AhAbAbhhMhhaAasAhnaaahsaaaaad. AAMAAhAhAhhhaAahaaaasahaaaad, TVW VV VW VV VV VV VT VV VV VV VV AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA, AAAAAasshhsssssssassadad. AAbAbAhAhhshshsahsasAsaasasaaad. AAAAAAAAAAAAAAasaaaaaad, AAhAbAAAhsahshshsaaasasssaaad. AAAAAAshshsAbshhasssasaaada. AAhhhhahsahshhahsssahsaaaadd, AAAAAhAhhAAhAhaAaAssaaaaad, MAAAAbAAhshshaAaAshssaasasassAadad. AAhhbahshsahsasassssassadad, MAAhhhhahhshshsasAahsaahasaadad, AAAAAAAAAAhAhAaaAasAahaaad. MAAhhAbhhshshsbshsassssssadd, MAAAhAbAAshshashssssssassadd. AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA,Welcome to WORE INSIDE THE HUMAN BODY Inside the Human Body takesyou ona fascinating journey — startingat the ery beginning, we explore how human beings cameto existand thewaysin which our early ancestors evolved ‘andadapted aver hundreds of thousands of years. From here we getunder the skin, takingan in-depth look at our most vital brgansand body parts, from the complexity othe human brain tothe structural upportandstrength ofered by our muscles {and skeleton. Working in tandem with modern medicine, our ‘body doesan amazing eb of keepinguusftand healthy we Aiscover some ofthe body's most common complaints a well ‘as investigating what the future of medicine may look ike. ‘We eventacklethebody’s weirdand wonderful functions — cexploringeverythingirom why we laugh tothe biology ofa sneeze. This book will help youapprecate just howspecial you areand ensure yournever take your body for granted again!4 L FUTURE 4 rWeen INSIDE THE BODY(anc rasa aNd Tas MADE OF? The human body Your first year Your amazing brain Your skeleton Inside a blood vessel How cells work The heart - a vital organ Inside the liver and panereas What's inside your head Inside the knee What is thermoregulation? Muscle power Science of vision The retina The human pelvis, The lymphatic system \ Outbreak ‘Anatomy of an Olympic athlete The truth about hair transplants The antibiotic apocalypse Why do we get fat? Immunisation: how it keeps. you healthy How do we heal? Placebos - do they work? Kidney transplants, How cloning works. ‘Anaesthetics Strokes Rheumatoid arthritis explained Why is there no cure for the How a marathon affects your body The future of medicine Why do we get headaches? Asthma Cramp explained Blood clotting How metabolism functions How does the liver detoxify? How do gastric bands work? How skin grafts work Is cholesterol bad for you? 109 Hypermobile joints 109 What is a fit? SERREEHESS € SERKSRRR ERRSASseen) Cie Why do we get angry? What are grommets? Anaphylactic shock Brain surgery How hyperthermic surgery works What are probiotic bacteria? What are tonsils for? Secrets of stem calls Colour blindness What causes stomach uleers? Understanding chickenpox ‘The war against superbugs Curing deafness Ebola virus How enzymes keep you alive Bacteria explained How to check your pulse Keeping hydrated Understanding diabetes Perfect posture How corrective lenses work Inside laser eye surgery BESSSSSEEERESSESE REREES a 136 Food & your body 144 The science of happiness 148 The gutbrain axis 150 The five basic human tastes 151_Unraveling the mystery of DNA 152 Correcting heart rhythms. 152 Carpal tunnel syndrome 153. What are pheromones? 153 Eczema explained 154 Inside the flu 156. How we swallow 156 Why do we get drunk? 157 The human tongue 157 How do we laugh? 158 What happens when you sneaze? 158 Knee-jrk reactions explained 159 How do we touch and feel? fT 2 eeHOW WE CROSSED CONTINENTS AND CONQUERED THE PLANET oyDID YOU KNOW? The earliest human footprints found autside of Africa were discovered in Norfolk, Englane een ee te ee terrae eR eee ete Cees: GSpe emir aie palstnogcanbientiageerintawetacdhcenfstnsfhninns-al, _ honininanpindvate monn eo eee Pape eee eae ee ee Bc ee eee er er Rel ae a Se a Oe es Pees 5 Cee eer Wome naledt ee ere ‘Australopithecus anamensis ee een rR: ny eer Ardipithecus amidus rndft Sts e180 A Sea LULA T The Homo genus What set our closest relatives apart from earlier human species? -Everyhuman on heplanettodayisamemberot ‘onesinglespecis: Homosapiens. Together with our extinetancestorsand closest relatives, weare partofthe broader genus ofHomo, whose ‘membersallshareunmistaeablyhuman traits ‘The Homo genus emerged somewhere around three illionyearsagoinAlica when the region was home toatleast11 species ofhominin. The oldest Homo fossl~datedat2.8milionyearsold ~wasa member ofthespecies Hornohabilis. ts »amemeans‘handy man, asitisbelleved tobe the Homo species identifier Discover the characteristic features of some tf the most prominent members ofthe genus Evolving brai Thebrain wr ss, first hominin thatusedstonetools.Althoughit retained manyoftheape ike body eaturesof earlier Ausralopitecus ts brain was much larger. Toaluseand brainsizeare twoolthedefining characteristicsofthe Homo genus. Thethirdisan Upright skeleton thatenables walking ontwo feet. ‘Togetherthese changes gavean evolutionary edge ‘nexploiting the environment, solving problems, andjourneying overion distances Ourownspeciesisthoughttohaveevolved 200,000 yearsago om thestrong, athletic Homo Petite skull The skal was advanced Iramease: eomtaneda pursing micof mde beidetbergensisTheyinturn evolved from Homo exectus-oneofthe most successful homininsin history survvingfortwo million years. Foralongtime scientists haveargued over ‘whether, sapiens evolved within Africa before ‘spreadingaround the world the Out of Africa hypothesis orevolved simultaneously inmany locations the mairegional hypothesis, Recent tues ofDNA suggest we descend fromasingle population iving150,000yeersago, which heavily ‘supports the Ou ofAfic theory. Increased brain size Thebran ize approached the tomer Distinctive theaistaoptecas "ace Seeaethenst ss Apeish snotarc vase Sone to }/ upper body ‘wth tow Mixed Ae ae forehead andthe features wee Team Thesgecerts etongate tinge, eee rater face and Cpe Aes nose. tet tan eer We a orca, } Adgptable Bo ‘ AY snccerore ¥ Stowe =i t } ‘Serine Humane cmotreee (lower body Ciao Loan Versa emda, ‘pea se ‘Sturdy skeleton "oa asst erate waking ond “tance rong Frapreiiecontsre) ponents B stoieetoeiniereury ty peasDID YOU KNOW? The term Hama sapiens comes from Latin and means ‘wise man’ Opposable thumbs ‘Thegrasping hands ofour primate ancestors evolved asan adaptation toifeinthe trees. posable thumbs -whichare abletomovearoundandtouch the other ngers~and lat Aingertippadsboth help tree dwellers to grab on to branches aswellasholdand manipulate mall objects. ‘Ourmodem thumb has changed litlesincethe last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees. tis longer, comparedtofingerlength,thananyotherprimate'sthim, 9. cpsesaye num sivingbothstrengthand precision. Thishelpedourancestors Srp the hand oop sgathera wide variety ofoodsandeventually developtools, _withsvength and dextenty Reorganised skal Massive, Strong tigated ah oval-shaped Am rounded ska etc fads fas tt y ‘An outwardly ‘thick, rounded houses avery Ie Small, bulge rarase bron, ane tagetran retracted face commodity chenorcs tnd ‘he car foe bran ino oe. ten Flat face Sra died The ace waaay row noe Thick trunk ‘tte tan ear ‘tunes cet hansen ha ty and upwardly ‘wide nasel opening, rng hon ges Eee sous ashore ser sche ow ge. voor hance \ S Ne \ Short lower limbs oY) Thempeces washer Leaner trunk out tng an proportions Comput over wmsand pe aieiereretee) ogtoomasve rest tty cued athe icone ca. erate j t 1 LY Lightly but ' / voiaieton { more delat than J c % yy in earlier humans, 4 Robust seteton, WE) WSs XN, wirbony nae somest | S\ hk Saeenes le g es \ _ Wi > UL Swe ‘Height 1.5-1.6m Weight 54-65kg Height 1.6-1.8m Weight SI-62ky Height: 1.6-L.8m Weight 62-78kg ‘Average brain size: 1,420 em? ‘Average brain sie: 1,270em? ‘Average brain size: 1,350 em? corer crea onSts e180 A Sea LULA TDID YOU KNOW? Life expectancy for early humans was anywhere between 1s ta 30 years Culture ont el eat humans make sense ofthe wor? Sy, rituals, musi and other forms of symboke expression. But she ase made nea 100,000 yer 90 ant £40,000-jearald cove dronngsin Europe ae dence of sant der ntaeeaux France Brain size tn most mann bala sis proportions bodys Not pinates bras eed ato sono coer inger Ath sare tne thea won eoeare Problem solving oc ita emeto cepa eee ere eee ger SE ieee ee ag Cemeeten eee ee etceleias pore Tools of the age eee eres See Ce eee Ry ean Communication ere ee eer Ses pena forhunting,strippinganimal carca perry rectly when nd whore ngage engined untnowm. The descended ary evolved und 300,000 ars 00, but experts Behe spoke ange only tof amore baste potolanguage’ comprised of ‘eoturer and body anguoge net 0 simple ound Cooperation When we work together cooperatively, wetend to Sehove mora nls tna and wth eer. Te ‘save was tvs of cur encesters By baning together they col rng down ger anal in hchun forage greater arty food, ty canesta Simytery Setar evidence of corral vse appears {oatmaking debe, ured seeds and wood mark more thane dare ety earths ares ase at Geshe Bnet Carotene ony proved warmth an protection rots foot ene fe 013ft Sts e180 A Sea LULA T ror por or iow we ire | EE BN isang conquered: =>" === 6== the planet 2 Humans went from African natives to citizens of the world nour brie 200,000 years on Earth, Homo sapiens-unlikeany ofthe hhumanspecies before us has ‘managed to colonise the entire lobe. Butiwe were notte firstto ‘venture beyond Africa. Some of our ancestors took those initial stepsat least millionyearsago. The frst waves ofadventurous hhominins travelled east towards Asia, before eventually moving west and north into Europe. Homo erectus spread throughout Asia, reachingas farsouthas Java, and Homo heidetbergensis dispersed through both Asiaand Europe. Asforour ownspecies, ll evidence suggests that welived in Africa for the first 100,000 years of ‘ur200.000-year existence. Aftera shaky first migratory attempt it wasanother30,000 years before Wwestruck outagain. This time ‘marked the startofa mass exodus; Homo sapiens spread rapidly toall continents except Antarctica within 50,000 years, making us ‘ne ofthe most invasive species the world has ever known, Why the itchy Feet? Some scientists think we simply followed the roaminganimals we ate; certainly other large predatory species made similar territorial expansions alongside us. Other cexpertshold the more romantic view thatwanderlustis simply part ofwhat makes us human, ( a toe ‘A Be RNa a Be BT cr er Sd ow cavendicateseary Europeans” years ago thoy were fst sdecovsed hte ‘venture turthes Taforalt, Morece® Jebel Faya, 82,000. Saudi Arabia ‘years ago 75,000 eres cy ‘years ago ‘outed cht tredesene hoe rma od inaeaong homens vanee Return to Africa Sond sae 40-45,000 Banstadersnow Jwalapuram, india ‘ome dessndots of 74,000 years age 2 fc er fn rom the erion of humans n Saud Arabia 30,000 years te, Herto, Ethiopia Andaman Islands Border Cave, South Africa Btorccanatee Gonintnasuertresen 82,000 yeas age peter es y “sapiens remains ever found, from the first south Asian settlers, ‘@scovered lon with younger tor osDID YOU KNOW? The oldest Homo sopiens remains were discovered in Ethiopio, Africa Siberia Homo sapiens Be is 43,000, b tecor tree et goes global err Joye rom th ido artefacts ond DNA tel 9 g er the aan steppes compelling migration story Tanyuan P Sore Gra 2 ‘G00 Central Asia 4 a ee Greve USA ee | seams E300 oars ag tidene ie mating at humane ari 2.000°3000 Niah Great Cave, Borneo 40, “paongedta 3 Iara Arbemtand Austria" HUMONS Ore ONE of the Themobiunnetroasteres —_- MOSt invasive species thecarert evidence of Menon ceapaton nasa. the world has known" % Bent Raed _, Monte Verde, Chile {ake Mungo, Australia . Be 15,000 years ag fovten to 90 e3- sndzolen tam ater semanas crenata ‘St coastal migration by oat eee eer poauereniieiten caer aisft Sts e180 A Sea LULA T Renee ed Petts eto Choe ere Surviving How modern humans overcame threats and evaded extinction After over six million yearsofhuman evolution, Homo sapiensisthe only species left standing, Whats the secretto ou fentists pacity for ability to cooperate. Indeed, no other animal species ha toaswide a range of habitatsandsuch divergent pursuits asmodern humans. As dispersed throughout the word, ‘place how tofind and ea local food and tosurvive different climat Erp ncaa adversity ‘mimic one another, communicate concepts, and learn new skills. Thisallows the work of the most skilled or intelligent to benefit entire populations, instead of forcing eac generation to reinvent the wheel, These characteristics made usresilientin the face of change, During the Ice Age intersot 15,000 years ago, for example, modern human ‘meastern Europe came up with clever waysto cope with the cold By sewingclothes from. yermafrost and using fireto keep warm, they were ableto ride out the tough times together and ensure the survival ofthe species. rag petepted rere Neanderthals die out? Dee eee eee ec ts Er ec Pretest ee mee eee ee Se eee eee eect Cerne ea ea ‘Neanderthal gene pool might have been to blame, Some studies suggest tha the ‘Neanderthal population never grew bigger ee eee eee Ce eee ed Perens icy reeset ree ents Pommteretr nee ee x Pato. LeenaDID YOU KNOW? The next stage of human evolution could invalve the colonisation of Mars + Es a A thriving { species Howsoil, society and science elevated modern humans transitioned from merely survivingto convincingly thriving happened somewhere around:2,000 years ago coinciding withthe advent of agriculture. For milliosof years leading up to thistime, earlyand moder humans lke were preoccupied with foraging, hunting and scavenging food. Butonce we discovered that ‘we could control the growth and breeding of certainplantsandanimals, we quickly became farmersandherders As these practices gained momentum, settlements began to formaround them These grew from villages to townsto ctiesas food ‘became more plentiful. Within them, the human population began to explode, eventually reachinglevels where we were unlikely to bewiped outby anything essthan a global catastrophe. Cities became the foes of social interaction {dea exchange and technological innovation. Theballooning population allowed knowledge and creativeexpressiontoflourish 2s Individuals were ble tospecialiseand learn from each other. (Over centuries and millennia, the ate of progress has continued toaccelerate and Innovations -fromtheprintingpress othe Internet, rom surgery to vaccines rom the ‘wheel to global air travel ~ continue to make our lives longer, sferand more rewarding. 7. rk “LE Aan Ss “uf Ki Te] eaeae allowed se fi Gnd foir=ia/a\V/ae peop i s]e ene * owow ‘The human body Your first year Your amazing brain Your skeleton Inside a blood vessel How cells work ‘The heart-a vital organ Inside the liver and pancreas What's inside your head Inside the knee What is thermoregulation? ‘Muscle power Science of vision The retina ‘The human pelvis ‘The lymphatic system. Your first year fhe human body is composed ofan T estimated 7 octillion which written out 1s7,000,000,000,000,000,000,000, 00,000} atoms, making up over 75 trillion cells. AAtthe atomic lve, the human body comprisesabout 60 elements, bt the function fofmany ofthem!s unknown. in fact, 99 percent ofthe human body is made from just ix clements(see chart forspecificpercentages) Like ll other life discavered to date, weare carbon-based; the biomolecules that makeup urbodiesare constructed using frameworks of carbon atoms. Carbon isalmost uniqueamong, theelements;tissmall nsizeand can make four covalent bonds to other atoms, allowingst to formthe backbone of key molecules that form the human body, including proteins, fats, sugarsand DNA. The bondsare strong enough tohold the molecules ina stablestructure, but not so strong that they cannotbe taken apart again, allowing the body to break and reform ‘molecules over and aver as require. 020 Journey inside the body to discover just what we are made of... Calcium isthe mostabundant mineral inthe ‘human body, important forthe regulation of protein production and activity Complex cascades ofchemical reactions ‘occur within the gel-like cytoplasm and organelles ofcells-tiny structures that perform specific functions within a cel Phosphorusisusedtomake adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which has high-energy phosphate bonds thatcan be broken in order rt topower cellular processes: ATP ss essentially ourcels'fuel. Cells are coated in receprorsand respond rapidly to environmental changes, communieating via chemical signalsand electrical impulses. During ‘embryonicdevelopment, chemical gradients tell developing cells where to go, and what cell type to become, resulting na new person. Interestingly, the majority of thecellsin the ‘human body are not human, Microbes make up od od 1 twee coset between oneand three percent of ourbody ‘massand are hugely important fr our proper functioning, They have million different coding genes formaking proteins, compared to less than 3,000 inthe human genome. The bacteria that liven our digestive system provide essential support toa; they ferment undigested carbohydrates, allowing usto access energy we couldn'totherwise digest, and they havearole inthe production ofvitaminslike biotinand ‘vitamin K.Thetr presence in the gutalso prevents bad’ bacteria from talingholdand making us unwell, Even more unusually, atleast eight percent ofthe human genomeisviralin origin. Retrovirusesare able to insert their DNA into our chromosomes, and at several points in ‘human evolution genes that started outin viruses have become permanently entwined with ourown geneticinformation,