ACHARYA N.G.

RANGA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

RAJENDRA NAGAR, HYDERABAD

PRACTICAL MANUAL

INTRODUCTION TO SOIL SCIENCE

Course No. : SSAC 121

Credits : 2+1 = 3

Dr P Prasuna Rani
Associate professor

Dr.G Jayasree
Associate Professor

Dr K Srinivasulu Reddy
Professor & Head

Dr P R K Prasad
Professor & Head

Department of Soil Science and Agril. Chemistry

Agricultural College, Bapatla-522101

JANUARY 2012

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 CERTIFICATE

Certified that this is a bonafide record of practical work done by

I.D.No. in course No. : SSAC 121

Manures, Fertilizers and Agrochemicals during the First/ Second Semester

of 20 to 20 .

Signature of Course-in-charge

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 Particulars of the experiments conducted
Expt. Title of the experiment Date of Page Signature Remarks
no. submission no.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

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LIST OF THE EXPERIMENTS

1. Identification of rocks.

2. Methods of chemical analysis, Principles, techniques and calculations.

3. Standardization of sulphuric acid or silver nitrate.

4. Collection of soil samples and preparation of soil water extract.

5. Description of soil profile in the field.

6. Determination of mechanical composition of soil using Bouyoucos hydrometer.

7. Determination of bulk density and Particle density of the soils.

8. Determination of maximum water holding capacity of soil using Keen Razkowski cups.

9. Determination of soil moisture content by gravimetric method and soil colour using

Munsell colour chart.

10. Determination of infiltration rate of soils.

11. Determination of soil strength by cone penetrometer.

12. Aggregate analysis by wet sieving method.

13. Determination of carbonates and bicarbonates in soil water extract.

14. Determination of chlorides in soil water extract.

15. Estimation of calcium and magnesium in soil water extract.

16. Estimation of organic carbon content in soil.

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Expt. No.: 1 Date:
IDENTIFICATION OF ROCKS

Rocks are the hard heterogeneous masses comprising of one or more minerals. They are
classified based on mode of origin into 3 types:-
1. Igneous rocks
2. Sedimentary rocks
3. Metamorphic rocks
I. Igneous Rocks: - Igneous rocks are formed due to cooling and crystallization of molten
magma. These are the first rocks to be formed on the planet and are called primary rocks.
They were classified into intrusive (formed within earth’s crust) or extrusive rocks (formed
outside the earth’s surface).
Identification Characters:-
Presence of interlocking grains. The grains are in close contact without any air spaces.
Eg: Granite
Presence of cavities left by the escaping gases when the magma cools down.
Eg: Vesicular basalt , Pumice.
Presence of flow structure-arrangement of mineral grains in direction of flow of magma
before cooling. Eg: Rhyolite.
Important Igneous Rocks:-
1. Granite: Light coloured, medium to coarse grained containing minerals like feldspars
and quartz as essential minerals. Mica is present in small grains.
2. Basalt: Dark coloured to greenish black, medium to fine grained basic rock containing
feldspars, augite and iron oxides, sometimes they show cavities, usually black cotton
soils are formed from basalt.
II. Sedimentary or Secondary Rocks:-
When primary rocks are subjected to weathering, transportation, deposition and
digenesis, sedimentary rocks are formed. The products of weathering may also
accumulate and get compacted at the place of their origin forming residual rocks.
Identification Characters:
1. Fragmentary Structure: It refers to the presence of loose grains composed of broken
material of different rocks and minerals. The grains are cemented together by materials
like lime, iron oxides, organic matter and silica. Eg: Conglomerate.
2. Stratification: It is due to formation of secondary rocks in layer because of the
deposition of suspended material in solution. Eg: Shale.
3. Presence of hard parts of organisms: The hard parts of dead marine organisms, plants
and animals are present in secondary rocks indicating that these rocks are formed under
the action of water owing to the compaction of fragmentary materials. Eg: Limestone
with shells.

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Important Sedimentary rocks:
1. Conglomerate:
It consists rounded pebbles or gravel cemented by some cementing materials.
2. Sandstone:
It is light to medium coloured rock, fine to coarse grained, composed of sand particles or
quartz grains cemented by silica or lime.
3. Shale:
It is hard and laminated clay, very fine grained rock, light gray to grayish yellow, brown
or purple consisting of clay sized particles. It may also contain some ferrous and
carbonaceous matter, shales are thin bedded and show stratification and may contain
remains of organisms.
4. Limestone:
Light to medium dark rock, usually fine grained and sometime coarse grained rocks can
be seen. Mainly consists of calcium carbonate and they give effervescence with HCl.
This may also contain remains of marine organisms.
5. Coal:
Organic secondary rock formed from the remains of plants. High temperature and
pressure under the prevailing anaerobic conditions convert the plant material into
anthracite through peat, lignite and bituminous coal.

Accumulation High Temperature High Temperature

Plant remains------------------>Peat--------------------> Lignite-------------- >Bituminous coal
and decomposition and Pressure and Pressure

Usually the coal beds are interstratified with sandstone and shales.
III. Metamorphic Rocks:
Metamorphism leads to change in form of deeply burried rocks when they are
subjected to high temperature and pressure, they transform completely into new type
of rocks called metamorphic rocks.
Identification Characters:
Presence of foliations due to high pressure and horizontal layers parallel to one other are
formed. They contain mica and the layers can be easily separated out.
Presence of dominant mica minerals. Many metamorphic rocks contain high amounts of mica
( muscovite and biotite), which gives shiny appearance to rocks.
Presence of metamorphic minerals like garnet, chlorite and staurolite is an indication of
metamorphic rocks.
Signs of recrystallization: High temperature and pressure during metamorphism includes
recrystallization and formation of new crystals this gives the metamorphic rocks a shiny and
compact look.

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Important Metamorphic Rocks:
1. Slate: It is a hard compact fine grained rock with light to medium dark colour.
2. Schist: Light to medium coloured, medium to coarse grained rock with perfect foliation.
Based on the type of dominant mineral the schists are classified as chlorite schists, mica
schists, Garnet schists.
3. Graphite: Organic metamorphic rock, Carbonaceous, Black shining coal with very high
carbon content.
4. Marble: A non foliated, light to medium coloured, medium to fine grained rock
consisting of calcite and dolomite.
Procedure for identification of rocks:
Rocks are observed for the colour, structure, grain size, type of minerals present and
other specific features and based on the characters rocks are named.

Observation table for identification of rocks

S.No Colour Structure(stratification, Grain Minerals Special Name of
interlocking of grains, size features the rock
foliation etc.)

Questions:
1. How igneous rocks are formed?
2. How igneous and sedimentary rocks differ in their characters?
3. What are the conditions that lead to formation of metamorphic rocks.

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Expt. No.: 2 Date:

METHODS OF CHEMICAL ANALYSIS, PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES

Analytical chemistry is the branch of chemistry which deals with the determination of
constituents of substances (or) mixture of substances. It has two main categories:
1. Qualitative analysis 2. Quantitative analysis
Qualitative analysis: It deals with identification of constituents of substances (or) mixture of
substances (or) solutions and the manner in which the component elements (or) groups of
elements combine with each other.
Quantitative analysis: It is concerned with the method of determination of quantitative content
of individual elements (or) groups of elements (or) compounds present in a substance.
Quantitative analysis is of enormous importance and can be divided into several
categories based on different methods employed for their quantitative measure.
1. Volumetric analysis
2. Gravimetric analysis
3. Electro Gravimetric (or) electro volumetric analysis
4. Colorimetric analysis
5. Flame photometric analysis
6. Calorimetric analysis
7. Chromatographic analysis
8. Radiometric analysis
9. Nephelometric (Turbidimetric) analysis
10. Polarographic analysis etc.
Out of several quantitative analytical techniques, volumetric analysis is an accurate rapid
method used for analysis of several constituents in soils.
Volumetric analysis: It refers to quantitative chemical analysis carried out by determining the
volume of a solution of accurately known concentration (standard solution), which is required to
react quantitatively with measured volume of a solution of a substance to be determined. The
weight of the substance (or) concentration of a substance to be determined is calculated from the
volume of the standard solution to be determined in the solution. This method is also called as
titrimetric analysis.
Titration: It is defined as the process of determining the volume of a solution of a substance
required to get completion of reactions with a known amount of solution of other substance.
Titrant: The solution of accurately known concentration used in titration is called titrant. This is
also called standard solution
Titrate: The substance in a solution to be determined by the process of titration is called titrate.
Indicator: The substance which indicates the end of the reaction or the equivalence point
Ex. Methyl orange, methyl red, phenolphthalein etc.

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End point (or) equivalence point: The point at which the reaction is just complete during
titration is called end point.
Practical end point: The point at which a visible change is observed is called practical end
point. This is usually more than the equivalence point or theoretical end point (0.1mL)
The indicator should be selected in such a way that the titration error is as minimum as
possible.
Methods of Volumetric Analysis : The reactions used in volumetric analysis belong to various
types. Accordingly volumetric determinations can be subdivided into the following methods.
Acid-base / neutralization reaction: These are reactions between an acid and a base involving
the combination of hydrogen ion and hydroxyl ion to form water
H+ + OH- H2O
NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O
Ex: Estimation of carbonates and bicarbonates using H2SO4
Complex formation reactions: This reaction involves the combination of ions other than H+ and
OH- ions to form a soluble slightly dissociated compound.
Ex: Estimation of Ca+2 and Mg+2 using EDTA.
Precipitation reaction: It involves combination of ions other than H+ and OH- to form a single
precipitation.
Ex: Estimation of Cl- using AgNO3
Cl- + AgNO3 – AgCl + NO3
Oxidation reduction reaction: These reactions involve the change of oxidation number (or)
transfer of e- among the reactants.
Ex: Estimation of organic carbon in the soil using potassium dichromate K2Cr2O7
Materials required for volumetric analysis
1. Burette
2. Pipette
3. Conical flask
4. Volumetric flask
5. Porcelain basin
6. Measuring cylinder
7. Beaker
Merits of volumetric analysis:
1. High precision
2. Simple apparatus.
3. No tedious and difficult separation procedures as in gravimetric analysis
Standard solutions:
Solution: Solution is a perfect homogeneous mixture of solute and solvent.
Solute: In a solution the substance dissolved and present in lesser quantities is called solute.
Solvent: In a solution the medium in which the solute dissolved and is in large proportions is
called solvent.
Molarity (M): It is the number of moles of solute dissolved in one litre of solution.

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Molar solution: A solution, which contains one mole (or) one molecular weight in grams of a
substance in one liter of solution (substance may be in the form of molecules, ions (or) any other
species)
Molality (m): The number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kg of solvent
Molal solution : A solution in which 1 mole solute dissolved in one kg of solvent.
Normality: Normality of a solution is the number of gram equivalents of a solute in one liter of a
solution
Gram equivalent weight: The gram equivalent weight of the substance is the weight in
grams which is chemically equivalent to one gram - atom of hydrogen (or) hydroxyl (or) 8 g of
oxygen.
For several chemicals equivalent weights are calculated by the formula

Equivalent weight is variable as it depends upon chemical reaction in which standard solution is
used.
H2SO4 +2 NaOH = Na2SO4+2H2O
The gram molecule of sulfuric acid corresponds to two gram ions of hydrogen. Hence its gram
equivalent is ½ of the gram molecule (49.04g).
In case of di- and polybasic acids all the ionizable hydrogen atoms are not involved.
Eventually in such cases the equivalent weights change.
H3PO4 + 3NaOH = Na3PO4 + 3 H2O
H3PO4 + 2NaOH = Na2HPO4 + 2 H2O
H3PO4 + NaOH = NaH2PO4 + H2O
In the above reactions, phosphoric acid yields three, two and one hydrogen atoms hence the
equivalent weight is 1/3, ½ and 1/1 of the molecular weight, respectively.
Oxidimetry (redox reactions) involves the redistribution of electrons among the reactants.
Atoms of the reducing agents are oxidized by loosing electrons, while atoms of oxidizing agents
are reduced by accepting the electrons.
To find out the oxidation gram equivalent, the gram molecular weight of an oxidizing
agent must be divided by the number of electrons gained by one molecule of it in the given
reaction.
Eg: K2Cr2O7 +6 FeSO4 +7 H2SO4 = K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 +3Fe2(SO4)3 + 7H2O
In the above reaction the change in valence of two chromium ions is from +12 to +6 as it gains
six electrons. Hence, the reduction gram-equivalent of K2Cr2O7 is 1/6 of its gram molecule.
Primary Standard Solution: In all titrimetric methods standard solutions are used whose
concentration is known. It is a prerequisite to have following properties to consider any chemical
as primary standard chemical.
1. It must react in only one direction (or) the way under the condition of titration and there
must be no side reaction.
2. it must be obtainable in pure form (or) in a state of known purity.
3. it must be non hygroscopic

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 4. it is desirable but not essential that the equivalent weight of the compound be as large as
possible to reduce proportionally the effect of error in weighing and transferring. An acid
(or) base should be preferably strong and should have high dissociation constant.

Ex: Bases : Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), calcium carbonate and borax(Na2B4O7.10H2O). Borax
is more appropriate as it is more stable and has high gram equivalent weight (190.7g) than
sodium carbonate. But the difficulty in its preparation prevents its use.
Acids : Potassium hydrogen phthalate KHC8H4O4 (Molecular & Equivalent weight
204.23):Useful for standardization of strong carbonate free bases using phenolphthalein. But not
suitable for titration with ammonium hydroxide.
Benzoic acid C6H5COOH, (( Molecular & Equivalent weight 122.13g): it is insoluble in water.
Must be dissolved in water - alcohol solution
Sulfamic acid HNH2SO3(( Molecular & Equivalent weight 97.11g)
Oxalic acid H2C2O4.2H2O ( Molecular weight: 126.06g; Equivalent weight:63.03g)
Oxidizing agents: K2Cr2O7
Reducing agents: Sodium oxalate Na2C2O4 ( Molecular weight: 134g; Equivalent weight: 67g)
Used to standardize potassium permanganate solution
Potassium ferrocyanide
Others : KCl, NaCl
Secondary standard chemicals: Substances which cannot be obtained in pure state, which are
hygroscopic in nature and are easily affected when exposed to air cannot be considered as
primary standard chemicals. These secondary standard chemicals cannot be weighed accurately
or required concentrations cannot be prepared at a time. The secondary standard solutions are to
be standardized against primary standard solution to know the actual strength of solution.
Ex: Acids - H2SO4, HCl
Bases – NaOH, KOH, NH4OH
Oxidising agents : Potassium permanganate
Reducing agents : Ferrous ammonium sulphate
Questions:
1. What are basic types of analytical chemistry? Which technique is most appropriate?
2. What is the principle of volumetric analysis? Mention its advantages.
3. Differentiate between primary standard and secondary standard chemicals.
4. What are the gram equivalents of oxidizing and reducing agents in the following reaction?
KMnO4+ 5KNO2 + 3H2PO4 = 2MnSO4 + K2SO4 + 5KNO3 + 3H2O.
5. What is the weight of KOH in 200mL of 0.08 N solution?
6. How many milliequivalents of H2SO4 are present in 50mL of 0.2 N H2SO4?

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Expt. No.: 3 Date:

STANDARDIZATION OF SULPHURIC ACID

Introduction: Standardization is a process of finding out the strength of unknown solutions.

Chemicals are broadly classified into primary and secondary standard chemicals (discussed in
Expt. No.:2). As sulphuric acid is a secondary standard chemical, the dilution of calculated
quantity of acid into given volume of solution may not result in the required concentration.
Hence such solutions need to be standardized against solutions of primary standard chemicals or
standard solutions.
Aim: To standardize the given sulphuric acid (approximately 0.1N).
Apparatus: 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask( conical flask), 25 mL burette, 10 mL pipette, beaker,
1000 mL volumetric flask, glass rod, graduated pipette, 1000 mL conical flask.
Reagents:
1. Approximately 0.1 N sulphuric acid - Dilute 2.8 mL of sulphuric acid to 1000 mL
of solution.
2. Sodium carbonate (0.1 N)– Dissolve 5.3 g of sodium carbonate in distilled water
and dilute to one liter using distilled water.
3. Methyl orange indicator: It is an acid-base indicator, light red colour in acid medium,
straw yellow colour in alkaline medium.
Principle: Standardization of sulphuric acid involves acid base reaction, where in H+ and OH-
combine to form water. When a known volume of standard sodium carbonate solution is titrated
against sulphuric acid using methyl orange as an indicator the straw yellow colour changes to
rose red colour at the equivalence point.
-------------- >
Na2CO3 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + CO2 +H2O
Considering the volume and normality of sodium carbonate and volume of acid consumed for
the reaction, the normality of the given acid is calculated by the formula N1V1 = N2V2. The
required concentration of 0.1N sulphuric acid is achieved by either diluting or concentrating the
solution to the desired strength and the above process is repeated once again to confirm the
strength.
Procedure:
• Wash the glassware thoroughly with tap water and rinse with distilled water.
• Then rinse the burette with sulfuric acid and pipette with standard sodium carbonate
solution. Fill the burette with sulfuric acid. Make sure that tip of the burette is filled with
acid and no air is present in it.
• Take exactly 10 mL of 0.1N sodium carbonate solution into an Erlenmeyer flask using
the pipette and add 1 or 2 drops of methyl orange indicator.
• The contents become straw yellow in colour.
• Titrate the contents of the flask against sulphuric acid till the straw yellow colour changes
to rose red.
• Note down the titre value and repeat the procedure till two consecutive and concurrent
values are obtained.

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Observations & Calculations:
S.No. Volume of 0.1 N Na2CO3 Burette readings (mL)
taken (mL) Initial Final Difference

Titre value = ___A__ mL of sulfuric acid.

Calculations:
Volume of Na2CO3 taken for titration ( V1) = 10 mL
Concentration of Na2CO3 (C1) = 0.1 N
Volume of H2SO4 consumed for titration (V2) = A mL
Concentration of H2SO4 (N2) = N1V1
V2

Inference: The normality of the given sulphuric acid is _______.

Questions:
1. What is standardization? Why sulfuric acid has to be standardized?
2. Find out the volume of concentrated sulphuric acid required to prepare 2.5 L of
approximately 0.75 N acid.

STANDARDIZATION OF SILVER NITRATE (0.02 N)

Aim: To standardize the given silver nitrate solution of approximately 0.02 N.

Apparatus: Porcelain basin, glass rod, burette, pipette.
Reagents:
Silver nitrate (approximately 0.02 N) – Dissolve 3.3998 g of crystallized silver nitrate in
distilled water and make up to 1 liter.
Sodium chloride (0.02 N) - Dissolve 1.1692 g of NaCl in distilled water and make up the
volume to 1 liter.
Potassium chromate( 0.5 %) – Dissolve 0.5 g of potassium chromate in distilled water and
dilute to 100 mL.
Principle: This experiment involves the precipitation reaction, wherein silver combines with
chloride and forms in to a white coloured silver nitrate precipitate. The concentration of given
silver nitrate solution is obtained by reacting with known volume of standard sodium chloride
solution in the presence of silver chromate indicator. The required concentration of 0.02N silver
nitrate is achieved by either diluting or concentrating the solution to the desired strength.

NaCl + Ag NO3 Ag Cl ↓ + NaNO3

white precipitate
2AgNO3 + K2CrO4 Ag2CrO4 ↓ + 2KNO3
brick red precipitate

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Procedure:
• Mount the burette with silver nitrate solution .
• Take exactly 10 mL of 0.02 N NaCl solution into a porcelain basin using a pipette.
• Add 2 to 3 drops of potassium chromate indicator, stir well and the contents become
yellow in colour due to chromate ions.
• Then titrate the contents against silver nitrate ( whose strength has to be determined) till
the contents become faint chocolate brown in colour.
• Note down the titre value. Repeat the procedure till two consecutive and concurrent
values are obtained.
The strength of silver nitrate can be determined by the formula N1V1 = N2V2 as given in
standardization of sulfuric acid.
To get the desired strength dilute or increase the concentration of the solution and the above
process is repeated once again to confirm the strength.
Observations:
S.No. Volume of 0.02 N Burette reading (mL)
NaCl (mL) Initial Final Difference

Titre value = ___A__ mL of silver nitrate.

Calculations:
Volume of NaCl solution taken for titration ( V1) = 10 mL
Concentration of NaCl (N1) = 0.02 N
Volume of AgNO3 consumed for titration (V2) = A mL
Concentration of AgNO3 (N2) = N1V1
V2
Inference: The normality of the given silver nitrate solution is _______.

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Expt. No.: 4 Date:

COLLECTION OF SOIL SAMPLES & PREPARATION OF SOIL WATER EXRACT

Soil is a vital resource for agriculture. The productivity of a given region depends upon
the characteristics of the soils. Knowing the soils in terms their quality factors like physical and
chemical characters is very important for sustainable agriculture. Soils are highly heterogeneous
and hence collecting a representative sample following standard procedures is utmost important.
Soil testing is a useful tool for making fertilizer recommendations for various crops and
cropping sequences as well as reclamation of soil problems.
Objectives of Soil Testing:
1. To evaluate the fertility status of soil for making fertilizer recommendations.
2. To predict the probable crop response for the applied nutrients.
3. To classify the crops into different fertility groups.
4. For the preparation of soil fertility groups.
5. To identify the degree of soil related problems like salinity, alkalinity, acidity.
6. To suggest appropriate reclamation measures.
Methods of soil sampling depends on
1) The purpose for which sampling is required
a. For soil fertility evaluation and fertilizer recommendation: Normally soils are
collected up to plough layer (0-15cm) for cereals and other seasonal crops. In case
of deep rooted crops like sugarcane, cotton etc. samples may be collected from
different depths
b. Reclamation of saline and alkali soils: The samples may be drawn from the plough
layer but the salt crust should be sampled separately.
c. For Horticultural plants: Samples may be taken from different depths depending
upon the root penetration of the plants.
2) Nature of soil
3) Time available and others.
Factors need to be considered while soil sampling:
Depth of sampling:
• For annual crops the sample should be drawn from 0-15 cm depth (or) plough depth – for
deep rooted crops like sugarcane the sample is taken from different depths i.e. 0-15 cm,
15-30 cm, 30-60 cm etc. for perennial crops or orchard crops the composite sample is
prepared by collecting the soil from different depths of 0-30, 30-60, 60-100 cm & up to 2 m.
• For saline and alkaline soil the salt crust which is visible on the surface should be
sampled separately.
• In case when sampling is done in deeper layers the depth should be clearly indicated.
Time of sampling: Any season, when soil moisture is optimum. However the ideal time for
collection of soil sample is summer, always the samples should be collected when soil is dry.
Number of sub samples: 15 to 20 samples must be collected from each homogeneous unit.
Sampling in a standing crop: For horticultural or field crops sample must be collected between
crop rows.

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Sampling tools:
• Sample can be drawn with the help of soils tube (or) tube auger, screw auger, post hole
auger, spade (or) kurpi.
• A screw type auger is more convenient for sampling on hard & dry soils, while tube auger
for soft and moist soils.
• In case of normal soils a ‘V’ shaped cut may be made with kurpi (or) spade to plough
layer depth and uniform 2 cm thick slice is taken from both sides.
Soil Sampling Procedure:
Soil sampling is the most vital step for soil testing. The validity of soil analysis depends
to the extent of 70% on soil sampling. Since very small fraction of huge soil mass is used for
analysis it becomes extremely important to collect a true representative soil sample of the field.
• For collecting a representative soil sample the following procedure must be followed.
ii) A large heterogeneous field can be divided into small homogeneous units
through imaginary lines considering the variations in slope, soil texture,
colour, past management, cropping pattern, fertilizers and manures applied
etc.
iii) A field can be considered as a single sample unit if it is uniform. Generally an
area exceeding 0.5 hectares and approximately one hectare is taken as one
sample unit.
• For making composite soil sample small portion of sample up to desired depth is
collected by means of suitable sampling tools from 15-20 well distributed parts moving in
zig-zag manner in the field (sample unit) after removing the surface litter without
removing the soil from the field.In case of field having standing crop the samples are to
be drawn in between the rows.
• The soil is mixed and spread on a clean cloth or paper or polythene sheet
• The bulk of the soil sample is reduced to around half kg by quartering method.
Quartering: Quartering is a technique followed to reduce the size of bulk composite
sample into required quantity of sample. To carry out this pour the composite sample on
a clean paper or cloth or polyethylene sheet and mix it thoroughly. Remove any pebbles,
roots and other coarse materials. Spread the soil in round or square shape and divide in
to four parts (quarters). Reject the two diagonally opposite quarters and mix the
remaining two quarters and repeat the procedure until a sample size of approximately ½
to 1kg soil is obtained.
• Transfer the sample to clean polythene or cloth bags and put one label inside the bag and
tie another label outside.
• Transfer the soil sample bags to laboratory.
Precautions in collection and storage of soil sample:
Special care in collection and handling them is required for preventing contamination.
The following precautions should be taken.
• Avoid sampling in recently fertilized fields, bunds, channels, marshy parts and areas
near wells, trees, compost heaps etc.

16
 • The area of 2-3 meter along the field bund should not be sampled.
• Avoid contact of soil sample with chemicals, manures and fertilizers.
• Use stainless steel tools instead of rusted iron kurpi (or) spade for sampling,
particularly when sampling is done for micronutrient status.
• Don’t use bags (or) boxes which are previously used for storing fertilizer, salt (or)
any chemical.
• Store the soil sample preferably in clean cloth bag (or) polythene bags.
• Use glass (or) porcelain jars for long duration storing of the sample.
Labeling of sample:
• Soil sample should be labeled for identification using a thick paper.
• Identification mark and other details should be furnished on the label and be kept inside
the sample bag.
• Another label with similar information should be pasted on the bag.
• In case of wet soil sample the label should be written with black pencil.
• In addition to the location, field number, name of the farmer and identification marks,
relevant information about slope, drainage, previous cropping history, fertilizers and
manures applied must be recorded and sent to the laboratory.
Processing of soil sample for analysis:
1. Sample must be air dried in shade.
2. Soil samples are ground with the help of wooden hammer.
3. Sample is to be sieved through 2 mm stainless steel sieve.
4. The plant residue, gravel and other materials retained on sieve must be discarded.
5. If the gravel content is substantial it should be recorded as % of sample, for analysis of
texture.
6. For organic carbon estimation the sample has to be sieved through 0.2 mm sieve.
7. Before analyzing the sample, the sample has to be thoroughly mixed.
PREPARATION OF SOIL WATER EXTRACT:
Aim:- To prepare soil water extract (1:5) for determining water soluble constituents (cations and
anions of the soil).
Apparatus required:- Erlenmeyer flask, bottle, measuring cylinder, funnel, glass rod and
Whatman No.1 filter paper.
Procedure:- Weigh 100 g of soil sample into a bottle and add 500ml of distilled water. Stopper
the bottle and shak well on end to end over shaker for 30 minutes. Allow the contents to settle
for 2 to 3days and then filter the contents through Whatman no.1 filter paper using supernatant
solution. If there is any color in the extract add a pinch of charcoal shake well and filter again.
Take the extract into a reagent bottle, after thorough washing and rinsing with distilled water.
Add 1 or 2 drops of toluene to avoid any microbial contamination.
Questions:
1. What are the objectives of soil sampling?
2. What are the precautions need to be followed while soil sampling?
3. Describe the technique of quartering.

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Expt. No.: 5 Date:
DESCRIPTION OF SOIL PROFILE IN THE FIELD

Materials required for Profile study:

Digging tools eg.,crowbar, spade, auger etc., cutting knife, measuring tape, Munsell
colour chart, magnifying lens, dilute HCl, water bottle. Phenolphthalein indicator, polythene
bags, cloth bags, marker pens, arrows, sheets with profile numbers, Proforma for profile
description, camera, monoliths, vehicle.
Procedure for digging, describing and collection of soil sample: A vertical section of soil
through all its horizons and extending up to the parent material is termed as “soil profile”. The
study of soil profile helps in assessing the agricultural significance of soils. It also helps in
classification of soils and delineation of problem soils like acidic, saline and alkali soils.
Studying the soils with the help of profiles give full details essential for evaluating the soils for a
given use.

Theoretical Soil Profile

Oi : Organic, slightly decomposed

Oe : Organic, moderately decomposed

Oa : Organic, highly decomposed

A : Top Mineral layer, mixed with humus, dark in color

E : Horizon of max. eluviation of silicate clays,sesquioxides

etc.,

AB or EB: Transition to B, more like A or E than B.

BA or BE : Transition to A or E, more like B than A /E.

B : Illuviated B horizon, with clear expression

BC : Transition to C , more like B than C.

C : Zone of least weathering, accumulation of Ca ,Mg

carbonates, cementation, may be high bulk density.

R : Bed Rock

A soil horizon is a layer of soil, approximately parallel to the soil surface, differing in
properties and characteristics from adjacent layers below or above it.

18
 Soil profile is an historic record of all the soil forming processes and it forms the unit of
study in pedological investigations. Practically, soil profile is an important tool for soil
classification which is applicable for thorough understanding of the soils.

Five master horizons are recognized in soil profile and are designated using
capital letters O, A, E, B and C. Sub-ordinate layers or distinctions with in these mater horizons
are designated by lower case letter e.g., a, e, i, t, k etc.

O Horizons :(Organic) It comprises of organic horizons that form above the mineral soil. They
result from litter derived from dead plants and animals. ‘O’ horizons usually occur in forest
areas and are generally absent in grassland regions.

A - Horizon: It is the top most mineral horizon. It contains a strong mixture of decomposed
(humified) organic matter, which tends to impart a darker color than that of the lower horizons.

E - Horizon: It is an eluviated horizon. Clay and sesquioxides are invariably leached out or
washed out, leaving a concentration of resistant minerals such as quartz. An ‘E’ horizon is
generally lighter in color than the ‘A’ horizon and is found under ‘A’ horizon.

B– Horizon: (Illuvial) The sub-surface ‘B’ horizons include layers in which illuviation of
materials has taken place from above and even from below. In humid regions, the B-horizons are
the layers of maximum accumulation of materials such as sesquioxides and silicate clays. In arid
and semi-arid regions Ca CO3, Ca SO4 and other salts may accumulate in the B horizon.

C – Horizon: It is the unconsolidated material underlying the ‘Solum’ (A & B). It may or may
not be the same as the parent material from which the solum formed. The ‘C’ horizon is out side
the zones of major biological activities and is generally little affected by the processes that
formed the horizons above it.

‘R’- Layer : Underlying consolidated rock, with little evidence of weathering.

Sub – Ordinate Distinctions with in Master Horizons:

a: Highly decomposed organic matter

c: concretions

e: partially decomposed organic matter

g: strong gleying

h : illuvial accumulation of organic matter

i. Slightly decomposed organic matter

n : accumulation of sodium

t : accumulation of silicate clays

s : illuvial accumulation of organic matter and sesquioxides

y : accumulation of gypsum

z : accumulation of soluble salts

19
Digging of soil profile: Profile study should be carried out by digging profiles at representative
sites. Representative sites are selected considering the variations in soil characters.

Dig a pit of about 6′x 4′x 6′ in case of deep soils, up to bed rock in case of shallow soils and up
to water table in soils with high water table. Expose east and west sides for study as they can get
maximum light. Get in to the pit and draw horizon boundaries based on variations in the soil
profile.
Description of the profile site and profile:
a. The profile site should be described in terms of its location (longitudes, latitudes and
altitude) and site features (relief, climate, vegetation, land use, extent of erosion, drainage,
presence of salt or alkali etc.,). Start collecting the soil samples from lower most horizons.
b. Describe the profile in terms of number of horizons, horizon sequence, depth of horizons,
and boundary between horizons. Examine and describe each horizon for matrix colour,
mottle colour (dry and moist), texture, structure( type, class and grade), consistence (dry,
moist and wet), pores, roots, cutans, nodules, pressure faces, slickenside, cracks, hard pans
etc,.
Collection and preparation of profile samples:
a. Collect soil samples from all horizons scrapping the entire thickness of the horizon. Put
the samples in cloth bags with polythene lining. Label each sample with profile number
and number horizons.
b. In laboratory air dry the soil samples and pound the dry samples with wooden hammer.
Pass the pounded soil sample through 2mm sieve. Weigh the gravel retained by the sieve
and express as percentage of total weight of soil sample. Store the sieved material in
polythene lined cloth bags and label them properly.
Questions:
1. What is a soil profile? Describe briefly the master horizons.
2. Do all soils contain all master horizons? Explain.
3. What are the precautions need to be followed while profile sampling?

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20
 Expt. No.:6 Date:

DETERMINATION OF MECHANICAL COMPOSITION OF SOIL USING

BOUYOUCOS HYDROMETER

Introduction: Determination of relative distribution of different size groups of ultimate soil

particles (sand, fine sand, silt and clay) is called mechanical analysis. The laboratory analysis
can be carried out by two methods.
a. Robinson pipette method b. Bouyoucos hydrometer method
In both the methods of mechanical analysis, two steps are involved.
1. Dispersion: Separation of all particles from each other – complete dispersion into ultimate
particles.
2. Sedimentation: Measuring the amount of each size group in the sample by sedimentation
technique as per Stokes law.
Diameter of particles:
Gravel : More than 2 mm.
Coarse sand : 2 to 0.2 mm.
Fine sand : 0.2 to 0.02 mm.
Silt : 0.02 to 0.002 mm.
Clay : Less than 0.002 mm
Aim: - To estimate the relative proportions of different sized soil particles.
Apparatus:
1. Bouyoucos Hydrometer (The stem is calibrated to read directly the percentages of soil
particles remaining in suspension; it is calibrated to temperature of 680 F. The overall
length of the hydrometer is 285 mm, the stem being 150 mm long).
2. Bouyoucos cylinder with rubber cork( sedimentation cylinder)
3. 600 ml tall form beaker with a watch glass and police man glass rod.
4. Water bath/ hot plate
5. Mechanical stirrer.
6. Dispersion cup.
7. Thermometer.
8. Stop watch.
Reagents:
1. 30 % Hydrogen peroxide.
2. 2N Hydrochloric acid.
3. Sodium hexametaphosphate.
Principle:
To determine the particle size distribution, the sample is dispersed by removing the binding
agents like organic matter and calcium carbonate through the treatment of the soil with hydrogen
peroxide and diluted calcium carbonate solutions, respectively. The dispersion is further
achieved by treating the sample with sodium hexametaphosphate followed by mechanical
stirring.

21
 The decrease in density at a depth in the homogenously dispersed suspension is related to
the settling velocity of the particle or to the size of particle, which obeys the Stoke’s Law.
Stoke’s law: V = 2/9 gr2 (Ps-Pf)
η
V = velocity of fall cm/sec; r = radius of particles (cm); Ps & Pf = density of particle and fluid
respectively(g cc-1); η = viscosity of the fluid (poise); g = acceleration due to gravity (m sec-2)
Procedure:
• Transfer 25 g. heavy textured or 50 g. light textured soil into a 600 ml tall form beaker.
• Moisten the soil with distilled water.
• Add 20 ml of H2O2 and swirl the contents with a glass rod and cover with watch glass.
Let the reaction proceed for 5 to 10 minutes. Place the beaker on a water bath or a hot
plate to hasten up the rate of reaction. Repeat the process till the organic matter is
completely oxidized.
• Cool the beaker and wash down the soil particles sticking to the walls using policeman
glass rod with a jet of distilled water.
• Add around 25 ml of 2N HCl. If calcium carbonate is more than 2 %, add 2.5mL extra
HCl for each per cent of calcium carbonate. Allow the contents to react for an hour with
intermittent shaking.
• After the effervescence ceases fill the beaker with distilled water, stir the contents and
allow it to settle. Next day remove the supernatant liquid. Repeat this until the
supernatant is chloride free and soil is completely dispersed.
• Add 10 mL, of 10% sodium hexametaphosphate.
• Disperse the contents with mechanical stirrer for 20 minutes, transfer to sedimentation
cylinder and dilute to 1 liter.
• Stopper the cylinder and shake the contents for 60 seconds by end-over-end method.
• Note the time of commencement of sedimentation.
• Introduce hydrometer after 3 min 50 sec minutes and note the reading at 4 minutes after
commencement of sedimentation.
• Determine from the reading percent silt and clay.
• Similarly note reading 2 hours after, corresponding to percent clay.
• If frothing occurs at surface add one or two drops of amyl alcohol to break froth.
Observations:
Weight of soil sample taken = w g
Temperature of the suspension = t ◦F
Temperature correction r =
Bouyoucos hydrometer readings:
Blank reading (calibration correction) = Rb
Sample reading at 4 min = R1
Sample reading at 2 hr = R2

22
Calculations:

% Silt = % (silt + clay) - %clay

% sand = 100 - % (silt + clay)

Textural Triangle:

The textural class of the soil can be determined by using the textural diageram.

Result: The texture of the given soil is ______________.

Questions:
1. What are the steps involved in mechanical analysis?
2. Why soil sample should be treated with H2O2 and dilute HCL.
3. What is the use of soil textural diagram?

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23
Expt.No.:7 Date:

DETERMINATION OF PARTICLE DENSITY OF THE SOIL

Density of soils is expressed in two ways. a. Particle density and b. Bulk density.
Particle density is the mass per unit volume of soil solids and is expressed as Mg m-3 or g cc-1.
Soils exhibit a very narrow range of values of 2.6 to 2.7 with an average value of 2.65 Mg m3.
Soils rich in organic matter may have low density, while soils with high quantities of heavy
minerals like hematite, hornblende etc., may have high values. Particle density can’t be changed
by management. It is useful in understanding mass-volume relationship of soils like porosity and
void ratio.
Aim: To determine the particle density of the soil using Pycnometer or specific gravity bottle.
Apparatus: Pycnometer or specific gravity bottle, balance.
Principle: The soil consists of solid particles ( mineral matter, organic matter) and pore space.
The true density or particle density of the soil is the density of the actual solid material. But in
any volume of the dry soil solids does not occupy the whole space. There are many empty spaces
between the solid particles. In obtaining the true density of the soils, the mass and volume of soil
solids have to be estimated. Mass is estimated by taking dry weight of the sample and volume of
solids is estimated by measuring the displacement of water by soil particles considering that
when some soil is immersed in a definite volume of water and air is expelled out, it displaces
volume of water equal to its own.
Procedure:
• Take a clean and dry specific gravity bottle and find out its weigh with stopper (w1).
• Take about 20 g of soil in the specific gravity bottle and find out its weight (w2).
• Add little quantity of water to the soil in the bottle and shake the contents well by closing
the mouth of the bottle for about 5 minutes so as to facilitate the water to occupy the pore
spaces.
• Now fill the bottle completely with water and find out its weight (w3) after wiping with a
blotting paper. .
• Now discard the soil and water from the bottle.
• Clean the bottle and fill it with only water and find out its weight (w4) after wiping with a
blotting paper.
Observations and Calculations:
Weight of empty specific gravity bottle = w1g
Weight of specific gravity bottle + soil =w2 g
Weight of specific gravity bottle + soil +water = w3g
Weight of water present along with soil = w3 – w2g
Weight of specific gravity bottle + water = w4g
Weight of water present alone = w4-w1 g
Volume of water present alone = VmL (50)
Volume of w3-w2 g of water = w3-w2 x V = A cc
w4-w1

24
 volume of solids = V-A cc
Particle density of the soil = mass of soil /volume of solids.= w2 –w1 V-A g/cc

Result: The particle density of the given sample is ___________ Mg/ m3.
Questions:
1. What is particle density ?
2. How do we find the volume of soil solids using specific gravity bottle?
3. Why the average PD value of soils is considered as 2.65 Mg m-3 ?

DETERMINATION OF BULK DENSITY OF THE SOIL

Bulk density is defined as mass per unit volume of soil (including pore space). The
volume here includes both solid space and pore space. It indicates the degree of compactness of
the soil. It is expressed as Mg m-3 or g cc-1, similar to particle density. The bulk density of a
sample depends upon type of soil, organic matter content, depth of soil, tillage etc. The bulk
density values vary from 1.0 to 1.8 Mg m-3 in different soils. Unlike particle density, it varies
with management practices. The bulk density value of soil is useful in calculating porosity and
void ratio of soils.
Aim: To determine the bulk density of the soil using core sampler.
Apparatus: core tube sampler, moisture cans, balance, oven.
Principle: the bulk density is determined by determining the dry weight and volume of given
soil sample and calculating their ratio using the formula.

Procedure:
• Initially
determine the volume of core sampler by determining the length and diameter of the core
tube.
• Select an area and insert the core tube vertically into the soil by using a hammer.
• Remove the core sampler from the soil by closing the bottom with hand or other means.
• Remove the excess soil by cutting with a knife. Separate the soil from the core and the
weight is noted as X g. Mix the soil thoroughly and take around 30g of homogeneous
sample into moisture can (W1) and measure weight as W2 g.
• Keep the soil in the can in oven for 24 hr at 105oC and later take the dry weight (W3g) of
the soil and can.
• From this calculate dry weight of the soil.
• Then calculate the bulk density in Mgm-3 by taking the ratio of dry weight and volume.

25
Observation and calculation:
Lengfth of the core = l cm
Diameter of the core = d cm
Radius of the core = r cm
Volume of the core = v = πr2h cm2
Weight of entire fresh soil = X g
Weight of moisture can = W1 g
Weight of homogeneous soil and moisture can = W2 g
Weight of homogeneous fresh soil = W2 – W1 g
Weight of the dry soil + moisture can = W3 g
Weight of the dry soil = W3 – W1 g
Dry weight of W2-W1g of fresh soil is W3-W1g
Dry weight of total soil (X g) = X x W3-W1= Yg
W2-W1
Bulk density of the soil = Y Mg m-3
πr2h
Precautions:
The soil sample should not be collected in very wet or dry soil.
The core sampler should have large diameter to reduce the error due to compression during
sampling. The diameter of the core should be more than or equal to 5cm.
Result: Bulk density of the given soil sample is ______________ Mg m-3
Questions:
1. What is bulk density of soils? What are its units?
2. Mention the factors that affect bulk density.

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26
 Expt. No.: 8 Date:

DETERMINATION OF MAXIMUM WATER HOLDING CAPACITY OF SOILS USING

KEEN RAZKOWSKI CUPS

It is the amount of water in a soil when all pores are filled with water i.e., in a saturated soil. This
gives an idea about water supplying capacity of the soils. Higher WHC values indicate the
capacity of a soil to supply moisture to crops over a period of time. Hence the soils with high
WHC like deep black soils can support the rain fed agriculture.
Aim: To determine maximum water holding capacity of soils by using Keen Razkowski cup
method.
Apparatus: Keen’s cup, Tray with water, filter paper, Balance, oven
Principle: The maximum water holding capacity of a soil is determined by estimating the water
held by a saturated soil by taking the difference between weight of saturated soil and oven dry
soil and expressed as percentage on dry weight basis.

Procedure:
• Take a clean and dry Keen’s cup.
• Fix a filter paper at the bottom of the cup and determine its weight (w2g).
• Now fill the Keen’s cup with dry soil and remove the excess soil using the knife.
• Keep the cup in a tray and add water to that tray till the water level reaches just below the
top of the Keen’s cup. This is to facilitate water to enter the cup through the holes provided
at the bottom.
• Keep the cup in that position over night.
• Next day take out the cup and remove excess soil if any obtained due to swelling of the soil
with a knife.
• Allow the cup to stand outside for 30 min to drain the excess water and take the weight of
the cup with wet soil (w3g).
• Dry the soil at 1050C for overnight and take the weight of the dry soil(w3g).
• Calculate the maximum water holding capacity using the formula

Observations:
Weight of empty Keen’s cup = w1g
Weight of keen’s cup + saturated soil = w2g
Weight of keen’s cup + dry soil = w3g
Weight of saturated soil = w2-w1 g
Weight of dry soil = w3-w1 g

27
Result: The maximum water holding capacity of the given soil is _________ per cent.
QUESTIONS:
1. What is a saturated soil ?
2. How soils vary in their maximum water holding capacities ?

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28
Expt. No.:9 Date:

ESTIMATION OF SOIL MOISTURE BY GRAVIMETRIC METHOD and SOIL

COLOUR USING MUNSELL COLOUR CHART.

9.1 ESTIMATION OF SOIL MOISTURE BY GRAVIMETRIC METHOD.

Water plays a significant role in plant growth. It is essential for physiological activities, acts as a
solvent and nutrient carrier and maintains turgidity of the plants. Knowledge of soil moisture
helps in scheduling irrigation or drainage management. Soil moisture is determined by several
methods. Among the methods gravimetric analysis is the simplest and widely followed method.
Aim: To determine the moisture content present in the soil by gravimetric method.
Apparatus: Screw auger, moisture cans, oven, balance.
Principle: A fresh soil is dried in an oven and the loss of water on drying is determined. This
requires weight of fresh soil and weight of dry soil. Drying of soils is done in an oven at 1050C
up to a constant weight and per cent moisture is calculated using the formula

% Moisture Content =

Procedure:
• Collect the soil sample with the help of screw auger from the field.
• Transfer the soil sample in to a clean weighed moisture can (w1 g) and weigh the sample
along with moisture can (w2 g).
• Place the beaker in an oven at a temperature 1050C and dry the soil to a constant weight.
• Remove the soil from oven along with the can, cool it and determine the weight of the
dry sample along with the can (w3 g).
Observations and calculations:
1. Weight of moisture can = w1 g
Weight of moisture can + fresh soil = w2 g
Weight of moisture can + dry soil = w3 g

%Moisture Content =

Result: The moisture content of the given soil sample is ______ per cent.

Questions:
1. What are the different methods of moisture determination?
2. What is the importance of moisture determination?

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29
 9.2 SOIL COLOUR USING MUNSELL COLOUR CHART.

Soil colour provides the information of the nature of soils, such as its composition, moisture
content, organic matter content, texture etc., It is an important character for soil classification and
interpretation
Red colour soils are rich in iron and aluminum oxides
Black coloured soils are rich in humus
Coarse textured soils are light in colour compared to fine textured soils
Moist soils are darker than dry soils
Bluish or greenish colour of soils (Gleization) is an indication reduced condition in soils
Orange mottles are an indication of alternate oxidation and reduction conditions.

Aim: To determine the colour of soil by Munsell colour chart

Apparatus : Munsell colour chart
Colour is expressed by 3 components
1. Hue : indicates dominant spectral colour
2. Value: indicates Relative darkness or Brightness and it varies from 0 to 10 where 0
indicates black & 10 indicates white
3. Chroma: indicates purity of the colour and it varies from 0 to 20, where 0 indicates grey
and 20 indicates pure colour.

Munsell colour Chart:

The standard system for accurate colour description is developed using Munsell colour
chart. This Munsell colour chart contains pages with Hues of 10R, 2.5YR, 5YR, 7.5YR, 10YR,
2.5Y, and 5Y ( R=red, Y=Yellow, YR= yellowish red). In each case value is given or shown
vertically from 2.5 to 8, chroma is shown horizontally from 1 to 8. The soil colour is recorded
under moist and dry conditions and the soil name must be mentioned along with the notation.
Colour names are provided on left side sheets of the chart.
The colour is described in 2 ways by Munsell colour chart:
Munsell colour Notation : 5YR 4/4
Munsell colour name : reddish brown in colour
Principle:
In this a small ped of soil is compared with the standard colour chips in Munsell colour chart
under moist and dry conditions, and the colour is expressed interms of hue, value and chroma.
Procedure:
Select a suitable colour chart based on the colour of soil as 5YR, 10YR etc., then place the soil at
openings near the colour chips and note down the chroma (horizontal) and value (vertical value)
of the chip matching with the soil and express as notation. Note the colour name corresponding
to the notation given on left side sheet the colour chart.
Result:The colour notation of the given soil is __________ and the colour name is _______.
Questions:
1. What are the reasons for different colours in soils?
2. What are the components of colour? How soil colour is determined?

30
Expt. No.:10 Date:

DETERMINATION OF INFILTRATION RATE OF SOILS

Introduction:
Infiltration refers to the downward entry of water into the soil and the rate at
which it occurs is called infiltration rate or water intake rate. Infiltration rate is rapid in
the beginning and decreases with time and attains almost a steady state which is called as
infiltration capacity or infiltrability. Knowledge about infiltration rate is very much useful
in scheduling irrigation. Infiltration rate is influenced by soil characteristics like texture,
structure, total porosity , hydraulic conductivity, initial water content, tillage, rainfall
intensity etc. It is usually measured under field conditions and it involves ponding of
water on surface or sprinkling of water to a simulated rain. Among these two ponding
method is the preferred method.
Aim: To determine the infiltration capacity of the soil using infiltrometer.
Apparatus:
1. Infiltrometer: It contains 2 concentric rings. Inner ring of 30 cm X 20 cm diameter and
outer ring of 50 cm X 20 cm. Both rings are having sharp edge on one side to drive the
rings into the soil.
A circular driving cap which is 5 to 10 cm larger in diameter compared to outer ring.
Hammer..
2. Watch.
3. Piezometer.
4. Water source
5. Splash guard (plastic sheet/ small wooden piece) It is used to avoid the splashing of soil,
when water is poured
Principle: When water is ponded inside the concentric rings driven into the soil, there will be
recession or fall in water level, which gives the infiltration rate of the soil. To avoid the lateral
movement error, 2 concentric rings are used, equal heads are maintained in both rings but the
infiltration rate is measured in the inner ring only until a constant rate of infiltration is obtained,
which is the infiltrability of the soil.
Procedure:
• Select a representative area.
• Drive the inner and outer rings of infiltrometer vertically downward into the soil with the
help of a driving plate and hammer and driven up to a depth of 10 cm with minimum
disturbance in soil.
• Place a splash guard in the inner ring and pour water up to the brim in both the rings.
Measure the water level in the ring with a piezometer
• Note down readings at 1, 3, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 minutes etc., until the water intake is
almost constant.
• Whenever the ponded water is soaked pour more water and record the recession again
and again till a constant intake rate.

31
 • Note down the water level and time just before and after reponding and keep the interval
between these two observations as short as possible to avoid error caused by intake
during refilling period.

Observation table: An example:

S.NO. Elapsed Piezometer Difference Depth of Infiltration Cumulative
time (min) reading (cm) in reading infiltration rate cm/hr infiltration
cm Difference cm
in reading
/2
1 0 22.8 1.05 x60 = 63 1.05
2.1/1min 2.1/2=1.05
2 1 20.7 1.45x60/2 2.5
2.9 / 2min 2.9/2=1.45 =43.5
3 3 17.8 2.8/2=1.4 1.4x60/2=42 3.9
2.8 / 2min
4 5 15 6.5/2=3.25 3.25x60/5=39 7.15
6.5 / 5 min
5 10 8.5, 23.5 11.5/2=5.75 5.75x60/10= 12.9
11.5/10min 34.5
6 20 12 10.2/2=5.1 5.1x6=30.6 18
10.2/10min
7 30 1.8, 23.7 30.6 23.1
10.2/10min
8 40 12.9 30.6 28.2
10.2/10min
9 50 2.7 30.6 33.2

Graph:
Using the data collected calculate the infiltration rate and then plot a graph by taking elapsed
time on x-axis and infiltration rate on y-axis. Where ever the curve shows constant infiltration
rate that infiltration rate is taken as study state infiltration rate of the soil.

Result: The infiltrability of the soil is _________ cm/hr.

Questions:
1. What is meant by the terms infiltration and infiltration capacity of the soils?
2. Discuss how different factors influence the infiltration rate of the soils?

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32
Expt. No.:11 Date:

DETERMINATION OF SOIL STRENGTH BY CONE PENETROMETER

Soil penetrability is a measure of ease with which an object can be pushed or driven into the soil.
Any device used to measure resistance to penetration is called penetrometer. Determination of
penetration resistance or mechanical impedance offered by the soil is very much essential to
know about the condition of soil. It helps us to know about root penetration into the soil and
seedling emergence. Penetration resistance is influenced by soil and penetrometer probe
characteristics. Probe factors affecting penetration resistance are cone angle, diameter, roughness
and rate of penetration. Soil factors influencing Penetration resistance are soil moisture content,
bulk density, soil strength parameters and others.
Aim:
To measure the Penetration resistance using cone penetrometer.
Principle:
The force required to push an instrument into the soil depends on the amount of resistance
offered during the penetration which is directly proportional to the strength of the soil.
Apparatus:
Cone penetrometer with calibration chart: The cone penetrometer consists of a handle, proving
ring and dial guage, 100cm rod graduated at 10cm intervals and stainless steel cone. The cone
has a base area of 6.45cm2 or 3.2 cm2 and has a tip angle of 30 to 60 degrees.
Procedure:
i)Preparation of calibration chart
Set the gauge of the penetrometer at zero reading. Hold the penetrometer vertically on a smooth
leveled hand surface and add weights on the top of the handle in the increasing order and record
gauge readings. Draw a graph between the weights (on X-axis) and guage reading (on Y-axis).
Graph will be a straight line passing through origin.
ii)Determination of resistance offered by soil for penetration
The procedure is best performed by two persons. An operator presses the cone penetrometer into
the soil and a recorder to record the readings.
Select the test location and prepare flat, clean and soil surface for the determination
Set the dial gauge to zero position
Hold the penetrometer in a vertical position and push the cone point slowly downward
into the soil at a uniform rate
Take readings of the dial gauge at desired vertical increments of 5 or 10cm marked on the
rod or the penetrometer
Repeat the determination several times at each location to obtain at least three sets of
consistent and reliable readings.
Average the dial gauge readings obtained at each depth for at least 3 tests.
Using the calibration chart convert the average dial readings to penetrometer force in
pounds or kilograms.

33
Precautions:
Space the individual penetrations so that they do not interfere with one another but should not be
too far apart because variation in reading could occur due to spatial variation in soil strength

Observations and calculations

S.No. Soil depth(cm) Dial guage reading

1
2
3

Result: The penetration resistance is …………….

Questions:

1. Define soil penetrability and penetrometer and discuss how different factors influence the
penetration resistance of the soils?
2. What is the principle involved in the determination of soil strength by cone
penetrometer?

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34
Expt. No.: 12 Date:

AGGREGATE ANALYSIS BY WET SIEVING METHOD

Introduction:
In most of the soils the primary particles unite together to form secondary units called
aggregates, whose presence would depend upon the binding material present at the time of
aggregation. The purpose of aggregate analysis is to determine size distribution of secondary
units or aggregates. The size distribution of aggregates and the mean weight diameter (MWD)
are good indicators of stability of the aggregates against the disruptive forces like beating rain,
flowing water, blowing wind etc,. A well aggregated soil is resistant to these forces thereby
protecting soil from erosion losses. Higher the MWD better is the stability. Aggregate stability
can be measured by both dry and wet sieving techniques. In this experiment wet sieving
technique is followed using a nest of sieves in Yoder’s apparatus.
Aim: To study soil aggregate analysis by wet sieving method.
Apparatus:
Wet sieving apparatus (Yoder’s apparatus), sieves with openings from 8mm to 0.1mm (8, 4,
2, 1, 0.5, 0.25, 0.1mm), porcelain basin/beaker and oven.
Principle:
The wet sieving method involves equilibrating a given amount of soil aggregates in a nest
of standard sieves in water for a given length of time, followed by the drying of material retained
on each sieve (aggregates and coarse materials), and noting their weights. These aggregates may
also include primary particles like sand. Hence the aggregates collected from each sieve have to
be dispersed and passed through respective sized sieves. The material retained by the sieves
represents the sand particles. The dry weight of the sand particles has to be determined and
deducted from the weights of aggregates collected from the respective sieves.
Procedure:
• Take 50g of air dried soil aggregates, which can pass through 8 mm sieve and retained by 4
mm sieve for analysis.
• Spread the soil uniformly on the top sieve of the sieve nest (4mm sieve) and wet the
aggregates slowly and immerse the nest of sieves in water.
• Then slowly raise and lower the sieves vertically in water by mechanical methods through a
distance of 1.25 inch at a rate of 30 oscillations per minute for 30 minutes.
• Collect the aggregates retained by each sieve separately in porcelain basin or beaker. There
must not be any loss of soil particles.
• Dry the samples in the oven and note down the oven dry weights of fractions of aggregates
retained on each sieve for determining proportionate distribution of aggregates.
• Finally the soil mass, retained on each sieve is dispersed in H2O2 and HCl, and passed
through individual sieves to account for the coarse soil fractions, which, otherwise, might be
included wrongly, while reporting the mean weight diameter, and the percent of the total
aggregates in different size fractions, of the soil mass.
• The results of aggregate analysis are expressed in terms of Mean Weight Diameter (MWD)
given by Van Baver in 1949.

35
Precautions:
There must not be breaking up of soil aggregates, during wetting of samples.
Observations & calculations:
Mass of aggregates taken = 50g
Diameter of Mass of Mass of sand Mass of waer Mean wixi
particles aggregates (w2 g) stable diameter
retained by +sand (w1 g) aggregates xi mm
sieves ( mm) wi=w1-w2 g
8-4 (8+4)/2=6
4-2 3
2-1 1.5
1-0.5 0.75
0.5-.25 0.37
0.25-0.1 0.18
The Mean Weight Diameter = Ʃ wixi mm
Ʃwi
Result: The mean weight diameter of the given soil is __________mm.

QUESTIONS:
1. What is soil structure? What are the factors affecting soil structure?
2. What is meant by mean weight diameter of soil aggregates? How is it useful in
understanding the stability of aggregates?

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 Expt. No.: 13 Date:

ESTIMATION OF CARBONATE AND BICARBONATE CONTENT IN SOIL WATER

EXTRACT
The presence of carbonate and bicarbonate impart alkalinity to the soil. This is often
termed as total alkalinity. The alkalinity imparted by phosphates, borates and silicates is
generally small enough to be negligible. Hence the estimation of carbonates and bicarbonates is
an appropriate measurer of total alkalinity of the sample.
Aim:- To estimate the amount of carbonates and bicarbonate present in soil water extract by
Warder’s double indicator method.
Apparatus required:- 150 ml Erlenmeyer flask, pipette, burette.
Reagents :- 0.1 N H2SO4, phenolphthalein indicator, methyl orange indicator.
Principle:- Carbonate & bicarbonate in soil water extracts can be determined by titrating against
the standard acid using phenolphthalein & methyl red respectively. The sum of carbonate &
bicarbonate constitute the total alkalinity of soil water extract. When phenolphthalein is added to
soil water extract. It gives pink colour to the content, which will be discolored when titrated
against standard sulphuric acid i.e. carbonates are converted in to bicarbonates.
2 Na2CO3 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2 NaHCO3
The bicarbonates derived from the carbonates & bicarbonates originally present in soil
water extract are neutralized by titrating against standard sulphuric acid. The end point of which
is indicated by change of colour from straw yellow to rose red.
2 NaHCO3 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2 CO2 + 2H2O
The standard acid utilized for conversion of carbonate to bicarbonate is equal to the acid
needed for the conversion of bicarbonates derived from carbonates to carbon dioxide and water.
So titer value for carbonate is obtained by multiplying the phenolphthalein titre value with two.
The titer value for originally present bicarbonate is obtained by deducting the
phenolphthalein titer value from methyl red titer value.
Procedure :-
• After washing and rinsing the glass ware take exactly 10ml of soil water extract into an
Erlenmeyer flask using a pipette.
• Add one (or) two drops of phenolphthalein indicator. Appearance of pink colour
indicates the presence of carbonates in the solution.
• Titrate the contents against 0.1 N H2SO4 mounted in the burette till the solution becomes
colorless. Note down the burette reading as phenolphthalein titre value.
• Now to the same solution add 2 drops of methyl orange indicator and titrate against 0.1 N
sulphuric acid till the colour changes from straw yellow to rose red. Note the value as
methyl orange titre value
• Repeat the procedure till two consecutive & concurrent values are obtained.

37
Observation Table:
S.No. Volume Burette reading with Burette reading with Methyl orange
of aliquot Phenolphthalein (mL) (mL)
taken Initial Final Difference Initial Final Difference
(mL)

Phenolphthalein titre value – A mL of 0.1 acid

Carbonate titre value = X x 2 = 2A ml of 0.1 acid
Methyl orange titre value =Y mL of 0.1 acid
Bicarbonate titre value Y-A mL of 0.1 acid
Calculations for carbonates :-
1000 mL of 1N H2SO4 reacts with 1 equivalent of carbonates
1 mL of 0.1N H2SO4 reacts with 1 x 0.1 me of carbonates
2A mL of 0.1N H2SO4 reacts with 2 A x 0.1 me of carbonates
5 mL of soil water extract contains 2A x 0.1 me carbonates
1000 mL of soil water extract contains = 2A x 0.1x 1000/5 me or me/L of carbonates

Expression in other units:

ppm = mg/L =ug / mL = me/L X eq wt (30) =
g/L = mg/ L
1000
% = g/L
10
Calculations for bicarbonates:-
1000 mL of 1N H2SO4 reacts with 1 equivalent of bicarbonates
1 mL of 0.1N H2SO4 reacts with 1 x 0.1 me of bicarbonates
Y- A mL of 0.1N H2SO4 reacts with Y-A x 0.1 me of bicarbonates
5 mL of soil water extract contains Y-A x 0.1 me bicarbonates
1000 mL of soil water extract contains = Y-A x 0.1x 1000/5 me or me/L of bicarbonates

Expression in other units:

ppm = mg/L =ug / mL = me/L X eq wt (30) =
g/L = mg/ L
1000
Percent = g / L
10
Result: The carbonate and bicarbonate contents of the given sample are
Carbonates Bicarbonates

38
 me/L
ppm
g/L
%
Questions:
1. Why the carbonate titre value is multiplied with two to get the carbonate titre value?
2. Name the type of reaction involved in this experiment?

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39
Expt. No.14 Date:

ESTIMATION OF CHLORIDE CONTENT IN SOIL WATER EXTRACT

Aim :- To estimate the amount of chlorides present in soil water extract by Mohr’s method.
Apparatus required:
Porcelain basin, glass rod, pipette and burette.
Reagents: 0.02 N AgNO3, 5% Potassium Chromate.
PRINCIPLE:-
Mohr’s method is commonly used for the estimation of chlorides than Volhard’s method.
Estimation of chlorides involves fractional precipitation reaction, wherein two sparingly soluble
precipitates are formed at two different times and both exist at the end point. When a known
amount of test solution is titrated against standard AgNO3 solution the silver of silver nitrate
reacts with chlorides of soil water extract forming white precipitate of silver chloride. When all
the chlorides in the test solution are exhausted silver starts combining with the chromate ions of
potassium chromate indicator forming brick red coloured precipitate. The starting of formation
of silver chromate after the exhaustion of chlorides is the end point of the titration. The amount
of chlorides is calculated by using titre value.
AgNO3 + KCl AgCl ↓ + KNO3
white
2 AgNO3 + K2CrO4 Ag2CrO4 ↓ + 2KNO3
brick red
When two anions combined with same cation or two cations combine with same anion
the compound which is less soluble will be precipitated out first. In this case, silver chloride has
less solubility (1.5 milligrams / L) when compared to silver chromate (15 milligrams / L) So
silver chloride forms first followed by silver chromate.
PROCEDURE:-
• Take exactly 10 ml of soil water extract in to a clean porcelain basin using a pipette.
• Add 2-3 drops of potassium chromate and stir the contents well with glass rod. The
contents will become yellow in colour.
• Titrate the contents against silver nitrate solution mounted in the burette till faint
yellowish brown colour is observed.
• The titre value is noted down and titrations are repeated till two consecutive and
concurrent values are obtained.

Observations:
S.No. Volume of aliquot Burette reading (mL)
taken (mL) Initial Final Difference

40
 Titre value = ____ mL of 0.02 N AgNO3
Calculations for chloride :-
1000 mL of 1N AgNO3 reacts with 1equivalent of chloride
1 mL of 0.02 N AgNO3reacts with 1 x 0.01 me of chloride
A mL of 0.02 N AgNO3reacts with A x 0.01 me of chloride
5 mL of soil water extract contains Ax 0.01 me chloride
1000 mL of soil water extract contains = A x 0.01x 1000/5 me or me/L of chloride

Expression in other units:

ppm = mg/L =ug / mL = me/L X eq wt (35.5) =
g/L = mg/ L
1000
Percent = g/L
10
Result: The chloride content of the given sample________ me/L.

Questions:
1. What type of reaction is involved in chloride estimation? Why AgCl is precipitated first?
2. The colour of Ag2CrO4 is brick red. But the end point of the reaction is faint yellowish
brown colour. Explain.

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41
 Expt. No:15 Date:

ESTIMATION OF CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM IN SOIL WATER EXTRACT BY

VERSENATE METHOD
AIM :-
To Estimate the calcium and magnesium contents in the given soil water extract.
Apparatus:
Porcelain basin, glass rod, glass tubes, burette and pipette.
Reagents:
0.01 N EDTA (disodium salt), Patton & Reeder’s reagent, 16 % sodium hydroxide, Eriochrome
Black –T (EBT) and ammonium chloride + ammonium hydroxide buffer (pH – 10).
Principle :-
Calcium and magnesium in test solution can be estimated by direct titration with EDTA.
EDTA forms stable complex’s with cations like calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, zinc etc.
at different pH values. EDTA chelates with calcium at a pH of around 12, while at pH 10 it can
complex with both calcium and magnesium. During chelation the cation replaces the hydrogen
atom of carboxylic group of EDTA and are bonded in ring structure by covalent bonds. The
cation is also linked to the nitrogen atom of EDTA by co-ordinate covalent bonds resulting in
ring closure.
Initially the metal ions in the solution forms a weak complex with indicator called metal
ion indicator complex giving a particular colour (wine red). During titration EDTA forms a
stable complex with metal ion and the indicator becomes free from cations. The free indicator
expresses its own colour (blue) indicating the end point of titration.

Indicator + Me 2+ = Idicator- metal ion complex

NaOOCCH2 CH2COONa
Indicator- metal ion complex + N - CH2-CH2- N
HOOCCH2 CH2COOH
Disodium salt of EDTA

NaOOCCH2 CH2COONa
N - CH2-CH2- N
-CH2 Me2+ CH2 + 2H+ + Indicator (Blue)

CO CO

EDTA – Metal ion complex

42
Procedure for calcium:-
• Take an aliquot of 5 ml soil water extract into porcelain basin using a
• Add 1 ml of sodium hydroxide solution (to maintain a pH of 12) and a pinch of Patton
and Reeder’s reagent. The contents become wine red in colour indicating the presence of
metal ions
• Stir the contents well with glass rod and titrate against 0.01 N EDTA till the colour
changes from purple to sky-blue.
• Note down the titer value and repeat the titrations till two consecutive and concurrent
values are obtained
Procedure for calcium & magnesium:
• Take an aliquot of 5ml soil water extract in to a porcelain basin
• Add around 1 ml of ammonium chloride + ammonium hydroxide + buffer and a drop of
EBT indicator. The contents become wine red in colour indicating the presence of metal
ions
• Stir the contents well with glass rod and titrate against 0.01 N EDTA till the colour
changes from purple to sky-blue.
• Note down the titer value and repeat the titrations till two consecutive and concurrent
values are obtained. The titre value of magnesium is obtained by deducting the calcium
titer value from calcium + magnesium titer value.

Observation table for Calcium:

S.No. Volume of aliquot Burette reading (mL)
taken (mL) Initial Final Difference

Titre value = A mL of 0.01N EDTA

Calculations for calcium :-
1000 mL of 1N EDTA reacts with =1equivalent of calcium
1 mL of 0.01N EDTA reacts with = 1 x 0.01 me of calcium
A mL of0.01N EDTA reacts with = A x 0.01 me of calcium
5 mL of soil water extract contains =Ax 0.01 me calium
1000 mL of soil water extract contains = A x 0.01x 1000/5 me of calcium or me/L

Expression in other units:

ppm = mg/L =ug / mL = me/L X eq wt (30) =
g/L = mg/ L
1000
Percent = g / L
10

43
Observations for Magnesium
S.No. Volume of aliquot Burette reading (mL)
taken (mL) Initial Final Difference

Titre value for Ca + Mg = B mL of 0.01N EDTA

Titre value for Mg = B-A = C mL 0.01N EDTA
Calculations for magnesium :-
1000 mL of 1N EDTA reacts with 1equivalent of magnesium
1 mL of 0.01N EDTA reacts with 1 x 0.01 me of magnesium
C mL of 0.01N EDTA reacts with = C x 0.01 me of magnesium
5 mL of soil water extract contains =C x 0.01 me magnesium
1000 mL of soil water extract contains = C x 0.01x 1000/5 me of magnesium or me/L

Expression in other units:

ppm = mg/L =ug / mL = me/L X eq wt (30) =
g/L = mg/ L
1000
Percent = g / L
10
Result: The calcium and magnesium contents of the given sample are
Calcium Magnesium
me/L
ppm
g/L
%
Questions:
1. What are the colours of indicator-metal ion and EDTA-metal ion complexes?
2. Name the type of reaction taking place in this estimation. What is the substance giving
blue colour at the end point?
3. Write the significance of pH in calcium and magnesium estimation.

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44
 Expt. No. 16 Date:

ESTIMATION OF ORGANIC CARBON AND ORGANIC MATTER CONTENT IN

SOILS
Introduction: Organic matter is one important component of soils which influences the
physical, chemical and biological properties of soils. The amount of organic matter present is an
indication of soil quality and health. Major part of soil nitrogen exists in complex form in the
organic matter fraction. Nitrogen along with other nutrients become available to crops after
breaking down in to simple forms followed by mineralisation. Hence easily oxdisable organic
carbon is considered to be an index of nitrogen availability in the soil.
One of the most widely used soil test for assessment of available nitrogen is based on the
estimation of readily oxidisable organic carbon which roughly represent 58% of organic matter.
Most widely accepted method for organic carbon estimation is Walkley and Black’s method,
which operates on the principle of wet oxidation.
Aim : To estimate the organic carbon content and organic matter content of the soil by Walkley
an Black’s rapid oxidation method.
Apparatus: Erlenmeyer flask (500mL), burette, pipette, measuring cylinder, balane
Reagents: standard potassium dichromate (IN), standard ferrous ammonium sulphate O.5N,
Diphenyl amine indicator, orthophosphoric acid (85%). Sodium fluoride & concentrated
sulphuric acid
Principle:
When a known quantity of soil is treated with a known excess quantity of potassium
dichromate. the organic carbon in the soil gets oxidized by potassium dichromate in the presence
of concentrated H2SO4 utilizing the heat of dilution of sulfuric acid. The excess of dichromate
not utilized for oxidation of organic carbon is determined by back titration with ferrous
ammonium sulphate.
K2Cr2O7 + 4H2SO4 → K2SO4 + Cr2 (SO4)3 + 3(O) + H2O
C+2(O) → CO2 ↑
K2Cr2O7 + 7H2SO4 + 6FeSO4→ K2SO4 + Cr2 (SO4)3 + 3Fe2(SO4)3 + 7H2O
.Using the experimental and blank titre values the amount of organic carbon and organic matter
can be calculated.
Procedure:
• Take 1gm of soil in to a dry 500ml clean and dry Erlenmeyer flask and add l0 ml of 1N
potassium dichromate solution using a pipette.
• Then gently swirl the contents of the flask and keep on asbestos sheet.
• Add 20 mL of concentrated sulphuric acid and gently swirl the contents for 2-3 times.
• Allow the contents to stand for 30 minuts. After that add 200 mL of distilled water to stop
the reaction.
• Then add 5mL of orthophosphoric acid followed by 0.5 g of sodium fluoride (to avoid
the interference of Iron & Zinc in the titration) and around 1ml of diphenyl amine
indicator (until the contents become dark blue or violet in colour).

45
 • Titrate the contents against ferrous ammonium sulphate(FAS) till the blue or violet colour
of the contents hangs to green.
• Simultaneously run a blank experiment without soil sample.
• Note down the blnk and experimental titre values.
Observations and Calculation :
Blnk titre value = Volume of FAS equivalent to total dichromate added =A mL of 0.5N FAS
=Ax0.5 me of FAS or dichromate
Experimental titre value = Volume of FAS equivalent to left over dichromate =B mL of 0.5N
FAS =Bx0.5 me of FAS or dichromate
Actual titre value = Volume of FAS equivalent to utilized dichromate =A –B mL of 0.5N FAS
=(A-B)x0.5 me of FAS or dichromate
I equivalent (1000 mL of 1N) of dichromate reacts with 3 g of carbon
1me of dichromate reacts with =3 / 1000 = 0.003 g of OC
(A-B) x 0.5 me of dichromate reacts with= (A-B)x 0.5 x 0.003 g of OC
1 g of soil contains = (A-B) x 0.5 x 0.003 g of OC
100 g of soil contains = (A-B) x 0.5 x 0.003 x 100 g of C = Z % OC
% organic matter (OM) = Z x 100/58 = Z x 1.724
Ratings: Based on organic carbon content
<0.5 % OC = Low
0.5 – 0.75 = Medium
>0.75 = High
Result:
The organic carbon content of the given soil sample is __________ and is rated as __________.
Questions:
a. Describe the role of organic matter in soils.
b. one gram of soil sample consumed 2.5 mL of 1N potassium dichromate. Calculate
the % organic carbon and give the rating for the soil.

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46