ehapter Five

?he Enlightenment
Playing a Part in the World,s
F*istory

The Stuarts
During ihe Tudor age, Fngfand,s
destiny was inextricably
linked to that of western Europe,
the Renaissance and the
Refornratisn being worrd
movements *",
the evolution of England's paliticar "--.i.r-u;"v "n*"t.a
and cultural life. Benefiting
a strong navy, Engrand had from
redeflned its position to
the powers of
Europe' rt had thus gained
a new status permitting it to
domestic probrems without interference sotve its
cf fhe neighbcurs, whire
enabring it to pray an important
part in the worrd,s affairs.
the stuart age, which $ras, During
as a mater of fact, one of poriticar
religious unrest, the Engtish and
managed to develop
monarchy. By taking advanrage " "r*rd
of the rudor ",
::::::.-r:*irrey ?iso managed
'cridge'} to establish those reiaiions
ci
Engrand to scotand and rrerand
that were ta characterise
Britain' rn the safie period, modern
the Engrish set up serf-governing
communities across the ocean
raying the foundations
English institutions in North of fre*
America.

74
 England
James Vl of scotland became James I (1603-1625) of
crowns
his greatest merit resided precisely in his uniting the
the two countries. As for the rest, the "reign of .the first Stuad
ing of England: characterised by domestic conflicl
was
iously, the Puritans grew increasingly dissatisfied with
ihe
previousfy had
uch too Catholic Church of England. James had
the
cope with the problems created by the conflict between
rrntestants and the Catholics in Scotland' Moreover, he had tried
set$e it in a violent way by imposing the power of the
monarch

rthatofthechurch-lnEngland,hemanifestedthesame
terantattitudetotheCatholics,whichbroughtaboutopposition
their part. lt culrninated in the Gunpowder Pbf
of 1605' ln
of the Bible
ieO+, fing James I ordered that an English version
ld be produced and used in church' Known as the King
Version or the Authorised version, the Engtish translation
publlshed in 1611 and it is still used in many Anglican

ln politics, the major csnflict was between king and Parliament'

account of James l's-and then Charles l's, idea of monarchy
divineright.TheTudors,Parliamenthadbeenapou,erfulone
d the position af the House of commons had been significantly
under Elizabeth. That is why it was a mistake for
ifr**" to disregard the claims of the Commoners. The king tried
govern without Parliament from 1611 to 1621, but many of
s dernocratic institutions had been already put to test and

-sa group.of
The Gunpowder Plot was a conspiracy by 11l3n:"th?$".j:it
November 1605' The plot was a
iliirt" "p.ning ot Parliament on against
,*"" ot.tameJt's oppressive iawsthe cetlarthe Catholics' Guy Fawkes
;';;;. ittnu gunpo*du.r stored in under the House of Lords'
vul ttr" Frv' *."
rrrv p* -.'r--- ino Fawkes was
!'sv **pos-et anested ex9cut9j,::if?:f"i::
-14 in memory of ihis
The Gunpowder Plot is celebrated every year crn 5 November
:,i*isri;i'.r"*. tf, criginally, it celebrated a vic'tory af ihe Prstestant"ig"T:-tl:
;h;fi"-, ii;;; ffi;rixt i;."d into a tustival enioved,by everyone- The.custom
to make a 'guy' of rags ino burn the ragged efoy of Guy Fawkes on top of a
:irti!1iilt:l

ri;i'ii,ii
rl
I

gained their right to play a part

in modern Britain's political life.
Consequentfy, ihey represented
a force and parliament in
particurar was expected to oppose
James' berief in ihe king,s
divine right' rn 162g, sir Edward
coke, who had been dismi";; i
by James from his office as chief Justice
for his ideas ,
independent judiciary, helped produce
the petition of"nort-"n
Righta'
forced upon James's son, charres r,
to set rimitations on the
monarch's authority.
Charles l, king of England, Sco*and,
and lreland from 1625 to
1649, inherited many of his father's
ideas, incruding the berief in
ihe divine right of the king and in the
auihority of the Church of
Engrand' Because of these ideas, charres,
just like his father,
came into confrict with parriarnent, ufrich
flnafiy red to civit war. ,
charres summoned and dissorved three parriaments
in four years
because they refused to accept the
king's arrritrary measures
relating io ihe subjects' obrigation to pay
for miritary expenditure
under imprisonment penarty. These measures
were at the basis of
Parliannent's craims formurated in the
162g petition of Right.
Although charles signed the petition, in
1629 he dismissed
Parriament and wourd not summon it
again for the nexi ereven
years, during which he took exceptionar
financiar measures to
meet his expenses- ri was onry in 1640
that, in need of an army :

and funds to put ciown ihe rebeilion of

the scots on whom he had
tried to imros.e the Angrican riturgy, charres
convoked parriament
again. The sumrnoning was onry circumstantiar
and as parriament

a8
The petition of Right was addressed to
King charres r in 162g by the members
of Parriament red by sir.Edward c"r.-. r*"i"*9ng the most important craims
was that the king shourd not raise taxes without parriament,s
no subject shourd be imprisoned without calse approvar and that
petition on condition parriament shown. cnJi[r-Jigned the
Thoush the petition did not exactry "pprou*J
tr"9," t". poticy.
i,intiiout"t'*,"
attitude, it became rater an integrar p"rt olin*
"rnilffi;d[n
;iin""itl":'iou*rnrng
J
Engrish "n"ng!
constitution.
 sed to satisfy the king's dernands and insisted on peace with
scotland, it was dissolved after one month only. That is why
]harles'fourth Parliament is known as the short parliament. yet,
he had exhausted finances, in 1G41 charles called his fifth
rliament, the Long parriament, and he agreed to aborish
arbitrary taxation and to see to parliament riot being dissolved
Far{iament's permission. The scotish revolt was followed
an lrish one, which charles was likely to put dawn onry il he
as supported by Parriament to raise an army. Not onry did
rliament refuse support, but it atso made further claims for the
ht of Parliament to approve the king's ministers. As charles
ied to impose his will by force, he aroused the country's anger
had to run away.

he English Civil lffar

: Both Parliarnent and King then raised

rmies. Parliament's suppo*ers \n ere
$*own as the Ro[ndheads; the kihg,s
supporters were called the Cavaliers.
:th€s€ were the two sides invalved in the
,frst civil war of the English Revolution. The
'Fnglish Revolutian, also called the puritan
tRevolution,
lasted from 1640 to 16S0. lt
began wiih charles l's summoning the Long parriament, it
continued through two civil wars, it also included the king's trial
and execution, oliver cromwell's republican experiments and,
finally, the restoration of the stuart heir as King charles ll.
The first civil war ended in 1646 when charles gave himself up
, ts the sccts, who, one year later,
turned him over to the English
Parliament. The secpnd civil war took place in 164g, when the

77
 army and parriament fought
against scettand and the
king, the
sqottish army being defeated
by cromweir in a battfe
at preston.
The man who distinguished
himserf in the confrict between
the
royar and the parriamentary
forces was the reader of parriament,s
army' oriver cromwer' After charres'
beheading in Londsn,
cromwet became chairman of
the councir of siate, the
parliarnentary body that governed
England as a republic until
the
rnonarchy was restored in 1660.
oriver cromweri {1653-165S) did
not rure, therefore, as king.
He was the first commoner io govern
England, but as Lord
Protector" and under the pravisions
of Engrand,s first written
constitution- His nriritary genius,
as'we, as his crear carvinist
views herped him prace himserf
at the head of and keep together
the groups who had ove*hrovsn
charres r. He conquered sco*and
and frerand and turned Engrand into
one r:f Europe,s m'itary
powers, whose empire expanded
overseas.
After ihe victories of Marston Moor,
1644, Naseby, 1545 and
Preston, 1u*g, cromwet became
one of the prominent rniritary
cornmanders in Engrand. He
considered it his duty to get
invorved
in discussions regarding Engrand's
form of government and the
electorar reform- rr origina*y,
crcmwe* had not contested the
position of king, insisting onry
on the rimitation of the king,s
authority, after his successive victories,
he looked at himserf as an
i*strument of God and saw the
king's position as useress. He
arso
considered it unnecessary that
the House of Lords shourd be
nraintained' Arter the king's execution,
the commonlvearth of
England was formed, ruled by
a Council of State. ln 1649,

no
/0
J, the cromwell had to put down a Levellerae mutiny in the army" Then
on. he went to.!re".l.q.nd tying to shatter the catholic power. The next
n the .year, he won a victory against the Royalists to prevent them from

ent's invading England and defeated charles ll and the scots, being

doft,
imed as the saviour of the Commonwealth. 1653, ln
ronwvell refused the arowc and was named Lord protector. He
the
overned with a council of state and a truly British parliament, i.e.
ihe
England, scotland and lreland were represented, which met every
three years. As Lord protector, cromweil was given broad
ng.
powers, especially in military and foreign affairs. Adopting a
rrrl .*r-rcrrur-r^n arrruse, uromweil tried to
esiablish the reforms
en
rdemanded by the puritans during ail the years of
the Engrish
ist Revolution, among which rerigious toreration
and a strict morar
OF
code, which he appried in the commonwearth,
even if to do it weil
d .he had to close the theatres. rn foreign poricy,
crornweil,s actions
v strengthened Engrand's position as an internationar
power. He
*aptured several sganish possessions, such as
Jamaica in the
twest lndies or Dunkirk in northem
France. He setiled a trade
*onflict with the Dutch, the Engrish merchant ships
sairi*g safery in
eolonialwaters.
, oriver cronnweil may be regarded as the epitome of
an age in
which the rniddle class rose against the power
of the king and of
the great aristocracy. As a puritan, he represented group
a whose
,religious beliefs presupposed greater riber$ of conscience,
but
lalso stricter morality.
He was successful as an army leader, but
:his political offer enjoyed litfle popularity
and the revolution that he

"4n The Levellers were a-f7ft-century Engrish poriiicar group

,wars, They demanded extended trincrnYse during the Engrish civir
aiJ gouemment reforms based on the
'inalienabifity of individuar rights. The r-"*rt*o anticipated the ideas of the
Frnerican Revorution, their phibsophy incruded u.rr*"
*"in p*n"ip*-, man had
lcertain inatienabre rights ueyono nu;u*"ci*ion of any
i authority derived tom the people *" to*;*dt, government
of
porrvers.
"nC ".l"r"tion

79
 made possibre did not
survive his death.
rn 1660, the stuart
took the throne and heir
the monarchy *"=
r.."torud to England.

The Restoration
Chartes il,s reign
{16S0-16BSi bror,
.'X?:::,,::
:XY-,,.=:-:--::*-t.::period:1':,,::"'ff
Cromwe*'s death, his
son Richard _;;;;lJX;i::
ebre to eontro{ nefther
;::= :":fi::- of
rhe army nor parriamenr
anarchy. trtr'trdr{'I
Richard
resignation
i.esisnation in lAco i:": ir
165g made *o^^^-,-'-"t' uromwell's
Cromwell,s
that ihe srua* heir
be cared *""k ,,"1.,1,,1:::,:.::-,"# shouicj
vray for the restorat. pavins rhus the
As it coincide.Trr_TJ;'*;""niinent'
general reaction
Puritanism, the Restoratfon against,
was, unfik the Protectorate, widely
popular. And,
"rno,r"l''l:,:: T"o.
period of political
characterised
characterised n" Y^'t :::. "
by tense r*r"tion=riip*;;",-T:n unrest, "'J:
Parliameni, curturarfy,
the Resfo.ri*-l*,.,.1"-":::
t represenied a period of
scientificandliteraryachievement. ,

It was for the first time

in the history of Britain
summoned the King that parriament
and not the othe
happened at variou"*;;;::,:':::':'wav round, as ihings had
*o**nts of crisis' charfes
the only solutron ,ou= lt was seen as
co u n try a nd ro
il:':,:::lil: ::lJ H::l."J::
",
was procraimed" king in
1660
and crowned one year
:; :, :::
to the special circumstances raier and, due
of his acc sron, the
^r ,-,^-,:, **r* *;;;";:;=;r::::3":j,j::
king
kino anci
anri that
fh=* af partiament authority of the
Besides, Chades had
declared that he
pariiamentary government wculd accept
Determin ed to govern
and gr"nt u*n"=_, ;;",-"::::.
which he preserved for
regarry, .-J:T':j::;.?[:,:*-;.,,
ereven years- This
Royarist and gave the
first parriament was
king fut authority, which
he deregated to
80
 r5t
Eart of Crarendon. Edward
f:::l,.nrle
;nancellor from 1660 to
.:
Hyde was Lord
ruur. rrrrertr
1662.
on lntent
or restoring ihe supremacy
rf iho -*.,-^:.-.,:
the church of Engrand, Edward Hyde
e.l rqi-,}l

had the crarendon

in partiament, which, by
the restrictions imposed
:::^ -:,:y dissenters,
ihe rerigious practie*y eriminateg the possib*ity
ftanism in Engrand' yet, of
crarendon and charres refused
r.":-.:ge against the members to
il. of the former Roundhead
they effected a comprsmise
5?:Y::.:over, on the tand question
to purchase and keep rand,
L:.::::,::: :**oundheads
ason for which many of them wouJd
aet trJ,
rater becorne rocar readers
the Whig pa*!Fl.
._ The best*nown document passed
by parliament under
the Habeas
:*j:":1t1::- atso used earrier corpus
in
Acr of 167s.Arthough I trJragt l

:,-:t the sixreenrh century, it was

niy rn ::
the ratter harf of the seventeenth
=- 167g, the authority of thethat its effectiveness
*creased' After
court o***"
rl. severeisn,s orders, ensurins ihus,.,.,o*
T:i:::
ividua.s :"n.
rtbe*y in rrcfit of arbitrary
rhe
arrests. The irnportance of
The Clarendon Code included
four acts passe( lr..ch{es
s ecu re $r*
t sGcure th e powe
poweir oi
*re cchr*.r,
or
tre. rr u rcrr i,r
o had poriticaxv cominatfd,,t'" ; *,
ffi;:;..:,r"J
=^^i^^- -.1
ll's first parliarnent
*i"ii,
potr=""#r'iol rn" ilr?r,Jl"":H#:ffi,::
c;rp";;ffi uu,t I,
.ff Ti,y..:illil1,f
ios;
o' trr. :Ii,,f4.:,'
*4),'"":-*1xr*:T,:
a nd e Five- ftdi, e A ct
,.:X'fln:;#i rnri"'r.'' ;Hffi
resrored the sucremacv th

g^j fii:!::.3Ti,:i"tru;;
P;;;;;'| i l" lL ;j
r'. ffi ',; A"j
t
ffi ;:;
'The whig partv emlroed in *'ru iz*
" ""*"
century in opposition to King
charres , and
ffi"*ff""J ffiH:*3: jj."*ili;ffi
yH',#",,1Hf#ffJ,' **":gi::'ll:'jr""1,sff :i"ffRevorution or 1688,
"'Iii*J$iJ,J33j
,rote
nt diss enf rc _^j,1:,
s ta e
j:1 ]idustriatists, havi n! gio;;;#ili""
ihtheprotestantcissenrers,*lii#}"x;Hiil,:S,;Xi[?_Ir"lf ret i

the end of the stuart era and

ru*"ii.o-iJpl"**r for fitty years, :JK:**?:
tii:t Jd ; r"; wnln *re tory
iL S"[:l?:,"t"fiT,X? ".G'iil;"*,
penod'
tn* wr,iss pr" g
o'ni i"i"tiJ;; #ffi ;::r:'H$:* "i",.t*i' ?*-vin
beins iarsetv'"""*"''il"
u' J
.rug

,y?,-:"3":f'lr?Jtg to tn" *y' "upiorrers

The Tory
or the Roman cathoric King
'd aristocracy and the JIlf garty was *"ou'rp'-oi
"'-ev qv vI tn*
of the church of engtanO.
s the lerh
rs .t
grh r:errrr
century rru ,r^ _ll:S:l
igi r",tv-i"H#t#"ff:Jni?B""r"rvarive parry
""
ihHi3":gfi"tl" tii**i-'pJil':i"""yil"'"n a rerm stir used as a

8l
 ,

this measure resides in its being ihe norO"ri;n" between

{qmogrgcy q q$ de_sp$sp,
ln foreign policy, Charles ll made an alliance with France and ,

got involved in the Dutch War, which, on account of the already

acknowledged commercial and coloniat rivatry between the two
countries, was highly popular. The outcome was that England
managed to get the Dutch colony of New Netherland, now New
York.
Because of his effort to become an absolute ruler,
subserviently supported by a Tory party who had adopted the
policy of non+esistance to the king, Charles ll brought once more
the Stuart dynasty into conflict with Parliament. ln 1681, the king
dissolved Parliarnent and until his dedh he ruled without it.
Charles ll was succeeded by his Gatholic brother James ll {1635-
1688) on whom he bestowed an almost uncontested power.
Moreover, Jarnes also inherited a Tory party ready to submit to
the king, as well as a Ghurch that would not contest the king's
divine right.
James Il hied to rely on the Dissenters against the Anglican
Church and allowed the free worship of both Dissenters and
Catholics, whieh did nothing but lead to greater religious tension.
The king's intolerant aititude and his appointing the Catholics to .

key positions in the state increased furthrermore the conflict

between the StUart House and the English people. Atraid that
James ll's scn might ensure a Roman Catholic succession, the
king's opponents proclairned Mary, James's elder daughter,
heiress to the throne. She ruled together with her husband,
William of Orange, from 1689 to 1694 and after her death William
ruled alone until 1702.

82
 he Glorious Revoluticn
r,The events through which James ll was removed as king in
and replaced by his daughter Mary and her husband William
known under the name of the Glorious or the Bloodless
ution. Helped by Louis XlV, James tried to regain his throne'
was defeated by Wlliam and had to run awajl to France where
remained until his death. The revolution was'glcrious' first of
itwas successfulwithout bloodshed, but also because
constitutional msnarchy. Thus the power of Parliament
ased and ihe arbitrary actir:ns sf the monarch were
iderably limited. Mary and William were given the crown on
* ition they would ratify the Bill of Rightss2, which they did in
it" . They also passed the Toleration Act, through which they
;_ nted Protestant Dissenters the freedom of worship.

r ln his effort to fight the territo*al ambitions cf France under

is XlV, William involved England in the War of the League of
urg (1689-1697i and in the War of the Spanish Succession
s
701-1714). EnglanGs victory at Blenheim in 1704 under the
nd of John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough demonstraied
;l
gland's power and gave il the right to an important posiiion
f-i
fiiong the other European countries- Moreover, England had
l" rned to put its wealth to use and increase it by raising taxes in
3 larliament. The Whig party became the king's most loyal
.+
x.:pporter in his wars against France, frrst because he was the
it of the Protestant Princes and secondly, because the war
3 tributed to England's financial prosperity- To obtain ihe money
to finance the war, in 1693 England created a
rmanent natienal debt and in 1694 set up the Bank of England,

e ln Britain, ihis is the informal name attributed to the Act Declaring the Rights
a*d Uberties of the Subjects. Yet, contrary to the what the name may be taken to
iean, the Bill of Rights stipulates the relationships between the monarch and his
arliament, in the sense that the real power lies with Parliarnent and noi with the
 which, together with the developing siock exchange, contributed :

to lmposjng London _as a financial power in Britain and in ihe :

world. wiltiam's London had become an important centre of

finance and commerce, the East India Company of London
challenging the position of the rival Duteh Company.
ln the last year of his reign, to prevent the return of the Roman
catholic stuarts to the ihrone of England, william lll passed the
Act of settlement53, which stiputated the order of succession io
the thrane cf England. lf scotland had subscribed to the Bill of
Righis, it was reluctant to adopt the Act of setilement, according
to which the crown passed io the House of Hanover. The English
were afraid thai scotland might try to restoi'e a catholic stuart to
the throne. The only solution was the Act of Unicn of 1707, based
onwhichthekingdomofGreatBrii"ainwascreated.Thetwo
countries had been anly formally united under the same crcwn by
James ISiuart in 1603 and as a Commonwealth in Oliver
.

Cromwell's time. When ihe monarchy was restored, the two

countries became separate again, The union presupposed the
joining of England's and Scotland's parliaments, Scoiland being
represented in the British House of Ccmmons and receiving the
sarne trading rights as the English.
lVhen Wiltiam died in 1702, Anne, his wife's sister, became
queen of England, Scotland and ireland t1782-1714) and, by the
Act of Union, of Great Britain and lreland (7A7-1714j.
Relying much on the counsel of her minisiers, Queen Anne
continued Williann's foreign palicir and directed the country's
efforts against France and Spain in the War of the Spanish

33
Enacted by Parliament in 170i, ihe Fct of Seitlement exc{uded all the male
heirs of Roman catheiic religion from ihe throne. lt was decided that unless
Anne, James ll's second daughter, the last of the Protestant Stuarts had an heir,
the crown should go ta Sophia, elector of Hanover, James I's granddaughter, and
her descendants on condition ihey were Protestant. King George l, Sophia's son,
became ihus king of Eng{and in 1714.
'tl
84
,..
 .J
tu succession, in which John churchit,
now Duke of Marrborough
-F won severar victories. yet, if wifiiam had
been torerant in rerigious
nf ' rnatters, Anne was a devout Angfican and
in poritics she incrined
*n rn favour of the Tories rather ttran
tne whigs. Having no heir of her
ourn, Anne was the rast siuart
monarch and passed the crown to
Ithe House
ail of Hancver, her German cousin becoming
King George
hs I of Great Briiain and lreland
a^

3f The Restaratlon Art and $ystem

of Thought
ilat Elizabeth's death in 1603 was fotowed
by a period of rerative
eh
"politicar and rerigious instabirity, which brought about a change
of
iia 'tone in the liierary producticns of the
Jacobean period. Even if
3d Erizabethan dramatists continued
,:o** to write, shakespeare and
#0 Ben Jonson in particural their dramatic
works
became darker and
nir pessimistic in tone reflecting gioornier
i1or" a view of the worrd.
€r ,Plays such as John webster's rhe ouchess of Marfiindicate
the
ffo same departure from the Renaissance
:
confidence and
tue exuberance.
l

*g : During otiver cromwet's protectorate,

the theaires were
i lased and with tfe restoration of the monarchy, riteratr"lre,
especially vrc**d,
,:j?vyuv,q,,f drama, was rgslored to ihg
reslored to ihe status and level
rever cl
cf
:'popularity it used to have during the
Renaissance. yet, under the
-infiuence of
French riterature, the Restoration productions
manifest a clear tendency towards classicism,
with rules and
standards meant to disciprine imagination.
The favourite genres
r! are drama and the satire, which generaty
,rsr.J rEllr:ut
refrect the cynicis* ol
ute uynlcls;T] of
*h i{he age' John Dryden, the representative poet
and praywright of
'the Restoration, is arso to be noted
for his criticar aciivity. His
prsse work of Dramatick poesre,
an Fssay, written in 166$, is
-;- considered to have raid the basis af Engrish
r{
literary criticism. The
'e
Restoration' is arso associated wiih a
series of briiliant and
ffiFb .
 gained Engrand its incontestabre prace arnong
the main
contributors io the emergence of the new Age
of Reassn. Newion
became a member of the Royal Society, among
whose f,rst
a fellows *T_* chrisiopher Wren, Rsbert Boyre
': and Ernest
/- Rutherford.55
A Mechanistic principres were arso appried
u to exprain the
0 , organisation of the society and human moiivation.
The society
s
: was seen as a mechanicatsystem,
actuated by man,s wishes and
f desires. These ideas were part of the philosophy
af the
' rept€se'tative ker of the Resroration qeriorl.Th*mas.-Hnhh*s-,
th in
His theories about naiure, human behaviour and society
red rrirn
ta the conclusion thai the society coufd be herd together
anry by
. strong sociar institutions and a powerfur rurer,
ideas e:pressed in
r his work Levraffian- Hobbes's ideas rarere
attacked by John Locke,
who rejected the theary of the king's divine right
and the nature of
. the state and insisted on the fact that sqvereignty
was not a
privilege of the state, but of the peopre.
Locke,s poriticar ideas
forrnulated in his rreafibes on Govemmenf
and €ssay conceming
Human llnderstan&ng rerated to peopre's naturar rights,
the
r properry rights, the rore sf the state and of the govemmenl
as
: well as the rute of the majority- They crearry anticipated many of
the ideas to be found at the basis of modern
democratic systems.
In the early eighteenth century, many of the philosophical,
political and scientific doctrines of the
seventeenth ceniury would
, foster a ilew view of the worrd represenied in Jonathan
swifi's
satires, Alexander pcpe's poetry and Joseph Addison
and sir

s Evolved from some Engrish scientisrs' meetings, the

Royar society was
fo^unded in 1d60 during the reign of King charG rt, G;ng g;*nia;y*r-charter in
'1662. originally, it was created
to eontribute to flie- improvement of the
knowledge of nature. Ngw3fvs, its objectives, beside
*re lncouragement of
scientific research, arso incrude tne recoinition of
exceHence in science and the
promation of internationar scientific reratio-ns and science education.
 &:*
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Ricl-iald Steeie's essai,/s -ihey 1,,'srild also impose Briiain as a

ieacler !n ihe worid of rhourEirr rrr ihe Age cf ihe Fniigirtennent

Tr:= Fir"s'e t3i"i:isi: {r*=ire

Tire foundaiions of tne Bi-it!sh Enoii-e had been airea,:r/ laid
u;-:;':,rJ ii'3 i:ig:r j1 Q-.;:l S;,;abetn | ','",hc nad ccisianill,
si.rDponed naval e;<pici-ai,oir. l-ne Fngilsn EaSi lnCia Ccr-ripanir fisX
he=n sat up irr -1600.'/=i 'rnoer'ihe pressure of soain. rryl^rich .,*

.5
..:ri.:t::i: .. . j=1.:-a: ,.:+:. i::c:essed a la:ge ccl:..:, :::::-= aJ:oss :i,= :cer: F:;l::: s
E
cclonial expansron in tre A.:ielicas becaine reaiiy nollceabi= cnlr, aj

...:tz, :: ..:.--a;.+-.. :;;-

:i
-i-:::!-. .- i.=.=::;;- ,i::EsF
cluring the seventeenih ceniuqr
z
Th,= Fnnliclr
*'v,,", h+rrn r^ q:itla
jv_:;! in
l:; h!n#h
i\v.iLli Ame.i-:
r\i.i3,;v.i, fL^
.: l=
r:-^:
:,:_
:
.1i1=i-.: ' :. :==:i:i:tF:!=j
j i.3-;: "ii
t:
p-rernranent s3trlemsni berng esta,biishec
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.:"-.j.;:,
.;1l+::

in ig07 ai iamesicwn
--.:*ts+i :,1€:
v'rrginia. ln '1620 ihe Pui-iiai'l cjissicients iouncjed piyrnouth cciony.
.;:e i:rSi ,lOIOrr.,
--' J i11 \or..-r
- J - ''"1 The
' Fl1,ar rl:-- ttfe .eenrrF of rh= Fnnlich =
-,,J''-'
:: seti.lers r,vas extendeci 'icvr'n 'rne eas'rern caasiiine anJ in '1664
. .. .::..; : -.'.. : ;?;,. ,:-_

:: j ,.i4.:i:':;.]:
charles il seized Nevu Amsterdam from ihe Dutch and renanisd ii
:::

j
i'.ierr,r lll's re!gn, ihe number- cf eclcnles in
Y,:rl<. During Wiliiam
l'iew Fngland inc;easerj corsianity and the Hudscn s Zay
!:*4€<dettlr*eF:='dl'F: O:nrpany was establisl-recj for ihe fur trade. Britain gained a new
: .a::.:: j :^'ri:,tus as an cverseas o.wer rvhich gav= it the right lo ccme into
=*,a:a.

:-.:.,:;;. ..:,:: . :::.. 1-:*t

=.:' :;;:lpe i,',iclt cn equai tei'ir-ts ,,ui'iii ihe othei Eui-cilean po,,j.ieis.
in the same period. Engiand gained a foothold in ihe Wesi
-ri:i: -::Jir,r.::i:1:
: :. f:,., i=... . .:
lndies. As the increasing tobacco and sugar production recuired
lr ;i
::.:.j..:=::
=.=:rr:::Y:
].:.:i-: : '€.
,:.,;:i it:cui" fcl-:e 'i,h::1r sia:-te ci i'o b; Sroilgl^rt fi c,-,, ii it ica il-.e
islancls \^re i"e tui-ned into a platriation econorny l:ased o; Slavery.

.. :.
--. .::1... _. ::..,=: The English also conquered the Spanish colony of Jamarca
'-:- !+ . - r :r:i. a*i:e-:,:: ;.=-
:::,ci iir iC'C Scair haC to ackirc,r"'ledqe ihe Enoiish possessiln ir
I a 1:..=:t-; @::-
ihe Caribbean. The Rcyal Africa Conpany lvas establjshe,i in
1672 tr: provide mo;-e African labour force for ihe expanding sugar
.:.r ::.!::=-f i:ii::=--::Eid=?:_:

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