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French Chapter 2 Study Guide

A Little History
Gaul in the Middle Ages
The country that we call France was mostly covered in forests and was inhabited by the Celts, of Gauls, organized
into tribes, when the Romans arrived. We date the beginning of French history as 50 B.C, which is the date of the
conquest of the Gauls by the Romans.

Marseille is the oldest city in France

During the 5th century B.C, the Greeks founded a port on the Mediterranean near the Rhone delta that was called
Massilia. Today it is called Marseille, and is one of the biggest cities in France and its largest port on the
Mediterranean. The possession of Massilia allowed the Greeks to control the passage along the Rhone, the Loire
and the Seine, by which they went to England where they found rich mines filled with metal.
When our history continued, to the first century B.C Massilia was prosperous. It’s inhabitants then because
Roman, because Greece was conquered by the Romans.

The Gauls attack Massilia. The Roman Response

The Gauls constantly attacked the territory around Massilia. They wanted to take the city for its riches, so the
habitants of Massilia called upon Rome for help. Julius Caesar, the general who was soon to be emperor arrived at
the head of his armies. He not only saved Massilia, but he conquered the entire region. Annexed to the Roman
Empire, the region was called Provincia romana, the Roman Province. It is now called Provence.

Conquering the rest of the land. Vercingétorix’s heroic resistance

The Romans didn’t stop there. Eager to conquer, Caesar took possession of all of France. He left narratives of his
conquest. The de bello gallico is his own account of his conquest of the Gauls and it is the first written document
which gives us a description of the countries and inhabitants.
The Gauls were brave fighters but were not large enough or organized enough to fight the Roman army. One
young general led the resistance against the invader. He was Vercingétorix, and is celebrated in France today.
Defeated in Alésia, he was taken prisoner by Caesar and was taken to Rome. Despite Caesar’s promises, he was
treated with cruelty. In chains, he was marched in the triumphal procession of Caesar and after some miserable
years in prison, he was executed. Gaul is now roman.

The Gallo-Roman period: The Gauls adopt the life/language of Rome

The Gauls had a curious nature and liked change of ideas (like the French do today) accepted with enthusiasm the
ways of life of the Romans. Rome brought them excellent government and roads of stone. They constructed
monuments which still exist: Temples for the Roman gods, aqueducts bringing water to cities, arenas to watch
gladiators, open-air theaters, and magnificent public bathrooms.
The Gauls adopted Latin, the language of the Romans. But it was not classic Latin; it was a simplified version,
spoken by the occupying armies. The French language was derived from the bad Latin, which was transformed
over the course of the centuries from Roman to Old French to Modern French.

The Barbaric invasions and the fall of the Roman Empire

The period called the Gallo-Roman brought much prosperity for Gaul. But soon arrived terrible disaster with the
bands of barbarians (the Romans called them this b/c the tribes were not part of the Empire). They constantly
attacked Rome and Gaul. The barbarians were also called the Goths (Ostrogoths, Visigoths), and had a civilization
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of armies inferior to the Romans. But, driven by need, the attacked strongly and constantly. During this period, the
Roman emperors were either children or incapable rulers. Finally Rome decided to abandon the western capital
and withdrew to Constantinople, the eastern capital. Therefore, 476 marks the fall of western Rome. On that date,
the barbarian general Odoacer burned and pillaged Rome.
With the fall of Rome, the excellent government of Gaul disappeared: the officials were not played enough and left
their posts; the roads were abandoned, the buildings were ruined. The country fell in abandonment and ruin
which would have been complete if it weren’t for the presence of the Christian Church.

The beginnings of the Christian Church

The countries would have returned to savagery if it weren’t for the Christian church. After the death of Jesus, his
followers spread a new religion of faith, hope, and charity; Christianity. At first, they were martyred and thrown to
the wild beasts in the arenas without diminishing their faith.

The Edict of Milan established freedom of religion (313)

Constantine, whose mother was Christian, realized that it was political savvy to allow Christians to practice in his
empire. His Edict of Milan granted religious freedom.

The Church in Gaul

In Gaul, like in Rome, the first Christians were persecuted before the Edict of Milan. In Paris, Saint Denis, bishop of
the city was decapitated on a hill which is now called Montmartre. The legend tells us that Denis picked up his
head and carried it more than 7km before dropping to the ground and dying. Today at this location in the city of
Saint-Denis, near Paris, there is a Basilica which commemorates this Christian martyr. It is where all the kings of
France are now buried, in the royal necropolis of France.
When the Roman empire ceased to control Gaul, we can see that the Church, already well organized took some
power and began to control some government. That is why today France is mostly Christian and Catholic. It is also
from this origin that the Christian authority of the Church over France would take a large share in the government
over the next thousand years and be a big part of the government.

Clovis, the First Christian King (496)

Clovis was the chief of a barbarian army and came to the East and composed the France, establishing himself in
the region of France. He was not Christian; he was pagan but married a Christian princess, Clotilde. Legend says
one day, Clovis was against his enemies and promised to convert if he won. He was saved! He was baptized that
evening in Reims, Saint Rémi (496). The legend is charming but in reality it was necessary for Clovis to convert and
support the church to reinforce his authority. It was therefore a political decision.
The baptism is very important: it devoted Clovis like a King of the Francs under the will of God. It was originally an
alliance between the king of France and the church. Finally, like with Clovis all the army became Christian. It began
the establishment of Christianity in the region.
The legend also says that a dove that on the day of the baptism, descended from the ceiling bringing a small vial
containing sacred oil for devoting the king. This oil is conserved in Reims and serve the consecration of the kings of
France after Clovis.

Clovis was the ancient form of Louis

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The ancient texts write his name Hlodovic and later Clovis, a transitional form between the Germanic and French
Ludwig Louis. In memory of Clovis, first Christian king of the Franks, many kings of France called themselves Louis.
The last of the name is Louis XVIII and he died in 1824
The lily is the symbol of the Kings of France
The legend tells us that Clovis pursued by his enemies hid in a swamp. There, a flower of iris got caught in his
helmet. Saved, he adopted the flower like the emblem of his new royalty. In reality, the origin of the lily flower is
unknown, but could be like this: the consecration of Clovis had no precedent, so the Church said the texts of the
Testament which described the coronation of the kings of Israel. They were anointed with sacred oil. The rest of
the ceremony resembled the coronation of Kings Saul and David.
The lily was the emblem of the Judea and king David. It can be picked up by the new king like his proper emblem:
the lily flower. All the kings of France had now kept a royal emblem: three flowers of gold lily flowers with a black
background.

The Middle Ages

Historians say the middle ages was a period which had the fall of the Roman empire to the call of Constantinople,
supplanted by the Turks. It is a period sometimes quite dark where France reconstructed its civilization over the
ruins of Roman civilization. On can also date the finish of the Middle Ages with the invention of printing in 1440.

Life and Literature

The literature of the Gauls was poetry, songs sung and passed down orally by bards. This poetry has not come
down to us, but there exist texts which speak of the life among the Gauls. “De Bello Gallico: Julius Caesar (101-44
B.C).

La religion des Gaulois

Long before Christianity, the Gauls had their own religion. They worshiped many gods who represented forces of
nature, like Bélénus the god of the sun and Velléda of the Earth. The priests of Gaul were druids; members of a
pre-Christian religious order among the ancient Celts of Gaul, Britain, and Ireland.
The druids did not have to go to war and they did not have to pay taxes like the others. Because of these
advantages, many young boys tried to follow their teachings in hope to become druids one day, and many stayed
in school for 20 years or more.
The druids said that their religion did not allow them to write things relating to religion. For the rest, they did not
hesitate to write complete accounts, for example and they used the Greek alphabet to do so. Why was writing not
allowed with religion? Probably because the people who were trusted to write had bad memories. One thing is
common; When one is helped by textual messages, one must learn by heart, and leave it to rust in memory.
The core of their teaching is that souls are immortal, but after death, they pass into the body of another. They
think that this belief is the best stimulant of courage, because we no longer fear death.

The mistletoe of the New Year

Caesar spoke of how the Gauls celebrated the new year. Druids were in this ceremony which has left traces in our
culture.
For several weeks before the New Year's Day, druids go into the forest to find mistletoe. But not regular mistletoe,
which grows in abundance on many trees, like apple trees and poplars. No. They seek the mistletoe growing on an
oak because oak wood is very hard, and it is unusual for the mistletoe grows. Mistletoe growing on an oak tree is
sacred to the Gauls. When it was finally found, we mark the spot carefully, but we do not reveal to anyone.
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When the night of the New Year arrives, the Druids lead the faithful with great ceremony to the oak which grew
the sacred mistletoe. The most agile of the Druids ascended the tree, and with a golden sickle, he cuts the
mistletoe which falls in a sheet of pure white linen, lying under the tree. "The mistletoe the new year! , "Cried the
Gauls, joyful. Each family head of his tribe carry bit of mistletoe sacred protect from evil during the coming year
Portrait of Vercingetorix
Like other Gauls of his time, Vercingetorix was wearing long blond hair that washing with lime water. This is often
represented wearing a helmet topped with small wings. That is what Julius Caesar said, his enemy, who ended up
winning the war against him, but admires his qualities as a man and military leader.
Vercingetorix, son of Celtil, was very powerful. His father was killed because he tried to become the king of Gaul.
Vercingetorix was 20 years old when he gathered together a small group of people, and later a big army composed
of all sorts of people of Gaul. He was unanimously the supreme commander. When he got the credentials, he
determined how many soldiers he wanted in every city, how many weapons and supplies he needed. He used fear
to control his troops. For serious misconduct the punishment was death by fire or any other kind of torture. For a
slight fault, he cut off an ear or eye to cover the guilty, and the guilty would return home to be used as an
example.

Le Vase de Soissons
Clovis: One of the episodes celebrated widely during the life of Clovis was the history of the vase of Soissons
(Soissons was a city in eastern France). It was retold by the great chronicler Gregory of Tours. Gregory was a
bishop who admired Clovis unconditionally, because he was Christian. Read this episode and decide if the baptism
gave Clovis all the virtues of Christianity, like charity, and pardoned all his offenses.
Clovis’s enemies had removed from church a grand vase of much beauty, and many other sacred objects. The
bishop of the church sent the King the message “If you cannot get back all the sacred objects, can you at least get
back the vase which is the treasure?” The King responded “Follow us to Soissons. It is where we can get back what
the enemies took. When the vase is given to me as my part of the booty, then I will do what the bishop asks me”.
So among the franc warriors, the booty was distributed equally among the soldiers and the king.
When he arrived in Soissons, the king went to the place where the booty was located. “I beg you, my warriors, I
shall take the vase to add to my part” And he climbed on the base as he spoke. At his words, the most reasonable
responded “We all agree, your wish is our command”. But one stupid, jealous, and angry soldier brandished his
battle ax and cried “You can’t have anything other than what you distribute!” and he striked the vase with his
battle ax and it shattered into a million pieces.
The king did not do anything at first, he simply gave the pieces of the vase to the messenger of the bishop, but he
did not forget the insult of the soldier. One day one year later, he assembled all his army to inspect their weapons
and equipment. When he arrived before he who had stricken the vase of Soissons, he said “Your weapons are
poorly maintained. You lance, your sword, your battle axe, all are in bad shape. And he threw the battle axe of the
soldier to the ground. The soldier bent down to pick it up. Then the king, with his own two hands, hit the soldier
and killed him saying “This is what you did to the Vase of Soissons”.
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La Riposte- response
Font appel- appeal to, call upon Oindre- to anoint

Le Récit- account, narrative Le Sacre- consecration, coronation

Le Batailleur- fighter Repris- picked up

L’Envahisseur- invader L’Or- gold

Vaincu- defeated Le Fond- background

En plein air- open-air Moyen-âge- Middle Ages

Au cours de siècles- over the centuries Parvenue jusqu'à nous- come down to us

Le Fléau- scourge (disaster) Propre- own

Soit…soit- either…or Le Prêtre- priest

Se replier- to withdraw to, fall back on À propos des- about

Donc- therefore, thus L’Impôt- tax

Brûler- to burn Le Enseignement- teaching

Piller- to pillage Le Comptes- accounts

Si ce n’était- if it weren’t for Sans doute- probably

Ont répandu- spread Se fient- trust, count down

La Foi- faith L’Écriture- writing

L’Espérance- hope Retenir par cœur- learn by heart, memorize

L’Evêque- bishop Rouiller- to get rusty

La Colline- hill L’Âme- soul

Ramasser- to pick up Le Gui- mistletoe

Enterré- burried Pousser- to grow

Le Pouvoir- power Le Pommiers- apple tree

(le) Païen- pagan Le Peuplier- poplar

Épouser- to marry Le Chêne- oak tree

La Volonté- will Le Bois- wood

La Colombe- dove Soigneusement- carefully

La Fiole- vial Fidèles- faithful

Se cache- hides La Faucille- sickle

Le Marécage- swamp Le Drap- sheet

(la )Prise- caught

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Le Lin- linen
Le Brin- sprig
Le Mal- evil, harm
Eau de chaux- lime water
L’Aile- wing
A fini par- wound up
Tué- killed
Réuni- gathered together
La Faute- mistake, fault
Fait crever un œil- has an eye put out
Le Coupable- guilty person
Enlever- to remove /to make off with
Partager- to share
Le Butin- booty
Le Guerrier- warriors
La Parole- word
Soumis à ton désir- «your wish is our command »
En colère- angry
Brandit- brandishes, waves
La Hache- ax
Le Sort- chance
Se brise- shatters
Mal tenues- poorly maintained
La Épée- sword
Mauvais état- bad shape
Se baisse- bends down
La sienne- his own
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Grammar
Verbs ending with –er
Some modern ones are téléguider (radio control), diffuser (radio), atomiser (to atomize).

Arriver Imperative Aller Imperative Envoyer Imperative

J’ arriv e Je vais Je envoie
Tu arriv es Arrive Tu vas Va Tu envoies Envoie
Il arriv e Arrivons Il va Allons Il envoie Envoyons
Nous arriv ons Arrivez Nous allons Allez Nous envoyons Envoyez
Vous arriv ez Vous Allez Vous envoyez
Ils arriv ent Ils ont Ils envoient

Some verbs end in –yer

Essayer (to try) Imperative Payer Imperative Ennuyer (to bore) Imperative
Je essaie Je paie Je ennuie
Tu essaies essaie Tu paies paie Tu ennuies ennuie
Il essaie essayons Il paie payons Il ennuie ennuyons
Nous essayons essayez Nous payons payez Nous ennuyons ennuyez
Vous essayez Vous payez Vous ennuyez
Ils essaient Ils paient Ils ennuient

Some verbs end in –érer or -eter. When a word ends with e+ consonant + (mute e) (frère, mère, pièce) there is
generally a grave accent on the e before the consonant. That’s why you change the accent when you conjugate
verbs like préférer.

Espérer Imperative Préférer Imperative Acheter Imperative

Je espère Je préfère Je achète
Tu espères espère Tu préfères préfère Tu achètes achète
Il espère espérons Il préfère préférons Il achète achetons
Nous espérons espérez Nous préférons préférez Nous achetons achetez
Vous espérez Vous préférez Vous achetez
Ils espèrent Ils préfèrent Ils achètent
Commencer Imperative
Manger
Some verbs end in –ger Imperative Je verbs
Some commence
end in -cer
Je mange Tu commences commence
Tu manges mange Il commence
Il mange mangeons commençons
Nous mangeons mangez Nous commençons commencez
Vous mangez Vous commencez
Ils mangent Ils commencent
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The verbs appeler, épeler, and jeter

Appeler Imperative Épeler (to spell) Imperative Jeter Imperative

Je appelle Je épelle Je jette
Tu appelles appelle Tu épelles épelle Tu jettes jette
Il appelle appelons Il épelle épelons Il jette jetons
Nous appelons appelez Nous épelons épelez Nous jetons jetez
Vous appelez Vous épelez Vous jetez
Ils appellent Ils épellent Ils jettent

Some verbs are –ir verbs

Finir Courir Dormir

Imperative Imperative Imperative
Je finis Je cours Je dors
Tu finis finis Tu cours cours Tu dors dors
Il finit finissons Il court courons Il dort dormons
Nous finissons finissez Nous courons courez Nous dormons dormez
Vous finissez Vous courez Vous dormez
Ils finissent Ils courent Ils dorment
Mentir (to lie) Imperative Partir Imperative Sentir(to feel) Imperative
Je mens Je pars Je sens
Tu mens mens Tu pars pars Tu sens sens
Il ment mentons Il part partons Il sent sentons
Nous mentons mentez Nous partons partez Nous sentons sentez
Vous mentez Vous partez Vous sentez
Ils mentent Ils partent Ils sentent

Servir Sortir
Imperative Imperative
Je sers Je sors
Tu sers sers Tu sors sors
Il sert servons Il sort sortons
Tenir(to hold) NousImperative
servons servez
Venir NousImperative
sortons sortez
Mourir Imperative
Je tiens Vous servez Je viens Vous sortez Je meurs
Tu tiens Ils tiensservent Tu viens Ils vienssortent Tu meurs meurs
Il tient tenons  Il |
Tenir, retenir, obtenir, and maintenir vient
Venir, Prévenir,venons 
Convenir | Mourirmeurt
Il mourons
Nous tenons tenez Nous venons venez Nous mourons mourez
Vous tenez Vous venez Vous mourez
Ils tiennent Ils viennent Ils meurent
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Ouvrir, offrir, and souffrir

Ouvrir Offrir Souffrir (to suffer)

Imperative Imperative Imperative
Je ouvre Je offre Je souffre
Tu ouvres ouvre Tu offres offre Tu souffres souffre
Il ouvre ouvrons Il offre offrons Il souffre souffrons
Nous ouvrons ouvrez Nous offrons offrez Nous souffrons souffrez
Vous ouvrez Vous offrez Vous souffrez
Ils ouvrent Ils offrent Ils souffrent
Verbs that end in –re

Descendre Imperative Prendre Mettre

Je descends Imperative Imperative
Tu descends descends Je prends Je mets
Il descend Tu prends prends Tu mets mets
descendons Il prend prenons Il met mettons
Nous descendons descendez Nous prenons prenez Nous mettons mettez
Vous descendez Vous prenez Vous mettez
Ils descendent Ils prennent Ils mettent
Connaître Imperative Détruire Imperative Écrire Imperative
Je connais Je détruis Je écris
Tu connais connais Tu détruis détruis Tu écris écris
Il connaît Il détruit détruisons Il écrit écrivons
connaissons Nous détruisons détruisez Nous écrivons écrivez
Nous connaissons connaissez Vous détruisez Vous écrivez
Vous connaissez Ils détruisent Ils écrivent
Ils connaissent

Croire Imperative Rire (to laugh) Imperative vivre Imperative

Je crois Je ris Je vis
Tu crois crois Tu ris ris Tu vis vis
Il croit croyons Il rit rions Il vit vivons
Nous croyons croyez Nous rions riez Nous vivons vivez
Vous croyez Vous riez Vous vivez
Ils croient Ils rient Ils vivent
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Some verbs end in –oir

Avoir Imperative Pouvoir Imperative Vouloir Imperative

Je ai Je peux Je veux
Tu as aie Tu peux N/A Tu veux veuille
Il a ayons Il peut Il veut veuillons
Nous avons ayez Nous pouvons Nous voulons veuillez
Vous avez Vous pouvez Vous voulez
Ils ont Ils peuvent Ils veulent
Voir Imperative Savoir Imperative Pleuvoir
Je vois Je sais Il pleut
Tu vois vois Tu sais sache Valoir (to hold well in value)
Il voit voyons Il sait sachons il vaut
Nous voyons voyez Nous savons sachez Falloir (have to)
Vous voyez Vous savez Il faut
Ils voient Ils savent

In the imperative form, add an “s” when the verb is followed by “y” or “en”.
Parles-en, Restes-y vs. N;en parle pas. N’y reste pas.

When constructing sentences with two consecutive verbs, some verbs don’t need a preposition, some verbs need
the preposition à, and some verbs need the preposition de. The preposition would go in between the two verbs, and
the form would be decided by the first verb.

Adverbs are souvent, toujours, peut-être, beaucoup, longtemps, and bien. When there is one verb, these adverbs
come after the verbs or after the negation of the verbs.
Je parle bien français. Mais je ne parle pas bien espagnol.
Michel aime beaucoup la musique.
Savez-vous déjà la réponse à ma question?
Adverbs are placed after the first verb when there are two verbs.
Je voudrais bien fair un voyage.
Aidez-vous souvent votre mère à faire le diner?
On is used for “people in general”
Quand on est enfant, on va à l’école primaire.
On is also good to use as nous in a group
Dans ma famille, on est très affectueux.
Quand va-t-on sortir de cette classe?