Nicolaus Copernicus
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) shattered the long-
held notion that the Earth was the center of the solar
system, proposing a heliocentric (sun-centered) model
instead.
Copernicus, of Poland, felt the Ptolemaic view of the
planets traveling in circular orbits around the Earth was
over-complicated with many smaller circles, epicycles,
needed to explain the intermittent retrograde motion of
the planets (in which they appear to move in the
opposite direction of the the stars). Copernicus
published his book, De Revolutionibus Orbium
Coelestium ("On the Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres") when he was 70 and lay dying.
His ideas took almost a hundred years to gain
credence, but Galileo's 1632 assertions that the Earth
orbited the sun built upon the Polish astronomer's
work, cementing the Copernican revolution.
Johannes Kepler
Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) defended and modified
the Copernican view of the solar system with a radical
reformation that established him as one of the great
lights of the Scientific Revolution of the 16th-17th
centuries.
Kepler deduced that the planets do not travel in perfect
circles around the Sun, as Copernicus had thought, but
rather possess elliptical orbits, with the sun at one of
the foci. This insight formed his first planetary law,
which he published in 1609 with the second law which
stated that planets do not travel at the same rate
throughout their orbits.
Kepler's third law, published a decade later, posited
that the relationship between the lengths of two
planets' orbits is related to their distances from the sun.
Though he made other contributions to mathematics
and optics, Kepler's three laws made him a giant of
astronomy.
Isaac Newton
Isaac Newton (1642–1727) often commands
respect as the most influential figure in all of
science. He invented calculus, as well as
investigating optics, mechanics, experimental
chemistry, alchemy, and theology. His creation
of the three universal laws of motion plus the
invention of the theory of universal gravity
permanently altered the field of science.
The well-known Newtonian laws of motion are:
1) an object at rest tends to stay at rest and an
object in uniform motion tends to stay in uniform
motion unless acted upon by a net external
force. 2) The net force on an object is equal to
the rate of change of its linear momentum in an
inertial reference frame, or if a body is
accelerating, there a force is acting on it. 3) For
every action there is an equal and opposite
action.
In a story that has long since gone into the
public consciousness, Newton supposedly
found inspiration for his theory of gravitation
upon seeing an apple fall from a tree. From this
he conjectured that gravity's pull could extend
outwards from the earth, even as far as the
moon and further.
Galileo Galilei
Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) stood as the central figure of the
scientific revolution of the 17th century, with his work in
physics, astronomy, and scientific methodology.
Galileo, born in Pisa, Italy, made numerous scientific
discoveries. He famously proved that all falling bodies fall at
the same rate, regardless of mass. Further he developed the
first pendulum clock.
Galileo experimented with and refined telescopes (though he
did not invent them, as is often incorrectly thought). He is
perhaps best known for discovering the four most massive
moons of Jupiter, now known as the Galilean moons.
Based on his telescope research, Galileo supported the
Copernican heliocentric model of the solar system, publishing
his arguments in "Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World
Systems," during 1632. The ruling Catholic church forced
Galileo to recant these theories, and was kept under house
arrest for the remaining nine years of his life. Today his legacy
lived on in the Galileo spacecraft which probed Jupiter. [Read
more about Galileo
The Big Dipper (US) or the Plough (UK, Ireland)[ is a large
asterism consisting of seven bright stars of the constellation
Ursa Major; six of them are of second magnitude and one,
Megrez , of third magnitude. Four define a "bowl" or "body"
and three define a "handle" or "head". It is recognized as a
distinct grouping in many cultures.

The North Star (Polaris), the current northern pole star and
the tip of the handle of the Little Dipper (Little Bear), can be
located by extending an imaginary line through the front two
stars of the asterism, Merak (β) and Dubhe (α). This makes it
useful in celestial navigation.

Big Dipper

Cassiopeia is a constellation in the

northern sky, named after the vain queen
Cassiopeia in Greek mythology, who
boasted about her unrivaled beauty.
Cassiopeia was one of the 48 constellations
listed by the 2nd-century Greek
astronomer Ptolemy, and it remains one of
the 88 modern constellations today. It is
easily recognizable due to its distinctive
'W' shape, formed by five bright stars. It is
opposite Ursa Major. In northern locations
above latitude 34ºN it is visible year-round
and in the (sub) tropics it can be seen at it’s
clearest from September to early
November. Even in low southern latitudes
below 25ºS it can be seen low in the North.

New Moon - The Moon's
unilluminated side is facing the
Earth. The Moon is not visible (except during
a solar eclipse).
Waxing Crescent - The Moon
appears to be partly but less
than one-half illuminated by
direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moon's disk
that is illuminated is increasing.
First Quarter - One-half of the
Moon appears to be illuminated
by direct sunlight. The fraction
of the Moon's disk that is illuminated is
increasing.
Waxing Gibbous - The Moon
appears to be more than one-
half but not fully illuminated by
direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moon's disk
that is illuminated is increasing.
Full Moon - The Moon's
illuminated side is facing the
Earth. The Moon appears to be
completely illuminated by direct sunlight.
Waning Gibbous - The Moon
appears to be more than one-
half but not fully illuminated by
direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moon's disk
that is illuminated is decreasing.
Last Quarter - One-half of the
Moon appears to be illuminated
by direct sunlight. The fraction
of the Moon's disk that is illuminated is
decreasing.
 Waning Crescent - The
Moon appears to be partly
but less than one-half
illuminated by direct sunlight.
The fraction of the Moon's
disk that is illuminated is decreasing.