Visual Literacy in the Age of Participation

Author(s): Barbara Rockenbach and Carole Ann Fabian

Source: Art Documentation: Journal of the Art Libraries Society of North America, Vol.
27, No. 2 (Fall 2008), pp. 26-31
Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of the Art Libraries Society of
North America
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/27949492
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 Visual Literacy in the Age of Participation
Barbara Rockenbach and Carole Ann Fabian
Every image sheds light on the assumptions of the day.
Every image reveals, as well as defines, events. Every image
must be read, must be interpreted. This is a perilous act, one
that often leads us far away from the safe ground sought by
most historians. Yet reading the image, like reading any text,
is a way to engage the past and connect it to our lives.1
Louis Masur, Historian
PART ONE - A Landscape for Understanding Visual Literacy
/. The Age of Participation
We like to categorize and name things. Naming helps us to
create meaning about ourselves and our role in the world. The
naming of our times has followed a rich lineage starting with
the Hunter/Gatherer Age, moving to the Agriculture Age, the
Industrial Age, and most recently leading us to the Information
Age. The Information Age has defined much of what we do in
our professions for the last several decades, and most library
and information science practice derives from notions of the
Information Age. However, we are now faced with a changing
world of information and services, one that potentially goes
beyond information. Can we still characterize our times as the
Information Age? The answer to that question has an influence
on both user expectations and our role as information profes
sionals, especially as we examine the skills and competencies the
current age requires, among them visual literacy.
There is no shortage of theorists trying to determine the
answer to the question of what to name the current era in which
we live, floating names such as the Web 2.0 Age,2 the Conceptual
Age,3 and the Age of Participation.4 The Information Age, as we
know it, began in the mid-twentieth century when the economic
Web 2.0 and the Conceptual Age, as follows:
base of much of the world shifted from the production of physical
goods (Industrial Age) to the production and manipulation of
data or information. This shift really took hold in the mid-1980s
with the development of the personal computer and blossomed
further in the 1990s with widespread development and adoption
of the Internet. Just a decade after what many are now calling
Web 1.0, a potential new age is upon us.
The Information Age and associated Web 1.0 era is being
eclipsed by a new Web 2.0 era. In 2004, Tim O'Reilly coined the
buzzword Web 2.0 to describe a trend in the use of Web tech
nology that aims to create communities for information sharing
and collaboration. Also emphasized in the Web 2.0 world
is creativity on the part of the users, or a desire and ability to
26 Art Documentation ? Volume 27, Number 2 ? 2008
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contribute as well as consume. This means a world where the
flow of information is a two-way rather than a one-way street,
where receivers of information are no longer passive consumers
but active contributors. These Web 2.0 concepts have led to the
development of online communities and social networking Web
sites such as Facebook, Flickr, MySpace, and Wikipedia, and more
generally, applications such as wikis, blogs, and folksonomies.
Another theorist, Daniel Pink, has written in Wired Magazine
and a book entitled A Whole New Mind about what he calls the
Conceptual Age. He argues that as a result of outsourcing white
collar or Information Age jobs to Asia, a general abundance
of wealth and cheap goods, and the automation of number
crunching activities, we are moving from a left-brain dominant
society to a right-brain society. In essence, creativity, emotion,
and synthesis are in vogue:
The Information Age we all prepared for is ending. Rising in
its place is what I call the Conceptual Age, an era in which
mastery of abilities that we've often overlooked and under
valued marks the fault line between who gets ahead and who
falls behind... In a world upended by outsourcing, deluged
with data, and choked with choices, the abilities that matter
most are now closer in spirit to the specialties of the right
hemisphere?artistry, empathy, seeing the big picture, and
pursuing the transcendent.5
Therefore, according to Pink, our former linear world of
information is changing. New abilities and new skills sets are
perhaps not only valued but necessary in our current age.
A final way of characterizing our age, and one that particu
larly relates both to our times and the concept of visual literacy,
is the Age of Participation. Jonathan Swartz describes the Age of
Participation, which incorporates aspects of both the theories of
The old flow of information has been disrupted and an open
and competitive network fuels growing opportunities for
everyone?not simply to draw data or shift work around the
world, but to participate, to create value and independence.
If the Information Age was passive, the Participation Age
is active.6
This focus on active users is essential to an understanding of
our age. The existence of active, creative users willing to engage
in the process of information creation presents new challenges
and opportunities for information professionals. Across func
tional areas, librarianship is moving away from more controlled,
passive, and didactic modes in which, rather than users seeking
 to be given information, we now have users who wish to be
more active participants in the information-seeking process. For
example, whereas bibliographic description of library materials
was once solely the purview of library cataloging depart
ments, we now see growing instances of library catalog records
enhanced by user tagging and other social methods to make the
materials more findable and more relevant to today's users. For
example, the University of Pennsylvania has built a tool called
PennTags to allow users to tag and group URLs, articles, and
other information sources by their preferences. Our students
now arrive on campus expecting a more dynamic interaction
and a more active role in their learning process, requiring an
instructional shift that affects faculty as well as librarians. The
expectation of a more participatory process forces information
professionals to rethink their role in the flow of information and
suggests responsibility for nurturing a new range of skills and
literacies such as higher-level critical thinking skills, problem
based inquiry, and visual literacy.
2. Visual Literacy Definition and Role in Age of Participation
There are many ways in which visual literacy has been
defined in the last several decades. The term itself was first
coined in 1968 by John Debes, an employee of Kodak at the time
who characterized visual literacy as follows:
Visual Literacy refers to a group of vision-competencies a
human being can develop by seeing and at the same time
having and integrating other sensory experiences. The devel
opment of these competencies is fundamental to normal
human learning. When developed, they enable a visually
literate person to discriminate and interpret the visible
actions, objects, symbols, natural or man-made, that he
encounters in his environment. Through the creative use of
these competencies, he is able to communicate with others.
Through the appreciative use of these competencies, he is
able to comprehend and enjoy the masterworks of visual
communication.7
The focus in this definition is not on art or art historical
reading of images, but on a set of capabilities that, for those
familiar with the ACRL Information Literacy competencies,8
should look familiar, allowing us to make the connection
between visual literacy and the age of participation. Visual
literacy has only become a focus of study in the informa
tion professions in the last decade. Notions of textual literacy
have been with us for much longer and were embedded into
the philosophy of libraries from the very beginning. Andrew
Carnegie, creator of over 2,500 libraries around the world, states
how textual literacy?the ability to literally read and understand
complex works?was bound up with his founding principles
from the beginning. "Show me the man who speaks English,
reads Shakespeare and Bobby Burns and ITI show you a man
who has absorbed the American principles. He will most likely
read also the Declaration of Independence and Washington's
Farewell Address."9
This link between libraries and textual literacy was impor
tant in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. However,
literacies change over time as our culture changes or, as Richard
Sinatra points out, "A culture's predominant mode of literacy
depends on the technology and mass media it embraces."10
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The predominant technologies and mass media of our time are
primarily visual. In addition to the visual mediums that have
been with us for years (images in magazines, newspapers, on
billboards, television and film) we now have the Internet, video
games, and digital cameras in everything from our computers
to our phones. The proliferation of digital mass media and our
individual ability to not only observe but to actively create, use,
and share it, is further extended by the emergence of online
social networking environments such as Flickr, Yahoo images,
YouTube, and Facebook. The library is now in a position of
having to respond to these environments that are emerging
outside of the academy. The democratization of Web 2.0 technolo
gies suggests opportunities for libraries to think creatively about
capturing users' attention. For example, the Library of Congress
recently launched a pilot project to expose approximately 3,000
of its most popular images in The Commons on Flickr. Within
days 650,000 images were viewed and 420 had been tagged
by users; by March 2008 the Library of Congress reported that
user-supplied tags helped the Library enhance sixty-eight biblio
graphic records.11 In addition to changes in the external image
landscape, the academic library is being called upon to provide
and support the use of visual materials in unprecedented ways
on campus: for example, evolving curricula draw on visual and
textual materials across disciplinary boundaries and require the
library to provide teaching/learning materials beyond tradi
tional books and journals. The library, not always the site of
image management, is now often building collections of images,
subscribing to licensed resources of images and other media, and
is often the creator and caretaker of institutional repositories of
locally produced visual, textual, and media content.
The presence of an audience of users who expect to be active
participants in their learning process and of a culture dominated
by images suggests a need for renewed emphasis on visual
literacy skills or competencies. The moment also presents an
opportunity for art librarians expert in the area of visual mate
rials to integrate their strengths in literacy instruction and their
domain knowledge of the visual into more active, participatory
teaching and learning approaches. One such approach might be
the adaptation of the ACRL Information Literacy Standards to
the specific competencies required for visual literacy in the arts.
Art librarianship has always been anchored to the visual?a
variety of photographic or other-rendered representations of
objects and built environments, most often still images but
increasingly more time-based media, 3-D visualizations, and
complex graphical works. Visuals are the currency of art educa
tion and scholarship. We have addressed the presence of images
in our profession primarily through art historical techniques
such as close analysis and other forms of systematic looking.
This has been adequate for the classroom and the field of art and
art history, yet our age calls for a different mode of visual anal
ysis that acknowledges the ubiquity and importance of images
in society. James Elkins, in his book Visual Studies,12 provides
an excellent and complex overview about concepts of visuality,
visual culture, and visual studies. Among many provocative
ideas, he distinguishes between the traditional domain-specific
analysis of complex images and the more modern "infographie"
decoding of contemporary images. In the former, an image
is studied as a complex representation requiring the viewer
to construct meaning over time through iterative looking,
Volume 27, Number 2 ? 2008 ? Art Documentation 27
Figure 1. Robert Campin and Assistant. The Annunciation Triptych, ca. 1425. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Cloisters Collection. ARTstor: Images
for Academic Publishing: Image ? The Metropolitan Museum of Art.

historical traditions of communication and ornamentation in

architectural surface treatments (e.g., hieroglyphics), and the use
of the dot-matrix patterning (similar to Lichtenstein's) to create
large-scale portraits of architects. Within subject domains, there
is also the "literacy" element of competence in recognizing core
images or representational types. It is important to note that
visual literacy takes on varied meanings within different disci
plinary contexts. The visually literate scientist or engineer may

4>0 JL
possess entirely different visual mind-maps than visually literate
humanists. It may not be possible to expect all learners to be
competent in all areas of visuality, but basic skills can be taught

Figure 2. Selection of icons from the AIGA inventory of symbol signs.

http://www, aiga .orgl con tent, cfm/symbol-signs

thinking, and contextual analysis. Think, for example, of the

literacy required to "read" and understand Robert Campin's The
Annunciation Triptych (Figure 1). An infographie image by contrast
uses visuals as a textual shorthand to communicate simpler or
more direct contemporary understanding of a message deliv
ered as an image. Think, for example, of the American Institute
of Graphic Arts (AIGA) inventory of symbol systems (Figure 2)
that provides a universal graphic communication standard for
directional and informational signage. Simple infographies like
these can also be read within more complex iconographie works. Figure 3. Rem Koolhaas OMA (born 1944). McCormick Tribune Campus
For example, window surfaces in Rem Koolhaas's McCormack Center; detail of glass with embedded designs, 2003. Illinois Institute of
Tribune Campus Center (Figure 3) are used as iconographie Technology, Chicago, IL. ARTstor: Image ART on File ? 2007 Artists
elements conveying a variety of meanings, such as referencing Rights Society (ARS), New York / BEELDRECHT, Hoofddorp, NL.

28 Art Documentotion ? Volume 27, Number 2 ? 2008

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 and learned. In art/art history we might define competence to
some extent as knowledge of canonical images, whereas in other
disciplines it might be that radiographie visuals, astrological
charts, geographic and cartographic imaging, or other normative
image types are considered to be core elements of competence in
their respective fields.
The 2008 Horizon Report lists four critical challenges for
learning organizations in the coming five years. Among them
is a call for institutions to "provide formal instruction in infor
mation, visual, and technological literacy as well as in how to
create meaningful content with today's tools."13 As art informa
tion specialists, we have a skill set that creates an opportunity
to be leaders in the area of visual literacy across the disciplines.
The call for a focus on visual literacy in higher education or
the opportunity "to take a systematic institutional approach to
defining core values that include visual acuity alongside the
ability to read and write"14 affords art information professionals
the chance to lead their campus in these efforts. Because visual
literacy is a life skill rather than just an academic exercise, it is
one of the most important things we can teach students.
PART TWO - Visual Literacy in Art Librarianship Practice
3. Visual Literacy and the ACRL Information Literacy Competency Standards
A comparison between the textual and the visual can be
drawn using the ACRL definitions of information literacy and
one understanding of visual literacy; that is, visual literacy can be
understood as a form of critical viewing in much the same way
as information literacy can be understood as critical thinking.
The ACRL Standards presuppose that there is an information
need, a question to be answered. In visual literacy, the point
of departure is a visual object to be understood. The Standards
provide a methodological approach for uncovering, under
standing, and appropriately using information; we think they
provide for uncovering, understanding, and appropriately using
visuals as well. The ACRL Standards approach can be useful in
understanding both a specific visual and the more generalized
understanding of visual cues in context. The Standards provide
a systematic way of decoding what is seen and help learners
construct meaning from visual points of departure.
Since the Standards are so widely known and accepted, it
might be useful to parse each of them for their particular rele
vance to establishing a basic construct for visual literacy.
ACRL Competency Standard 1: The information-literate student
determines the extent of the information needed.
Visual Literacy interpretation: Indicators for this competence
would center on a user's ability to observe a visual object and
the ability to first construct a question about that object, pose
a problem set related to the object, and construct a problem
solving strategy to answer the questions and explore the
visual "problem." In an active learning setting, the librarian
can facilitate the users' discovery sequence?a process that
asks them to use innate or learned skills for seeing, observing,
and note-taking. Outcomes of this user-inquiry phase would
be the articulation of questions and identification of problems
that must be explored in order to understand the visual.
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ACRL Competency Standard 2: The information-literate student
accesses needed information effectively and efficiently.
Visual Literacy interpretation: When questions and problems
are articulated, users working with the librarian can together
begin to explore the relevant resources needed to answer their
inquiries. Indicators would include identification of needed
research resources for each area of inquiry, development
of search strategies for each resource, understanding of the
intellectual structure of the resources, tools needed for further
examination and evaluation of the object, and preparation
of documentation methodology. Outcomes of user inquiry
could be identification of relevant resources, execution of
search strategies, preliminary annotated resource list, and
proficiency in software, hardware, or other tools needed to
fully support examination and study of the visual object.
ACRL Competency Standard 3: The information-literate student
evaluates information and its sources critically and incorporates
selected information into his or her knowledge base and value system.
Visual Literacy interpretation: Indicators for this Standard
might include comparative analysis of the literature, an
understanding of the relative merit of one source over
another, cultural context of work and its effect on meaning,
exploration of authenticity, issues of connoisseurship and
provenance, and the ability to place the image within a mean
ingful context?aesthetic, historical, political, social or other.
Outcomes would include image recognition and identifica
tion, the selection of the most relevant trustworthy source of
support materials, and the identification of other visuals that
place the subject visual within a broader context, interpreta
tion, and contextual understanding of the image.
ACRL Competency Standard 4: The information-literate student,
individually or as a member of a group, uses information effectively to
accomplish a specific purpose.
Visual Literacy interpretation: Indicators would include use
of the visual object to fulfill a particular curricular or creative
purpose (as determined by information seeker). Outcomes
would include the ability to use appropriate technologies to
create work products such as presentations, bibliographies,
Webliographies, interactive environments, etc., intermingled
with substantive content drawn from supporting literature
and potentially, other visual material.
ACRL Competency Standard 5: The information-literate
student understands many of the economic, legal and social issues
surrounding the use of information and accesses and uses information
ethically and legally.
Visual Literacy interpretation: For visual objects this is a
Standard of particular importance, since the rights frame
work for visual material, especially visual objects most often
used in teaching and research settings, is so complex and,
in many cases, not well articulated in legal documentation.
Indicators for Standard 5 would include an understanding
of intellectual copyrights as they apply to visual materials,
architectural works, limitations on use of images in derivative
works, economics of licensed use, understanding of creator
rights organizations, and international differences in use of
Volume 27, Number 2 ? 2008 ? Art Documentation 29
 images. Expected user outcomes would include demonstra
tion of appropriate use of conventions for citation, authorized
use of images and observance of terms and conditions of use
for works used in their work products, and an understanding
and compliance with the economics/fees associated with use
of images for educational as opposed to commercial purposes.
When the outcome is itself a derivative work, these same indi
cators would also be relevant with the addition of an under
standing of the rights of creators to their creative intellectual
property and the legal framework that governs these as well.
4. Practical Applications of Visual Literacy as It Relates to Teaching Methodologies
(conversation theory; constructive theory)
Learning evolves from the concrete to the abstract; visual
hierarchy begins with understanding and moves to an end goal
of critical literacy skills. Therefore, teaching visual thinking
needs to begin with practical exercises that encourage learners
to participate in the learning process. It allows the learner to
directly address a concrete problem and apply critical thinking
skills to arrive at the answer. The idea is to prompt learners to
be able to generalize and apply these skills across a broad range
of visual encounters, ranging from a politician's Web site to an
advertisement to a work of photojournalism. Several approaches
make it possible for learners to discover the multiple meanings
in images on their own.
Constructivist theory and active learning methods are
often discussed in the K-12 learner context. However, it has
been applied and well documented as an approach in museum
education for all learners, and can be effectively applied in
higher education as well. In all settings, direct student engage
ment in the process of learning is emphasized as a fundamental
element for the acquisition of knowledge and the construction of
meaning. That is,
The learning of complex subject matter is most effective
when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning
from information and experience
Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulating,
and assume personal responsibility for contributing to their
own learning.15
The ACRL Information Literacy Competency Standards for
Higher Education give librarians a framework for teaching goals,
and together with constructivist/active learning strategies,
present a workable pedagogical approach for delivering library
instruction to visual arts students. In addition, introducing arti
factual evidence (the art object or its surrogate image) brings an
immediacy and relevance to the research process that is some
what obscured by more traditional approaches to instruction
such as the narrative lecture or demonstration sessions.
This connection of an object and a topic with the promotion
of an activity having a purpose is the first and last word of a
genuine theory of interest in education.16
A library-facilitated visual literacy experience would engage
learners directly in a conversation about an image, drawing out
initial reactions. Then, through a series of collective observations,
questions, and responses, users begin to form an area of interest
and a spark of inquiry that the librarian can use to guide further
visual exploration in an attempt to eventually bridge to the textual
30 Art Documentation ? Volume 27, Number 2 ? 2008
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resource arena. An important aspect of constructivist approach
is its inherently non-linear structure resulting from inquiry that
is directed by the learner, not the facilitator. The learners' prior
knowledge forms the basis for the discovery process which
grows from their frame of visual references. Learners enter the
discovery conversation equipped with their own skills of obser
vation and life experiences and from there push their limits
beyond their known boundaries. Another important aspect of
constructivist learning is the concept of "authenticity"?that
is, the learning experience is tied to a real-life (and therefore
authentic) purpose. In a higher-education setting, the explora
tion of an image is often tied to a curricular requirement, but
transference of skills learned through this process would instill
competencies that would support visual understanding in any
experience. An ideal description of the process is provided for
the classroom setting in Constructivist Model for Learning:
The constructivist classroom presents the learner with
opportunities to build on prior knowledge and understanding
to construct new knowledge and understanding from
authentic experience. Students are allowed to confront
problems full of meaning because of their real-life context.
In solving these problems, students are encouraged to
explore possibilities, invent alternative solutions, collaborate
with other students (or external experts), try out ideas and
hypotheses, revise their thinking, and finally present the
best solution they can derive.17
Conclusion
As art information professionals, we are in a unique position
to educate our users about a vital and necessary skill set, visual
literacy, relating to the current age in which we live. We have the
background and understanding of visual rubrics as they relate
to the fields of art and art history and, as we have outlined here,
these rubrics can be expanded to other fields and disciplines. The
confluence of our skills, Web 2.0 technologies, and most impor
tantly, a desire on the part of our learners to be active participants
in their own learning process, creates an environment where it
is possible to imagine "the visual" catching and even eclipsing
the textual in the area of information literacy. As Daniel Pink
notes, "We've progressed from a society of farmers to a society
of factory workers to a society of knowledge workers. And now
we're progressing yet again?to a society of creators and empa
thizers, pattern makers, and meaning makers."18 As never before,
art information professionals are equipped to address a skill set
that is increasingly relevant not only to the educational context
but to a larger social, political, and economic context as well.
Notes
1. Louis Masur, "Pictures Have Now Become a Necessity:
The Use of Images in American History Textbooks," The Journal
of American History 84, No. 4 (March 1998): 1,410.
2. Daniel Pink, A Whole New Mind: Moving from the
Information Age to the Conceptual Age (New York: Riverhead
Books, 2005).
3. Tim O'Reilly, "What Is Web 2.0: Design Patterns and
Business Models for the Next Generation of Software," http://
www.oreillynet.com/pub/a/oreilly/tim/news/2005/09/30/
what-is-web-20.html (accessed May 28, 2008).
 4. Jonathan Swartz, Jonathan's Blog, Monday April 4,2005,
http://blogs.sun.com/jonathan/date/20050404 (accessed
January 21,2008).
5. Daniel Pink, "Revenge of the Right Brain," Wired
13, no. 2 (February 2005), http: / /www.wired.com/wired/
archive/13.02/brain.html (accessed January 29,2008).
6. Swartz, Jonathan's Blog.
7. John Debes, "What is Visual Literacy? International
Visual Literacy Association," http: / /www.ivla.org/org_what_
visjithtm 1969 (accessed March 15,2008).
8. Association of College and Research Libraries,
Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education
(Chicago: American Library Association, 2000), http://www.
ala.org/ala/acrl/acrlstandards/standards.pdf (accessed May
28,2008).
9. David Macleod, Carnegie Libraries in Wisconsin (New
York: Arno Press, 1968), 17.
10. Richard Sinatra, Visual Literacy Connections to Thinking,
Reading and Writing (Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1986).
11. Raymond Matt, "More Photos in Flickr," Library of
Congress Blog, http://www.loc.gov/blog/?p=268 (accessed
May 10,2008).
12. James Elkins, Visual Studies: A Skeptical Introduction
(New York: Routledge, 2003), chapter 4.
13. "The New Media Consortium and the EDUCAUSE
Learning Initiative," The Horizon Report (Austin, TX: New
Media Consortium, 2008), 5-6, http://www.nmc.org/
pdf/2008-Horizon-Report.pdf (accessed May 12,2008).
14. Susan Metros and Kristina Woolsey, "Visual Literacy:
An Institutional Imperative," Educause Review 41, no. 3 (May/
June 2006): 6.
15. Learner-Centered Psychological Principles: A Framework
for School Reform & Redesign, Learner-Centered Principles
Work Group, Board of Educational Affairs (BEA) American
Psychological Association (November 1997), http:/ /www.apa.
org/ed/lcp2/lcptext.html (accessed July 29,2008).
16. John Dewey, Democracy and Education (New York:
MacMillan, 1916), 158.
17. Constructivist Model for Learning, North Central Regional
Educational Laboratory. Learning Point Associates (2004),
http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/content/cntareas/
science/ sc5model.htm (accessed May 29,2008).
18. Daniel Pink, "Revenge of the Right Brain," Wired
13, no. 2 (February 2005), http: / /www.wired.com/wired/
archive/ 13.02/brain.html (accessed January 29,2008).
Barbara Rockenbach,
Director of Undergraduate & Library Research Education,
Yale University Library, New Haven,
barbara, rockenbach@yale.edu
Carole Ann Fabian,
Director of Planning,
Outreach and Communications,
ARTstor Digital Library, New York,
Caroleann.fabian@artstor.org

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