5G 3GPP-like Channel Models for Outdoor Urban

Microcellular and Macrocellular Environments

Katsuyuki Hanedaa , Jianhua Zhangb , Lei Tianb , Guangyi Liuc , Yi Zhengc , Henrik Asplundd , Jian Lie , Yi Wange ,
David Steere , Clara Lif , Tommaso Balerciaf , Sunguk Leeg , YoungSeok Kimg , Amitava Ghoshh , Timothy Thomash ,
Takehiro Nakamurai , Yuichi Kakishimai , Tetsuro Imaii , Haralabos Papadopoulasi , Theodore S. Rappaportj ,
George R. MacCartney Jr.j , Mathew K. Samimij , Shu Sunj , Ozge Koymenk , Sooyoung Hurl , Jeongho Parkl ,
Charlie Zhangl , Evangelos Melliosm , Andreas F. Molischn , Saeed S. Ghassemzadeho , and Arun Ghosho
a
Aalto University, b BUPT, c CMCC, d Ericsson, e Huawei, f Intel, g KT Corporation, h Nokia, i NTT DOCOMO,
j
NYU WIRELESS, k Qualcomm, l Samsung, m University of Bristol, n University of Southern California, o AT&T

Abstract—For the development of new 5G systems to operate in
bands up to 100 GHz, there is a need for accurate radio propagation
models at these bands that currently are not addressed by existing
channel models developed for bands below 6 GHz. This document
presents a preliminary overview of 5G channel models for bands
up to 100 GHz. These have been derived based on extensive mea-
surement and ray tracing results across a multitude of frequencies
from 6 GHz to 100 GHz, and this document describes an initial
3D channel model which includes: 1) typical deployment scenarios
for urban microcells (UMi) and urban macrocells (UMa), and 2) a
baseline model for incorporating path loss, shadow fading, line of
sight probability, penetration and blockage models for the typical
scenarios. Various processing methodologies such as clustering and
antenna decoupling algorithms are also presented.
Index Terms—5G channel model; UMi; UMa; outdoor; millimeter-
wave; penetration; reflection; blockage; clustering.
I. I NTRODUCTION
Next generation 5G cellular systems will encompass frequen-
cies from around 500 MHz up to 100 GHz. For the development
of the new 5G systems to operate in bands above 6 GHz, there
is a need for accurate radio propagation models for these higher
frequencies that have yet to be addressed. Previous generations
of channel models were designed and evaluated for operation at
frequencies only as high as 6 GHz.
One important example is the recently developed 3D-urban
micro (UMi) and 3D-urban macro (UMa) channel models for
LTE [1]. This paper is a summary of key results provided in a
much more detailed white paper by the authors, that can be found
at the link in [2]. The 3GPP 3D channel model provides additional
flexibility for the elevation dimension, thereby allowing modeling
for two dimensional antenna systems, such as those that are
expected in next generation system deployments. Future system
design will require new channel models that will be validated for
operation at higher frequencies (e.g., up to 100 GHz) and that will
allow accurate performance evaluation of possible future technical
specifications for these bands over a representative set of possible
environments and scenarios of interest. These new models should
be consistent with the models below 6 GHz. In some cases,
the requirements may call for deviations from the modelling
parameters or methodology of the existing 3GPP models, but
these deviations should be kept to a bare minimum and only
introduced when necessary for supporting the 5G simulation use
cases.
There are many existing and ongoing campaign efforts world-
wide targeting 5G channel measurements and modeling. They
978-1-5090-1698-3/16/$31.00 ©2016 IEEE
include METIS2020 [3], COST2100/COST [4], IC1004 [5], ETSI
mmWave [6], NIST 5G mmWave Channel Model Alliance [7],
MiWEBA [8], mmMagic [9], and NYU WIRELESS [10]–[13].
METIS2020, for instance, has focused on 5G technologies and
has contributed extensive studies in terms of channel modelling
over a wide range of frequency bands (up to 86 GHz), very
large bandwidths (hundreds of MHz), and three dimensional po-
larization modelling, spherical wave modelling, and high spatial
resolution. The METIS channel models consist of a map-based
model, stochastic model, and a hybrid model which can meet
requirements of flexibility and scalability. The COST2100 channel
model is a geometry-based stochastic channel model (GSCM) that
can reproduce the stochastic properties of multiple-input/multiple
output (MIMO) channels over time, frequency, and space. On the
other hand, the NIST 5G mmWave Channel Model Alliance is
newly established to provide guidelines for measurement calibra-
tion and methodology, modeling methodology, as well as param-
eterization in various environments and a database for channel
measurement campaigns. NYU WIRELESS has conducted and
published extensive urban propagation measurements at 28, 38,
60, and 73 GHz for both outdoor and indoor channels, and has
created large-scale and small-scale channel models, including
the concepts of time cluster spatial lobes (TCSL) to model
multiple multipath time clusters that are seen to arrive in particular
directions [10], [11], [14]–[16]
In this document, we present a brief overview of the outdoor
channel properties for bands up to 100 GHz based on extensive
measurement and ray tracing results across a multitude of bands.
In addition we present a preliminary set of channel parameters
suitable for 5G simulations that are capable of capturing the main
properties and trends.
II. R EQUIREMENTS FOR N EW C HANNEL M ODEL
The requirements of the new channel model that will support
5G operation across frequency bands up to 100 GHz should
preferably be based on the existing 3GPP 3D channel model [1]
but with extensions to cater for additional 5G modeling require-
ments and scenarios, for example: a) antenna arrays, especially
at higher-frequency millimeter-wave bands, will very likely be
2D and dual-polarized both at the access point (AP) and the
user equipment (UE) and will hence need properly-modeled
azimuth and elevation angles of departure and arrival of multipath
components; b) individual antenna elements will have antenna
radiation patterns in azimuth and elevation and may require sep-
arate modeling for directional performance gains. Furthermore,
polarization properties of the multipath components need to be
accurately accounted for in the model.
Also, the new channel model must accommodate a wide fre-
quency range up to 100 GHz. The joint propagation characteristics
over different frequency bands will need to be evaluated for multi-
band operation, e.g., low-band and high-band carrier aggregation
configurations.
Furthermore, the new channel model must support large chan-
nel bandwidths (up to 2 GHz), where: a) the individual channel
bandwidths may be in the range of 100 MHz to 2 GHz and may
support a) carrier aggregation, and b) the operating channels may
be spread across an assigned range of several GHz.
The new channel model must also support a range of large
antenna arrays, in particular: a) some large antenna arrays will
have very high directivity with angular resolution of the channel
down to around 1.0◦ , b) 5G will consist of different array types,
e.g., linear, planar, cylindrical and spherical arrays, with arbitrary
polarization, c) the array manifold vector can change significantly
when the bandwidth is large relative to the carrier frequency. As
such, the wideband array manifold assumption is not valid and
new modeling techniques may be required. It may be preferable,
for example, to model arrival/departure angles with delays across
the array and follow a spherical wave front assumption instead
of the usual plane wave assumption.
Additionally, the new channel model must accommodate mobil-
ity, in particular: a) the channel model structure should be suitable
for mobility up to 350 km/hr, b) the channel model structure
should be suitable for small-scale mobility and rotation of both
ends of the link in order to support scenarios such as device to
device (D2D) or vehicle to vehicle (V2V).
Moreover, the new channel model must ensure spa-
tial/temporal/frequency consistency, in particular: a) the model
should provide spatial/temporal/frequency consistencies which
may be characterized, for example, via spatial consistence, inter-
site correlation, and correlation among frequency bands, b) the
model should also ensure that the channel states, such as line-
of-sight (LOS)/non-LOS (NLOS) for outdoor/indoor locations,
the second order statistics of the channel, and the channel
realizations, change smoothly as a function of time, antenna
position, and/or frequency in all propagation scenarios, c) the
spatial/temporal/frequency consistencies should be supported for
simulations where the channel consistency impacts the results
(e.g. massive MIMO, mobility and beam tracking, etc.). Such
support could possibly be optional for simpler studies.
When building on to existing 3GPP models, the new channel
model must be of practical computational complexity, in particu-
lar: a) the model should be suitable for implementation in single-
link simulation tools and in multi-cell, multi-link radio network
simulation tools. Computational complexity and memory require-
ments should not be excessive. The 3GPP 3D channel model [1]
is seen, for instance, as a sufficiently accurate model for its pur-
poses, with an acceptable level of complexity. Accuracy may be
provided by including additional modeling details with reasonable
complexity to support the greater channel bandwidths, and spatial
and temporal resolutions and spatial/temporal/frequency consis-
tency, required for millimeter-wave modeling. b) the introduction
of a new modeling methodology (e.g. map based model) may
significantly complicate the channel generation mechanism and
thus substantially increase the implementation complexity of the
system level simulator. Furthermore, if one applies a completely
different modeling methodology for frequencies above 6 GHz,
it would be difficult to have meaningful comparative system
evaluations for bands up to 100 GHz.
III. T YPICAL UM I AND UM A O UTDOOR S CENARIOS
A. UMi Channel Characteristics (TX Heights < 25 m)
Work by the authors show that LOS path loss in the bands
above 6 GHz appear to follow Friis’ free space path loss model
quite well. Just as in lower bands, a higher path loss slope
(or path loss exponent when using a 1 m close in reference
distance) is observed in NLOS conditions. The shadow fading in
the measurements appears to be similar to lower frequency bands,
while ray-tracing results show a much higher shadow fading (>
10 dB) than measurements, due to the larger dynamic range
allowed and much greater loss in some ray tracing experiments.
In NLOS conditions at frequencies below 6.0 GHz, the RMS
delay spread is typically modelled at around 50-500 ns, the RMS
azimuth angle spread of departure (from the AP) at around 10◦
to 30◦ , and the RMS azimuth angle spread of arrival (at the UE)
at around 50◦ to 80◦ [1]. There are measurements of the delay
spread above 6 GHz which indicate somewhat smaller ranges
as the frequency increases, and some measurements show the
millimeter wave omnidirectional channel to be highly directional
in nature.
B. UMa Channel Characteristics (TX Heights ≥ 25 m)
Similar to the UMi scenario, the LOS path loss behaves quite
similar to free space path loss, as expected. For the NLOS path
loss, the trends over frequency appear somewhat inconclusive
across a wide range of frequencies. The rate at which the loss
increases with frequency does not appear to be linear, as the
rate is higher in the lower part of the spectrum. This could
possibly be due to diffraction, which is frequency dependent,
being a more dominating propagation mechanism at the lower
frequencies. At higher frequencies reflections and scattering may
be more predominant [11].
Alternatively, the trends could be biased by the lower dynamic
range in the measurements at the higher frequencies. More
measurements are needed to understand the UMa channel. From
preliminary ray-tracing studies, the channel spreads in delay and
angle appear to be weakly dependent on the frequency and are
generally 2-3 times smaller than in [1]. The cross-polar scattering
in the ray-tracing results tends to increase (lower XPR) with
increasing frequency due to diffuse scattering.
IV. O UTDOOR -T O -I NDOOR P ENETRATION L OSS
In both the UMa and the UMi scenarios a significant portion
of UEs or devices are expected to be indoors. These indoor UEs
increase the strain on the link budget since additional losses are
associated with the penetration into buildings. The characteristics
of the building penetration loss and in particular its variation over
the higher frequency range is therefore of high interest and a
number of recent measurement campaigns have been targeting
the material losses and building penetration losses at higher
frequencies [17]–[19]. The current understanding, based on these
measurements is briefly summarized as follows.
Different materials commonly used in building construction
have very diverse penetration loss characteristics. Common glass
tends to be relatively transparent with a rather weak increase of
Fig. 1: Measured material penetration losses. Sources: [17], [18], and
measurements by Samsung and Nokia. Fig. 2: Effective building penetration loss measurements. The bars indi-
cate variability for a given building. Sources: [19] and measurements by
Qualcomm, NTT DOCOMO, and Ericsson. The solid curves represent
loss with higher frequency due to conductivity losses. Energy- two variants of the model described in [20], which is one out of several
efficient glass commonly used in modern buildings or when penetration loss models. A parabolic curve may also fit the data.
renovating older buildings is typically metal-coated for better
thermal insulation. This coating introduces additional losses that
can be as high as 40 dB even at lower frequencies. Materials
such as concrete or brick have losses that increase rapidly with
frequency. Fig. 1 summarizes some recent measurements of
material losses. The loss trends with frequency are linear to a
first order of approximation. Variations around the linear trend
can be understood from multiple reflections within the material or
between different layers which cause constructive or destructive
interference depending on the frequency and incidence angle.
Typical building facades are composed of several materials,
e.g. glass, concrete, metal, brick, wood, etc. Propagation of radio
waves into or out of a building will in most cases be a combination
of transmission paths through different materials, i.e. through
windows and through the facade between windows. The exception Fig. 3: Example of dynamic blockage from a measurement snapshot at
could be when very narrow beams are used which only illuminates 28 GHz.
a single material or when the indoor node is very close to the
external wall. Thus, the effective penetration loss can behave a
bit differently than the single material loss. A number of recent to increase by up to 15-20 dB. Propagation deeper into the
measurements of the effective penetration loss are summarized building will also be associated with an additional loss due to
in Fig. 2. As indicated by the bars available for some of the internal walls, furniture etc. This additional loss appears to be
measurements, there can be quite some variation even in a single rather weakly frequency dependent but rather strongly dependent
building. For comparison, two models that attempt to capture the on the interior composition of the building. Observed losses over
loss characteristics of buildings consisting of multiple materials the 2-60 GHz range from 0.2-2 dB/m
are shown. The loss characteristics of each specific material
follows the results shown in Fig. 2 quite well which indicates V. B LOCKAGE C ONSIDERATIONS
that the results in the material loss measurements and the effective As the radio frequency increases, its propagation behaves
penetration loss measurements are actually fairly consistent even more like optical propagation and may become blocked by
though the loss values behave differently. A parabolic model for intervening objects. Typically, two categories of blockage are
building penetration loss (BPL) that fits Fig. 2 is: considered: dynamic blockage and geometry-induced blockage.
BPL[dB] = 10 log10 (A + B · f 2 ), (1) Dynamic blockage is caused by the moving objects (i.e., cars,
people) in the communication environment. The effect is transient
where f is frequency in GHz, A = 5, and B = 0.03 for low loss additional loss on the paths that intercept the moving object.
buildings and A = 10 and B = 5 for high loss buildings. Fig. 3 shows such an example from 28 GHz measurement done by
The majority of the results presented so far have been waves Fraunhofer HHI in Berlin. In these experiments, time continuous
with perpendicular incidence to the external wall. As the inci- measurements were made with the transmitter and receiver on
dence angles become more grazing the losses have been observed each side of the road that had on-off traffic controlled by a traffic
Fig. 4: Example of diffraction-dominated and reflection-dominated
regions (idealized scenario).

light. Note that the time periods when the traffic light is red is Fig. 5: UMa LOS probability for the three models considered.
clearly seen in the figure as periods with little variation as the
vehicles are static at that time. When the traffic light is green, TABLE I: Comparison of the LOS probability models for the UMa
the blocking vehicles move through the transmission path at a environment
rapid pace as is seen in the figure. The variations seen when the
light is red are explained by vehicles turning the corner to pass d1 (m) d2 (m) MSE
between the transmitter and receiver. Geometry-induced blockage, 3GPP UMa 18 63 0.020
on the other hand, is a static property of the environment. It is d1 /d2 model 20 66 0.017
caused by objects in the map environment that block the signal NYU (squared) 20 160 0.015
paths. The propagation channels in geometry-induced blockage
locations are dominated by diffraction and sometimes by diffuse
scattering. The effect is an exceptional additional loss beyond
the normal path loss and shadow fading. Fig. 4 illustrates ex- An investigation into the LOS probability for the UMa envi-
amples of diffraction-dominated and reflection-dominated regions ronment was conducted using all of the UMa measured and ray
in an idealized scenario. As compared to shadow fading caused tracing data. In addition to comparing the two models considered
by reflections, diffraction-dominated shadow fading could have above with optimized d1 and d2 values, the data was also
different statistics (e.g., different mean, variance and coherence compared to the current 3GPP UMa LOS probability model (2)
distance). for a UE height of 1.5 m with d1 = 18 and d2 = 63. A summary of
the results is given in Table I and the three models are compared
VI. PATH L OSS , S HADOW FADING , LOS AND B LOCKAGE to the data in Fig. 5. In terms of mean squared error (MSE)
M ODELING between the LOS probability from the data and the models, the
The LoS state is determined by a map-based approach, i.e., NYU (squared) model had the lowest MSE, but the difference was
by considering the transmitter (AP) and receiver (UE) positions small. Given that the current 3GPP UMa model was a reasonable
and whether any buildings or walls are blocking the direct path match to the data and included support for 3D placement of UEs,
between the AP and the UE. The impact of objects not represented it is recommended that the current 3GPP LOS probability model
in the map such as trees, cars, furniture, etc. is modelled sepa- for UMa be used for frequencies above 6.0 GHz. The 3GPP UMa
rately using shadowing/blocking terms. An attractive feature of model specifically is [1]:
this LoS definition is that it is frequency independent, as only  
18
  
−d/63 −d/63
buildings and walls are considered in the definition. The first p(d) = min , 1 (1 − e )+e 1+C(d, hU T )
d
LOS probability model considered, the d1 /d2 model, is the current (4)
3GPP/ITU model [1], [21]: where hU T is the height of the UE in m and:
 
d1 (
p(d) = min , 1 (1 − e−d/d2 ) + e−d/d2 (2) 0, hU T < 13 m
d C(d, hU T ) = hU T −13 1.5

(5)
10 g(d), 13 ≤ hU T ≤ 23 m
where d is the 2D distance in meters and d1 and d2 can both be
(
optimized to fit a set of data (or scenario parameters). The next (1.25e−6 )d2 exp(−d/150), d > 18 m
LOS probability model considered, the NYU (squared) model, is g(d) = (6)
0, otherwise
a LOS probability model developed by NYU in [14]:
   2 Note that for indoor users d is replaced by the 2D distance to the
d1 −d/d2 −d/d2
p(d) = min , 1 (1 − e )+e , (3) outer wall.
d
For the UMi scenario, it was found that the 3GPP LOS
where again d1 and d2 can be optimized to fit a given set of data probability formula [1] is sufficient for frequencies above 6
(or scenario parameters). GHz. The fitted d1 = d2 model in (2) provides a better fitted
 expected to recommend just one path loss model (per scenario
and LOS/NLOS) but that the choice is still open for discussion
in 3GPP RAN. Table III shows the parameters of the CI and ABG
path loss models for different environments for omnidirectional
antennas (the CIF model is not used for outdoor modeling as
the measurements did not yield a large frequency dependence as
observed for indoor measurements [13]). It may be noted that
the models presented here are multi-frequency models, and the
parameters are invariant to carrier frequency and can be applied
across the 0.5-100 GHz band.
The CI PL model is given as [12], [13]
 
d
PLCI (f, d)[dB] = FSPL(f, 1 m)+10n log10 +XσCI (7)
1m
where f is the frequency in Hz, n is the PLE, d is the distance
in meters, XσCI is the shadow fading (SF) with σ in dB, and the
free space path loss (FSPL) at 1 m, with frequency f is given as:
 
4πf
FSPL(f, 1 m) = 20 log10 , (8)
Fig. 6: UMi LOS probability for the three models considered. c
where c is the speed of light.
TABLE II: Comparison of the LOS probability models for the UMi
The ABG PL model [13], [25], [27], [28] is given as:
environment
PLABG (f, d)[dB] = 10α log10 (d) + β
d1 (m) d2 (m) MSE (9)
+10γ log10 (f ) + XσABG
3GPP UMa 18 36 0.023
where α captures how the PL increase as the transmit-receive
d1 /d2 model 20 39 0.001
distance (in meters) increases, β is a floating offset value in dB,
NYU (squared) 22 100 0.026 γ attempts to capture the PL variation over the frequency f in
GHz, and XσABG is the SF term with standard deviation in dB.
The CIF PL model is an extension of the CI model [13], and
model, however, the errors between the data and the 3GPP LoS uses a frequency-dependent path loss exponent given by:
probability model over all distances are small. That formula is
PLCIF (f, d)[dB] = FSPL(f, 1 m)+
the same as in (2) with d1 = 18 m and d2 = 36 m with d being !
(10)
  
replaced by the 2D distance to the outer wall for indoor users. f − f0 d
10n 1 + b log10 + XσCIF
Note that the 3GPP UMi LOS probability model is not a function f0 1m
of UE height like the UMa LOS probability model (see Table II).
where n denotes the path loss exponent (PLE), and b is an
A. Path Loss Models optimization parameter that captures the slope, or linear frequency
Three multi-frequency PL models are considered here; namely dependency of the path loss exponent that balances at the centroid
the close-in (CI) free space reference distance PL model [12], of the frequencies being modeled (e.g., path loss increases as f
[21]–[23], the close-in free space reference distance model with increases when b is positive). The term f0 is a fixed reference
frequency-dependent path loss exponent (CIF) [13], and the frequency, the centroid of all frequencies represented by the path
Alpha-Beta-Gamma (ABG) PL model [13], [24]–[26]. These loss model [13], found as the weighed sum of measurements from
models are now described and applied to various scenarios. different frequencies, using the following equation:
The path loss models currently used in the 3GPP 3D model PK
fk NK
is of the ABG model form but without a frequency dependent f0 = Pk=1 K
(11)
parameter (AB model) and additional dependencies on base k=1 NK
station or terminal height, and with a LOS breakpoint. 3GPP is where K is the number of unique frequencies, and Nk is
the number of path loss data points corresponding to the k th
TABLE III: Comparison of the LOS probability models for the UMi frequency fk . The input parameter f0 represents the weighted
environment. S.C. stands for Street Canyon and O.S. stands for Open frequencies of all measurement (or Ray-tracing) data applied to
Square. the model. The CIF model reverts to the CI model when b = 0
for multiple frequencies, or when a single frequency f = f0 is
Scenario CI Model Parameters ABG Model Parameters
modelled. In the CI PL model, only a single parameter, the path
UMa-LOS n = 2.0, SF = 4.1 dB N/A
loss exponent (PLE), needs to be determined through optimization
UMa-NLOS n = 3.0, SF = 6.8 dB α = 3.4, β = 19.2 γ = 2.3, SF = 6.5 dB
to minimize the SF standard deviation over the measured PL data
UMi-S.C.-LOS n = 1.98, SF = 3.1 dB N/A
UMi-S.C.-NLOS n = 3.19, SF = 8.2 dB α = 3.48, β = 21.02 γ = 2.34, SF = 7.8 dB
set [12], [22], [27]. In the CI PL model there is an anchor point
UMi-O.S.-LOS n = 1.85, SF = 4.2 dB N/A
that ties path loss to the FSPL at 1 m, which captures frequency-
UMi-O.S.-NLOS n = 2.89, SF = 7.1 dB α = 4.14, β = 3.66 γ = 2.43, SF = 7.0 dB dependency of the path loss, and establishes a uniform standard to
which all measurements and model parameters may be referred.
In the CIF model there are 2 optimization parameters (n and b),
and since it is an extension of the CI model, it also uses a 1
m free-space close-in reference distance path loss anchor. In the
ABG PL model there are three optimization parameters which
need to be optimized to minimize the standard deviation (SF)
over the data set [13], [27], [28]. Closed form expressions for
optimization of the model parameters for the CI, CIF, and ABG
path loss models are given in [13], where it was shown that indoor
channels experience an increase in the PLE value as the frequency
increases, whereas the PLE is not very frequency dependent in
outdoor UMa or UMi scenarios (b very close to 0 for CIF) [12],
[22], [27], [28]. The CI, CIF, and ABG models, as well as cross-
polarization forms and closed-form expressions for optimization
are given for indoor channels in [13]. Table III shows the model
parameters and shadow factor (standard deviation) from pooled
data across several frequency bands from measurements and ray
tracing by the authors, as detailed in [2].
B. Fast Fading Model
1) UMi: In the double-directional channel model, the multi-
path components are described by the delays and the directions of
departure and the direction of arrival. Each multipath component
is scaled with a complex amplitude gain. Then the double direc-
tional channel impulse response is composed of the sum of the
generated double-directional multipath components. The double-
directional channel model provides a complete omnidirectional
statistical spatial channel model (SSCM) for both LOS and NLOS
scenarios in the UMi environment. These results are currently
analyzed based on the ray-tracing results, which is compared with
the measurement campaign done in the same urban area. The final
results will be derived from both the measurement and ray-tracing
results. For fast-fading modeling, the ray-tracing based method is
useful to extend the sparse empirical datasets and to analyze the
channel characteristics in both outdoor and indoor environments.
After the clustering, the results from the ray-tracing simulations
are analyzed in the spatio-temporal domain, for cluster parameters
such as delays, angles at the TX and RX side, and the received
powers. Based on the observed clusters in each link, large-scale
parameters such as number of clusters and intra-cluster delay
spreads and angle spreads are analyzed using the framework
in [21], and all parameters are extracted by following the method-
ologies in [29].
2) UMa: Similar to UMi, preliminary UMa large-scale fad-
ing parameters in UMa environments were determined using a
ray tracing study performed in Aalborg, Denmark as shown in
Fig. 7. This environment was chosen as there were real world
measurements also made in the same area [30]. Specifically there
was one AP used in the study which had a height of 25 m. The UE
height was 1.5 m and isotropic antennas were employed at both
the AP and UE. Note that no other objects, such as vehicles, trees,
light poles, and signs, were included in this ray tracing study but
would be present when measurements were taken. The maximum
number of rays in the simulation was 20, no transmissions through
buildings were allowed, the maximum number of reflections was
four, the maximum number of diffractions was one for frequencies
above 10 GHz and was two for frequencies of 10 GHz and below.
Six frequencies were considered in this study, i.e., 5.6, 10, 18,
28, 39.3, and 73.5 GHz.
The delay and azimuth angle spreads were found to decrease in
frequency. The large-scale parameter that seemed most affected
Fig. 7: Aalborg, Denmark environment used for ray-tracing study. The
AP (TX) location was at the site indicated and UEs were placed
outdoors in the streets and open areas.
by carrier frequency was the cross-polarization discrimination
ratio (XPR), which varied from 13.87 to 7.89 dB when going
from 5.6 GHz to 73.5 GHz. The drop in the ray tracing results as
frequency increases was primarily attributed to diffuse scattering,
as the smaller wavelength of the higher frequency saw an increase
in diffuse scattering relative to the lower frequencies, which tends
to depolarize the rays. It should be noted that at this point the
increasing trend of depolarization at the higher frequencies needs
to be verified through measurements.
Finally, an investigation into the clustering of the rays in this
ray-tracing study was performed. To determine clusters, the K-
Means algorithm [31] was employed with p = 0.98 and s = 0.95 in
the shape pruning algorithm. Since this version of the K-Means
algorithm has a random starting point (i.e., the first step is a
random choosing of the starting centroid positions), the K-Means
algorithm was ran 50 times with different random starting points
and the cluster set kept at the end was the one which produced the
minimum number of clusters. The results showed that the average
number of clusters and the average number of rays per cluster
were both fairly consistent across the different carrier frequencies.
However, the cluster delay and azimuth angle spreads generally
tended to decrease with increasing frequency. In interpreting these
results, especially the average number of rays per cluster, it should
be noted that the number of modelled rays was limited to 20 in
the simulations. More recent 3GPP-like model statistics without
such a limitation appear in [16].
VII. C ONCLUSION
The basis for this paper is the open literature in combina-
tion with recent and ongoing propagation channel measurements
performed by a majority of the co-authors of this paper, some
of which are as yet unpublished. The preceding tables and
figures give an overview of these recent measurement activities in
different frequency bands and scenarios. The preliminary findings
presented in this paper and on-going efforts provide promising
channel models that can extend today’s 3GPP channel models
that have been designed for below 6 GHz.
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