Adapted from F.

Zabala
Universidad de Buenos Aires
PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES:
TYPES OF ASSIMILATION

Speakers may be careful enough so as to keep the citation form of a word, or they may simplify the
transition between sounds by adapting some of them to the environment in which they occur. It is
important to note that there is a restriction in terms of the number of changes that can occur at any given
time. In general, a phoneme will change only one of its distinctive features: for example, if the place of
articulation changes, the voicing and manner of articulation tend to remain untouched. The most
frequent type is regressive assimilation of place. For example, in the phrase ‘bad person’ the final voiced
alveolar plosive .c. may be influenced by the following bilabial consonant .!azc !o29rm = !aza !o29rm.. It
is interesting to note that although its place of articulation is altered, its voicing and manner of
articulation are not.

Speakers normally want to make the least possible effort to articulate. Although some assimilatory
patterns may seem extreme to foreign speakers, they are actually so frequent and normal that native
speakers are unaware of their existence. So much so, that certain combinations of sounds may be
subjected to a ‘chain’ or ‘domino’ assimilation. The phrase ‘He didn’t come’ may show the bilabialisation
of the alveolar sequence .cms. and the elision of the final plosive .s.:
.gh !cHcm's( !jUl = gh !cHfM'j( !jUl.. It is worth noticing that the .j. sound affects neither the manner
of articulation nor voicing of the alveolar sequence .cm's(.. According to Cruttenden (2014: 313), either
all of the alveolars change, or none.

1. DIRECTION
Regressive assimilation ( right-to-left, A B ):

Regressive assimilation is the most common by far. It occurs when a sound changes one of its
characteristics under the influence of a following sound.

Ten men . !sdm !ldm = !sdl !ldm . Un peso .!tm !odrn = !tl !odrn.

Progressive assimilation
This type of change takes place when there is elision of .?. due to a process called SYLLABIC
CONSONANT FORMATION. If .?. is omitted, the resulting syllabic nasal may be influenced by the place
of articulation of the previous sound:

Happen .!gzo?m = !gzol<. Bacon .!adHj?m = !adHjMÈ.

 2. TYPES OF ASSIMILATION
2. a. ASSIMILATION OF VOICE
Unlike many other languages, English does not frequently favour assimilation of voice. In Spanish, on the
contrary, voiceless sounds tend to become voiced in the vicinity of voiced sounds. This does not happen
in English, so Spanish speakers should be careful never to voice voiceless sounds:

E.g. Tecnológico .$sdfmn!knwhjn. Étnico .!dcmhjn.

Technologic .$sdjm?!kPcYHj. Ethnic .!dSmHj.


However, the opposite may be true in English. A final voiced sound might become voiceless in a few close-
knit English phrases. This is of restricted occurrence because when a final sound is voiceless there is PRE-
FORTIS CLIPPING. (Note that ALLOPHONIC DEVOICING occurs anyway, as explained below):

1. ‘Used to’ (semi modal, obligatory .!it9r's( s?.)

E.g. I used to work here. Z`H !it∂rs s? !v2∂j gH?\
‘Used’ (past tense of ‘to utilize’)
E.g. I used two bags. Z`H !it9ycfi !st9 !azfyfifi\

2. ‘Of course’ Z?u !jN9r = ?e !jN9r\

E.g. Of course you can. Z?ufi !jN9r it !jzm = ?efi !jN9r it !jzm\

3. ‘Have to’ (semi modal)
E.g. I have to do it. Z`H !gz9u s? !ct9 Hs = `H !gz∂e s? !ct9 Hs\
‘Has to’ (semi modal)
E.g. She has to study. ZRh !gz9y s? !rsUch = Rh !gz∂r s? !rsUch\

Activity
ACTIVITY 2:
Nº 1

Transcribe the following sentences phonemically. Show the cases of assimilation in colour.

1. I used to love her, but I have to kill her now.

2. She used me as if I were worthless.
3. Of course I used to play with wooden swords.
4. I used two of these, and I will use some more.
5. She has to admit that she has used it all.
6. Did you use to go out with my cousin?
7. Did you use my notebook?
8. She used that card to pay for the tickets.
9. We used to collect unusual objects.
10. You’ll have to get used to it.
2. b. ASSIMILATION OF PLACE
Alveolar sounds are the most unstable in English (.r+ y+ m. and especially .s+ c.). Not only are they very
frequent, but they are also articulated in the middle of the oral cavity. This position enables them to be
assimilated into a more advanced or retracted place of articulation. This phenomenon is often referred to
as DE-ALVEOLAR ASSIMILATION.

Bilabial assimilation
The alveolar .s+ c+ m. may become bilabial before a bilabial sound. Notice, however, that the assimilation
of .s. into .o. is not as frequent as its replacement by a glottal stop*.

ALVEOLAR + BILABIAL = BILABIAL

RULE EXAMPLES
That pen Z!Cz> !odm\ nq .!Czs !odm = !Czo !odm.
That boy Z!Cz> !aNH\ nq .!Czs !aNH = !Czo !aNH.
.s.* .s.= .o.
That man Z!Cz> !lzm\ nq .!Czs !lzm = !Czo !lzm.
.o. That wind Z!Cz> !vHmc\ nq .!Czs !vHmc = !Czo !vHmc.

Bad pain .!azc !odHm = !aza !odHm .
.a.
Bad boy .!azc !aNH = !aza !aNH .
.c. * .c.= .a.
Bad men .!azc !ldm = !aza !ldm .
.l.
Bad wine .!azc !v`Hm = !aza !v`Hm .

.v. 1 In Brighton .Hm !aq`Hsm< = Hl !aq`Hsm<.
In pairs .Hm !od?y = Hl !od?y.
.m. .m.= .l.
In Miami .Hm l`H!zlh = Hl l`H!zlh.
In Wales .Hm !vdHky = Hl !vdHky.

1 This type of change is only mentioned by Wells (1992).

ACTIVITY Nº 2

Transcribe the following sentences phonemically. Show the cases of assimilation in colour.

1. Can we eat a sandwich in bed, Brenda?

2. You told me you would be in bed by midnight, Becky!
3. In Worcester, my dad bought a great painting. It was a great bargain.
4. In my opinion, this country can’t be such a bad place to live in, Bruce.
5. Matt paid a lot more than Paul for that bread and breakfast hotel in Baker Street.
6. Can Brian decide when to come back home? Can he put it in black and white?
7. That beautiful bust needed more than ten men to be carried back to the hall.
8. That worksheet would bring Ben many ideas.
9. Did Polly and Pamela grind much coffee?
10. You’d better start pulling up your socks right before the test.
Velar assimilation
The alveolar .s+ c+ m. may become velar before a velar sound. Notice, however, that the assimilation of
.s. into .j. is not as frequent as its replacement by a glottal stop*.

ALVEOLAR + VELAR = VELAR

RULE EXAMPLES
That case Z!Cz> !jdHr\ nq .!Czs !jdHr = !Czj !jdHr.
.s.* .s.= .j.
That game Z!Cz> !fdHl\ nq .!Czs !fdHl = !Czj !fdHl.
.j.
Red carpet .!qdc !j@9oHs = !qdf !j@9oHs.
.c. * .c.= .f.
Red glove .!qdc !fkUuy = !qdf !fkUuy.
.f.
Ann can .!zm !jzm = !zM !jzm.
.m. .m.= .M.
Ann got it .!zm !fPs Hs = !zM !fPs Hs.

ACTIVITY Nº 3

Transcribe the following sentences phonemically. Show the cases of assimilation in colour.

1. The problems in Greece can get much worse if Britain gains power.
2. We can’t go on climbing!
3. She couldn’t cope with it, Greg.
4. Did Gimson call you?
5. She made great contributions.
6. I need Kate Goldstein, Gladys.
7. Brad got goose pimples.
8. In contrast with what Glenn claims, I’ll demand greater interest rates.
9. Ben couldn’t cope with it, Granny.
10. Ted Green called Alan Gray. He said Gary’s in Canada.

Palatoalveolar assimilation
The alveolar .r+ y. may become palatoalveolar before a palatoalveolar sound.

ALVEOLAR + PALATOALVEOLAR = PALATOALVEOLAR

RULE EXAMPLES
This year .!CHr !iH? = !CHR !iH?.
.i.
This shop .!CHr !RPo = !CHR !RPo.

.r. .r.= .R. Miss Jacques .!lHr !Yzj = !lHR !Yzj.
.R.
This church .!CHr !sR29sR = !CHR !sR29sR.
This job .!CHr !cYPa = !CHR !cYPa.
* .Y.
These years .!Ch9y !iH?y = !Ch9Y !iH?y.

These shops .!Ch9y !RPor =!Ch9Y !RPor.
.sR.
.y. .y.= .Y. Please Jacques .!okh9y !Yzj = !okh9Y !Yzj.

These churches .!Ch9y !sR29sRHy = !Ch9Y !sR29sRHy.
.cY.
These jobs .!Ch9y !cYPay = !Ch9Y !cYPay.
Activity
ACTIVITY5:
Nº 4

Transcribe the following sentences phonemically. Show the cases of assimilation in colour.

1. Is she Miss Jones?

2. Does Sheila please George?
3. Has she corrected his short story?
4. Maurice Johnson has just changed his job.
5. This gym is just what she needs.
6. Alice Joyce has joined the armed forces, Sean.
7. Bruce Sheridan has shot his sheep.
8. Has Janet heard the news, Shirley?
9. What a nice chap! She’s chosen a wise gentleman to be her future husband.
10. This is jolly good! This judge is sure to give us just what we want!

3. COALESCENT ASSIMILATION (Coalescence)

Coalescence is the process by which two sounds merge together and result in a different one. Wells
(2008: 52) states that YOD COALESCENCE normally affects the words ‘you’ and ‘your.’ It may also be found
before unstressed ‘year, yet’ and other words of frequent use.

YOD COALESCENCE
RULE EXAMPLES
Won’t you .!v?Tms it =!v?TmsRt.
.s. = .sR.
Don’t you .!c?Tms it =!c?TmsRt.
Would you? .!vTc it = !vTcYt.
Did you? .!cHc it =!cHcYt.
.c. * .i. = .cY.
Should you? .!RTc it =!RTcYt.
Could you? .!jTc it = !jTcYt.
.r. .R. I miss you .`H !lHr it = `H !lHRt.
.y. .Y. As you can .?y it !jzm = ?Yt !jzm.

ACTIVITY Nº 5

Transcribe the following sentences phonemically. Show the cases of assimilation in colour.
1. Have I told you lately that I hate you?
2. Why don’t you create your own story?
3. Hasn’t your sister finished yet?
4. I suppose you can do it.
5. Does your boyfriend need you so much?
6. Did you make her use your books? How could you!
7. Did you read your magazine?
8. Has your father let you down?
9. Last year, I visited you. Do you remember?
10. I understand your point, but I haven’t passed yet!
4. ELISION
Elision has been traditionally defined as ‘the omission of sounds in connected speech’ (Crystal, 2008 p.
166). Roach (2001: 61) is of the opinion that:
From the point of view of coarticulation studies, elision is not a separate process from assimilation. It is simply an
extreme result of coarticulation, whereby two sounds are articulated so closely in time to each other that a
sound or sounds between them are completely obscured.

In spite of the great number of cases of elision that occur in English, some authors of pronunciation
manuals agree on what kinds of elision are recommended for the foreign learner to adopt (Cruttenden,
2014; García Lecumberri & Maidment, 2000). Elisions can take place both within the word or at word
boundaries. It is interesting to note that most cases affect syllable-final sounds.

Elision of .s. & .c.

The alveolar plosives .s. and .c. are extremely common in word final and syllable-final position. They are
readily elided provided they are preceded by a consonant with which they agree in voice and followed by
another consonant. Since .c. is always preceded by a voiced sound, it is safe to state that it can always be
elided if it is sandwiched by consonants. As regards .s., the only two clusters where there is voice
disagreement are .ms. and .ks.. The literature seems to differ in terms of which sounds prevent the elision
of a previous .s. or .c.: such elisions seem to be blocked by a following .g. (Cruttenden, 2014; Ortíz Lira,
2007; Tench, 2011), while they seem to be disfavoured by a following .v. (Mott, 2005; Ortíz Lira, 2007;
Tench, 2011), .i. (Cruttenden, 2014; Ortíz Lira, 2007), .k. and .q. (Tench, 2011).

ELISION OF FINAL .s+ c.

RULE EXAMPLES
Blond man .!akPm'c( !l`m.
Voiced
* '.c.( * World Cup .!v29k'c( !jUo.
consonant Any consonant other than:
Arrived late .?!q`Hu'c( !kdHs.
• .g. (forbidden)
Last summer .!k@9r's( !rUl?.
Voiceless • .v+ i+ k+ q. (infrequent)
* '.s.( * Mashed potatoes .!lzR's( o?!sdHs?Ty.
consonant
Cleft palate .!jkde's( !ozk?s.

Exceptions:
• Negative contractions: the voice disagreement found in the cluster .ms. is overridden, as well as
the constraint on the following sound.
E.g.: Isn’t it? .!Hym's( Hs.
I can’t go. .`H !j@9m's( !f?T.
You shouldn’t allow it. .it !RTcm's( ?!k`T Hs.

• The conjunction “and” almost always drops its final sound, provided it is not followed by silence.
E.g.: Ben and I .!adm ?m `H.
Europe and Asia .!iT?q?o ?m !dHY?.

Elision of .g.
The initial consonant in the weak forms of grammatical words he, him, his, himself, her, herself, have, had
and has can be dropped provided they are not initial in the intonation phrase.
Compare:
I have told him what I thought of his wife and her lover.
.`H 'g(?u !s?Tkc 'g(Hl { vPs `H !SN9s ?u 'g(Hy !v`He { ?m 'g(? !kUu?.

Vs.
He can’t flee the country. His father would die if he did.
.gh !j@9ms !ekh9 C? !jUmsqh {{ gHy !e@9C? v?c !c`H He 'g(h cHc.

Perfect modal verbs customarily elide .g. in the weak form of the word have:

PERFECT MODALS
RULE EXAMPLES
Must She must have been late. .Rh !lUrs ?u aHm !kdHs.
Can’t It can’t have happened. .Hs !j@9ms ?u !gzomc.
Should You should have told me. .it RTc ?u !s?Tkc lh.
.?u.
May It may have occurred. .Hs ld'H( ?u ?!j29c.
Might You might have guessed. .it l`Hs ?u !fdrs.
Needn’t You needn’t have come. .it !mh9cms ?u !jUl.
Ought to .st ?u+ sv?u+ stu+ s?u. You ought to have resigned. .it !N9s st ?u qH!y`Hmc.

Elision of .k.
The dark allophone of .k. shares its back resonance with the back vowel .N9.. It is because of this similarity
that .k. can be elided when it is preceded by this vowel and followed by a consonant.
E.g.:
Altogether .$N9'k(s?!fdC?.
Also .!N9'k(r?T.
Although .!N9'k(C?T.
All the citizens .!N9'k( C? !rHsHymy. Brown (1990, 69)

Elision of fricatives in clusters

According to Cruttenden (2014), consonantal clusters in syllable final position may be extremely difficult
to articulate. The maximal cluster allowed by the phonotactics of English is VCCCC (e.g. thousandths). The
third consonant is normally lost.
E.g.: Thousandths .!S`Ty?m'c(Sr.
Texts .!sdjr's(r.
Sixths .!rHjr'S(r+ !rHjS'r(.

Wells (2008) mentions the simplification of .,'C(y+ ,'S(r. in moths .!lUm'S(r. and clothes .!jk?T'C(y..
Elision of Schwa & Syllabic Consonant Formation
English is varisyllabic, as long words do not always have a fixed number of syllables (Wells, 2009). If a
weak vowel, such as schwa, is completely elided a syllable is lost (e.g.: gardening
.!f@9c-?m-HM = !f@9c-mHM.). However, some consonants are capable of absorbing the syllabic status of
schwa and, therefore, become syllabic themselves gardening .!f@9c-?m-HM = !f@9c-m<-HM.). The latter
process is called SYLLABIC CONSONANT FORMATION (García Lecumberri & Maidment, 2000).

Nasal syllabicity:
The sequence .?m. may become syllabic when it is preceded by a consonant, especially an alveolar.
However, this is not possible if the preceding consonant is a nasal or if the consonant is in turn preceded
by .r.-
E.g.: Listen .!kHr?m = !kHrm<.
Pardon .!o@9c?m = !o@9cm<.
Golden .!f?Tkc?m = !f?Tkcm<.
London .!kUmc?m = )!kUmcm<.
Woman .!vTl?m = )!vTlm<.
Boston .!aPrs?m = )!aPrsm<.

Lateral syllabicity:
The sequence .?k. may become syllabic when it is preceded by an obstruent consonant, especially an
alveolar.
E.g.: Bottle .!aPs?k = !aPsk<.
Medal .!ldc?k = !ldck<.
Uncle .!UMj?k = !UMjk<.
Pencil .!odmr?k = !odmrk<.

Finch & Ortiz-Lira (1982, 80) proposed the following categorization:

ELISION OF SCHWA & SYLLABIC CONSONANT FORMATION

RULE EXAMPLES
.,sm., .,sm.+Cons, .,cm.+Cons, certain, importance,
student, absent, passion,
Syllabic .m. .,rm.+Cons, .,Rm., .,Rm.+Cons, .,Ym.,
patient, vision,
.,qm.+Cons occurrence.
local, peaceful, arrival,
.,jk., .,ek., .,uk., .,rk., .,yk., .,Rk., .,lk.,
Syllabic .k. cancel, nasal, special,
.,qk.
animal, oral.
totally, gracefully,
Syllabic or no-syllabic .k. .,skh., .,ekh., .,Rkh., .,lkh., .,mkh., .,qkh. socially, normally,
externally, orally.
Syllabic or non-syllabic secretary, lottery,
-Cons+.qh.
.q. strawberry
admiralty, optional,
Poly-syllabicity .,'?(q'?(k., .,'?(m'?(k., .,'?(m'?(q'?(k.
ordinarily.