that show
promise in doing so in the future.[16] A published review of Hubbard's collection can be found
in Language Learning & Technology 14, 3 (2010).[17]
Butler-Pascoe (2011) looks at the history of CALL from a different point of view, namely the evolution
of CALL in the dual fields of educational technology and second/foreign language acquisition and the
paradigm shifts experienced along the way.[18]
See also Davies et al. (2011: Section 2, History of CALL).[9]

Typology and phases[edit]

During the 1980s and 1990s, several attempts were made to establish a CALL typology. A wide
range of different types of CALL programs was identified by Davies & Higgins (1985),[19] Jones &
Fortescue (1987),[20] Hardisty & Windeatt (1989)[21] and Levy (1997: pp. 118ff.).[2] These included gap-
filling and Cloze programs, multiple-choice programs, free-format (text-entry) programs, adventures
and simulations, action mazes, sentence-reordering programs, exploratory programs—and "total
Cloze", a type of program in which the learner has to reconstruct a whole text. Most of these early
programs still exist in modernised versions.
Since the 1990s, it has become increasingly difficult to categorise CALL as it now extends to the use
of blogs, wikis, social networking, podcasting, Web 2.0 applications, language learning in virtual
worlds and interactive whiteboards (Davies et al. 2010: Section 3.7).[9]
Warschauer (1996)[22] and Warschauer & Healey (1998)[23] took a different approach. Rather than
focusing on the typology of CALL, they identified three historical phases of CALL, classified
according to their underlying pedagogical and methodological approaches:

 Behavioristic CALL: conceived in the 1950s and implemented in the 1960s and 1970s.
 Communicative CALL: 1970s to 1980s.
 Integrative CALL: embracing Multimedia and the Internet: 1990s.
Most CALL programs in Warschauer & Healey's first phase, Behavioristic CALL (1960s to 1970s),
consisted of drill-and-practice materials in which the computer presented a stimulus and the learner
provided a response. At first, both could be done only through text. The computer would analyse
students' input and give feedback, and more sophisticated programs would react to students'
mistakes by branching to help screens and remedial activities. While such programs and their
underlying pedagogy still exist today, behaviouristic approaches to language learning have been
rejected by most language teachers, and the increasing sophistication of computer technology has
led CALL to other possibilities.
The second phase described by Warschauer & Healey, Communicative CALL, is based on
the communicative approach that became prominent in the late 1970s and 1980s (Underwood
1984).[24] In the communicative approach the focus is on using the language rather than analysis of
the language, and grammar is taught implicitly rather than explicitly. It also allows for originality and
flexibility in student output of language. The communicative approach coincided with the arrival of
the PC, which made computing much more widely available and resulted in a boom in the
development of software for language learning. The first CALL software in this phase continued to
provide skill practice but not in a drill format—for example: paced reading, text reconstruction and
language games—but the computer remained the tutor. In this phase, computers provided context
for students to use the language, such as asking for directions to a place, and programs not
designed for language learning such as Sim City, Sleuth and Where in the World is Carmen
Sandiego? were used for language learning. Criticisms of this approach include using the computer
in an ad hoc and disconnected manner for more marginal aims rather than the central aims of
language teaching.
The third phase of CALL described by Warschauer & Healey, Integrative CALL, starting from the
1990s, tried to address criticisms of the communicative approach by integrating the teaching of
language skills into tasks or projects to provide direction and coherence. It also coincided with the
development of multimedia technology (providing text, graphics, sound and animation) as well as
Computer-mediated communication (CMC). CALL in this period saw a definitive shift from the use of
the computer for drill and tutorial purposes (the computer as a finite, authoritative base for a specific
task) to a medium for extending education beyond the classroom. Multimedia CALL started with
interactive laser videodiscs such as Montevidisco (Schneider & Bennion 1984)[25] and A la rencontre
de Philippe (Fuerstenberg 1993),[26] both of which were simulations of situations where the learner
played a key role. These programs later were transferred to CD-ROMs, and new role-playing
games (RPGs) such as Who is Oscar Lake? made their appearance in a range of different
languages.
In a later publication Warschauer changed the name of the first phase of CALL from Behavioristic
CALL to Structural CALL and also revised the dates of the three phases (Warschauer 2000):[27]

 Structural CALL: 1970s to 1980s.

 Communicative CALL: 1980s to 1990s.
 Integrative CALL: 2000 onwards.
Bax (2003)[28] took issue with Warschauer & Haley (1998) and Warschauer (2000) and proposed
these three phases:

 Restricted CALL – mainly behaviouristic: 1960s to 1980s.

 Open CALL – i.e. open in terms of feedback given to students, software types and the role of the
teacher, and including simulations and games: 1980s to 2003 (i.e. the date of Bax's article).
 Integrated CALL – still to be achieved. Bax argued that at the time of writing language teachers
were still in the Open CALL phase, as true integration could only be said to have been achieved
when CALL had reached a state of "normalisation" – e.g. when using CALL was as normal as
using a pen.
See also Bax & Chambers (2006)[29] and Bax (2011),[30] in which the topic of "normalisation" is
revisited.

Flashcards[edit]
A basic use of CALL is in vocabulary acquisition using flashcards, which requires quite simple
programs. Such programs often make use of spaced repetition, a technique whereby the learner is
presented with the vocabulary items that need to be committed to memory at increasingly longer
intervals until long-term retention is achieved. This has led to the development of a number of
applications known as spaced repetition systems (SRS),[31] including the
generic Anki or SuperMemo package and programs such as BYKI[32] and phase-6,[33] which have
been designed specifically for learners of foreign languages.

Software design and pedagogy[edit]

Above all, careful consideration must be given to pedagogy in designing CALL software, but
publishers of CALL software tend to follow the latest trend, regardless of its desirability. Moreover,
approaches to teaching foreign languages are constantly changing, dating back to grammar-
translation, through the direct method, audio-lingualism and a variety of other approaches, to the
more recent communicative approach and constructivism (Decoo 2001).[34]
Designing and creating CALL software is an extremely demanding task, calling upon a range of
skills. Major CALL development projects are usually managed by a team of people:

 A subject specialist (also known as a content provider) – usually a language teacher – who is
responsible for providing the content and pedagogical input. More than one subject specialist is
required for larger CALL projects.
 A programmer who is familiar with the chosen programming language or authoring tool.
 A graphic designer, to produce pictures and icons, and to advise on fonts, colour, screen layout,
etc.
 A professional photographer or, at the very least, a very good amateur photographer. Graphic
designers often have a background in photography too.
 A sound engineer and a video technician will be required if the package is to contain substantial
amounts of sound and video.
 An instructional designer. Developing a CALL package is more than just putting a text book into
a computer. An instructional designer will probably have a background in cognitive psychology
and media technology, and will be able to advise the subject specialists in the team on the
appropriate use of the chosen technology (Gimeno & Davies 2010).[35]
CALL inherently supports learner autonomy, the final of the eight conditions that Egbert et al. (2007)
cite as "Conditions for Optimal Language Learning Environments". Learner autonomy places the
learner firmly in control so that he or she "decides on learning goals" (Egbert et al., 2007, p. 8).[36]
It is all too easy when designing CALL software to take the comfortable route and produce a set of
multiple-choice and gap-filling exercises, using a simple authoring tool (Bangs 2011),[37] but CALL is
much more than this; Stepp-Greany (2002), for example, describes the creation and management of
an environment incorporating a constructivist and whole language philosophy. According to
constructivist theory, learners are active participants in tasks in which they "construct" new
knowledge derived from their prior experience. Learners also assume responsibility for their learning,
and the teacher is a facilitator rather than a purveyor of knowledge. Whole language theory
embraces constructivism and postulates that language learning moves from the whole to the part,
rather than building sub-skills to lead towards the higher abilities of comprehension, speaking, and
writing. It also emphasises that comprehending, speaking, reading, and writing skills are interrelated,
reinforcing each other in complex ways. Language acquisition is, therefore, an active process in
which the learner focuses on cues and meaning and makes intelligent guesses. Additional demands
are placed upon teachers working in a technological environment incorporating constructivist and
whole language theories. The development of teachers’ professional skills must include new
pedagogical as well as technical and management skills. Regarding the issue of teacher facilitation
in such an environment, the teacher has a key role to play, but there could be a conflict between the
aim to create an atmosphere for learner independence and the teacher's natural feelings of
responsibility. In order to avoid learners’ negative perceptions, Stepp-Greany points out that it is
especially important for the teacher to continue to address their needs, especially those of low-ability
learners.[38]

Multimedia[edit]
Language teachers have been avid users of technology for a very long time. Gramophone records
were among the first technological aids to be used by language teachers in order to present students
with recordings of native speakers’ voices, and broadcasts from foreign radio stations were used to
make recordings on reel-to-reel tape recorders. Other examples of technological aids that have been
used in the foreign language classroom include slide projectors, film-strip projectors, film projectors,
videocassette recorders and DVD players. In the early 1960s, integrated courses (which were often
described as multimedia courses) began to appear. Examples of such courses are Ecouter et
Parler (consisting of a coursebook and tape recordings)[39] and Deutsch durch die audiovisuelle
Methode (consisting of an illustrated coursebook, tape recordings and a film-strip – based on the
Structuro-Global Audio-Visual method).[40]
During the 1970s and 1980s standard microcomputers were incapable of producing sound and they
had poor graphics capability. This represented a step backwards for language teachers, who by this
time had become accustomed to using a range of different media in the foreign language classroom.
The arrival of the multimedia computer in the early 1990s was therefore a major breakthrough as it
enabled text, images, sound and video to be combined in one device and the integration of the four
basic skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing (Davies 2011: Section 1).[41]
Examples of CALL programs for multimedia computers that were published on CD-ROM and DVD
from the mid-1990s onwards are described by Davies (2010: Section 3).[41] CALL programs are still
being published on CD-ROM and DVD, but Web-based multimedia CALL has now virtually
supplanted these media.
Following the arrival of multimedia CALL, multimedia language centres began to appear in
educational institutions. While multimedia facilities offer many opportunities for language learning
with the integration of text, images, sound and video, these opportunities have often not been fully
utilised. One of the main promises of CALL is the ability to individualise learning but, as with the
language labs that were introduced into educational institutions in the 1960s and 1970s, the use of
the facilities of multimedia centres has often devolved into rows of students all doing the same drills
(Davies 2010: Section 3.1).[41] There is therefore a danger that multimedia centres may go the same
way as the language labs. Following a boom period in the 1970s, language labs went rapidly into
decline. Davies (1997: p. 28) lays the blame mainly on the failure to train teachers to use language
labs, both in terms of operation and in terms of developing new methodologies, but there were other
factors such as poor reliability, lack of materials and a lack of good ideas.[42]
Managing a multimedia language centre requires not only staff who have a knowledge of foreign
languages and language teaching methodology but also staff with technical know-how and budget
management ability, as well as the ability to combine all these into creative ways of taking advantage
of what the technology can offer. A centre manager usually needs assistants for technical support,
for managing resources and even the tutoring of students. Multimedia centres lend themselves to
self-study and potentially self-directed learning, but this is often misunderstood. The simple
existence of a multimedia centre does not automatically lead to students learning independently.
Significant investment of time is essential for materials development and creating an atmosphere
conducive to self-study. Unfortunately, administrators often have the mistaken belief that buying
hardware by itself will meet the needs of the centre, allocating 90% of its budget to hardware and
virtually ignoring software and staff training needs (Davies et al. 2011: Foreword).[43] Self-access
language learning centres or independent learning centres have emerged partially independently
and partially in response to these issues. In self-access learning, the focus is on developing learner
autonomy through varying degrees of self-directed learning, as opposed to (or as a complement to)
classroom learning. In many centres learners access materials and manage their learning
independently, but they also have access to staff for help. Many self-access centres are heavy users
of technology and an increasing number of them are now offering online self-access learning
opportunities. Some centres have developed novel ways of supporting language learning outside the
context of the language classroom (also called 'language support') by developing software to monitor
students' self-directed learning and by offering online support from teachers. Centre managers and
support staff may need to have new roles defined for them to support students’ efforts at self-
directed learning: v. Mozzon-McPherson & Vismans (2001), who refer to a new job description,
namely that of the "language adviser".[44]
Internet[edit]
The emergence of the World Wide Web (now known simply as "the Web") in the early 1990s marked
a significant change in the use of communications technology for all computer users. Email and
other forms of electronic communication had been in existence for many years, but the launch
of Mosaic, the first graphical Web browser, in 1993 brought about a radical change in the ways in
which we communicate electronically. The launch of the Web in the public arena immediately began
to attract the attention of language teachers. Many language teachers were already familiar with the
concept of hypertext on stand-alone computers, which made it possible to set up non-sequential
structured reading activities for language learners in which they could point to items of text or images
on a page displayed on the computer screen and branch to any other pages, e.g. in a so-called
"stack" as implemented in the HyperCard program on Apple Mac computers. The Web took this one
stage further by creating a worldwide hypertext system that enabled the user to branch to different
pages on computers anywhere in the world simply by pointing and clicking at a piece of text or an
image. This opened up access to thousands of authentic foreign-language websites to teachers and
students that could be used in a variety of ways. A problem that arose, however, was that this could
lead to a good deal of time-wasting if Web browsing was used in an unstructured way (Davies 1997:
pp. 42–43),[42] and language teachers responded by developing more structured activities and online
exercises (Leloup & Ponterio 2003).[45] Davies (2010) lists over 500 websites, where links to online
exercises can be found, along with links to online dictionaries and encyclopaedias, concordancers,
translation aids and other miscellaneous resources of interest to the language teacher and learner.[46]
The launch of the (free) Hot Potatoes (Holmes & Arneil) authoring tool, which was first demonstrated
publicly at the EUROCALL 1998 conference, made it possible for language teachers to create their
own online interactive exercises. Other useful tools are produced by the same authors.[47]
In its early days the

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