Pre-sleep Cognitive Influence of Night-time Social Media Use and Social

Comparison Behaviour in Young Women

Heather Cleland Woodsa, PhD and Shannon McNeea

Affiliation: aUniversity of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK

Address correspondence to: Shannon McNee, School of Psychology, University

of Glasgow, 62 Hillhead Street, Glasgow, G12 8QB, UK
[2076469m@student.gla.ac.uk]
Abstract

Night-time social media use in young people has received significant attention from the
international media, governments, and policymakers due to its published associations with
increased depression, anxiety, and sleep problems. However - as not all young people
engage with social media in the same way - there are calls for a shift of research focus away
from suggested negative impacts of social media use and towards nuanced understanding
of social media engagement style. As a result, individual differences in social media
engagement must be appreciated when considering the relationship between social media
use and wellbeing. The current study presents pilot data which highlights an association
between social comparison orientation, night-time social media use, mental wellbeing, and
sleep in female users of Facebook and Instagram (N = 60). Social comparison orientation,
rumination tendency, sleep health, and night-time social media use were examined using
online questionnaire measures. Social comparison orientation was found to be positively
associated with night-time social media use and rumination tendency. In addition,
rumination was highlighted as a significant mediator of the relationship between social
comparison behaviour and poor sleep – suggesting that the behaviours we engage in online
may influence sleep through a cognitive pathway. Our findings contribute to a growing body
of research which demonstrates how the nature of social media interactions can impact
wellbeing with implications for the design of integrated social media literacy and sleep
interventions.

Key words: Social media, Social Comparison, Rumination, Sleep

Introduction

Social media sites are a central part of life for young people, with 90% reporting to use

social media both day and night1. Night-time social media use, in particular, has been
associated with increased anxiety, increased depression, increased sleep onset latency, and
reduced sleep quality2,3. These findings have resulted in international media coverage, a UK
parliamentary inquiry, and increasing parental anxiety. Yet, previous work has also
associated social media use with increased feelings of social connectedness4 and reduced
depression5. Furthermore, specification curve analysis of large-scale social datasets
demonstrates that digital screen-time accounts for just 0.4% of variance in wellbeing in
young people6. Therefore, looking purely at the quantity and timing of use is arguably
insufficient to understand the relationship between social media use and wellbeing.

Recent qualitative work highlights that not all young people use social media in the same
way - with some adolescents reporting greater difficulties in disengaging from social media
after lights out than others7. In addition, social media use has been argued to be a “see-
saw” of positive and negative experiences which are dependent on individual and
contextual factors8. As a result, appreciating individual differences in social media
behaviours – within the context of night-time social media use - is imperative to improving
our understanding of the positive and negative influences of night-time social media use
upon mental wellbeing and sleep.

One way in which young people may differ in their social media behaviour is their tendency
to engage in social media based social comparisons. Social comparison theory9 argues that
individuals are driven to evaluate their progress and standing on various aspects of their
lives against similar peers. Importantly, regularly engaging in upward comparison behaviour
– comparing oneself to those viewed as superior - has previously been associated with low
self-esteem, increased negative affect and increased self-uncertainty10,11. Social media sites
are argued to provide an ideal context for these negative social comparisons as these
platforms allow users to have full control over their self-presentation by selectively sharing
content which presents themselves - and their lifestyle - in line with their ideal self-view12.
In addition, users can edit their content to appear more desirable and attractive (e.g.
through the use of Instagram filters). Therefore, browsing carefully curated content on
social media sites may give the impression that others are more attractive and leading a
more fulfilling life than oneself 13.

Previous research demonstrates that individual differences in social comparison orientation

are associated with differential processing of social media information, with individuals who
frequently engage in online social comparisons reporting greater levels of negative affect 10,
lower appearance satisfaction14, as well as increased depressive symptoms and ruminative
thoughts15,16. Importantly, rumination has been highlighted as a significant mediator
between social comparison behaviour on social media and later depressive symptoms15.

Ruminative thought may also be key to understanding how engaging in social comparison
behaviour may impact sleep. Previous research highlights that rumination is a significant
mediator of the relationship between depression and sleep quality17. Furthermore, nightly
variations in rumination significantly correlate with actigraphy and self-report measures of
sleep onset latency18. As a result, rumination may impact sleep by increasing pre-sleep
cognitive arousal19. In addition, affective experiences which occur during the day (e.g.
feelings of shame and embarrassment) have been shown to predict shorter sleep hours,
longer sleep onset latency and lower sleep efficiency in adolescents20. Furthermore, social
media stress – ruminating about social media interactions – has been found to be positively
associated with sleep onset latency and daytime sleepiness21. Therefore, it could be argued
that comparing oneself to others on social media may be associated with negative social
evaluative emotions which in turn impair sleep.

The timing of social media use is also important to consider as previous evidence suggests
that behaviours around bedtime are of greater importance in explaining poor sleep than
behaviours throughout the day22. Importantly, night-time social media use has previously
been argued to impact both mental wellbeing and sleep quality. Using social media after
intending to go to sleep has previously been positively associated with anxiety and
depression – which are related to ruminative thought23 – as well as increased sleep onset
latency and reduced sleep quality2. Therefore, sleep may be impacted through both a
cognitive (e.g. rumination about social comparison behaviour) and behavioural (e.g.
delaying sleep by using social media at night) pathway.

Current Study

We present data which highlights associations between night-time social media use, social
comparison orientation, rumination and sleep health in young women. It is important to
stress that the correlational findings we report here are part of a larger, two-part
investigation which assessed the involvement of female users of Facebook and Instagram in
the social media based #fitspiration phenomenon24. In this investigation, female participants
aged 17-26 completed a lab-based modified Posner paradigm to assess attentional bias
towards fitspiration content and completed four questionnaire measures relating to social
comparison orientation, rumination tendency, sleep health, and night-time social media
use. The findings of our objective measure were non-significant which upon reflection may
be due to the unsuitability of the attentional bias methodology. As a result, we will discuss
the findings from the second part of our investigation which provide a tentative - yet
positive - step in furthering our understanding of the nuances of social media use and its
relationship with mental wellbeing and sleep.

The current study aimed to assess how both the nature of engagement (e.g. social
comparison behaviour) and timing (e.g. use of social media after intending to go to sleep)
influence mental wellbeing and sleep quality by examining the following hypotheses:

H1. Social comparison orientation will be positively associated with rumination

tendency

H2. Social comparison orientation will be indirectly associated with sleep quality,
mediated by rumination tendency

H3. Night-time social media use will be positively associated with rumination

H4. Night-time social media use will be negatively associated with sleep quality

Methods

Participants

60 Women aged 17-26 years (Mean Age = 20.19 years, SD = ± 1.49 years), who were users of
both Facebook and Instagram and had no diagnosed sleep conditions, were recruited. The
study was advertised on the University of Glasgow’s School of Psychology Subject Pool and
through Facebook, Instagram and Twitter. Ethical approval was received from the University
of Glasgow College of Science and Engineering.

Procedure

After reading an information form and providing informed consent, all participants
completed four separate questionnaire measures relating to social comparison orientation,
rumination, sleep quality and timing of social media use which were hosted on the online
survey platform, SurveyMonkey (www.surveymonkey.com).

Questionnaire Measures

Social Comparison Orientation

In order to determine whether participants regularly compare themselves to others, the

Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Scale (INCOM)25 was used. The INCOM contains
11 core items scored on a 5-point scale (1 = I disagree strongly, 5 = I agree strongly). A
higher sum score on the INCOM, out of a possible 55, is argued to reflect more frequent
social comparison behaviour. The INCOM has previously shown strong internal consistency
at .8325. In the present study, 8 items of the INCOM which directly relate to the individual’s
comparison of themselves – rather than comparing friends and loved ones - to others were
included.

Rumination Tendency

To assess rumination, the Perseverative Thinking Questionnaire (PTQ)26 was used. The
questionnaire contains three subscales: repetitiveness, intrusiveness, and difficulties to
disengage. The questionnaire contains 15 items which are scored on a 5-point scale (0 =
never, 4 = almost always). A higher sum score on the PTQ, out of a possible 60, is argued to
represent greater levels of rumination. The English translation of the PTQ shows high
internal consistency at .95 and all PTQ scales show significant correlations with existing
measures including the Response Style Questionnaire and Penn State Worry
Questionnaire26.

Sleep Quality

To measure sleep quality, the Sleep Condition Indicator (SCI)27 was used. The SCI is an 8 item
questionnaire which is scored on a 5-point scale. The SCI contains two quantitative items on
sleep continuity, two qualitative items on sleep satisfaction/dissatisfaction, two quantitative
items on sleep disruption severity and two qualitative items related to the daytime
consequences of poor sleep. Higher sum scores, out of a possible 32, are indicative of better
sleep on this measure. The SCI has measurement properties consistent with related
measures such as the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index and Insomnia Severity Index and also
presents strong internal consistency at 0.8627.

Timing of Social Media Use

As previous research has argued that activities around bedtime are more influential upon
sleep quality, night-time social media use was assessed in this investigation. The SM22 was
used to assess levels of night-time specific social media use which allows for an investigation
of the effects of pre-sleep arousal upon sleep quality. This scale consists of 7 questions
related to the frequency of social media use shortly before bed, use of social media in bed
whilst intending to go to sleep, the duration of social media use after lights out, perceived
sleep delays due to social media and the frequency and duration of sleep disruptions as a
result of social media alerts. Higher sum scores on this scale, out of a possible 31, highlight
higher levels of social media use at night-time. This scale also shows strong reliability with a
Cronbach’s alpha of 0.782.

Results

Mean scores, standard deviations and range of scores for each questionnaire measure are
presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Means and Standard Deviations of Questionnaire Measures

Variable Mean (Standard Deviation) Range

Social Comparison 31.53 (4.18) 21-40
Orientation (INCOM)
Rumination Tendency 31.47 (11.75) 5-59
(PTQ)
Sleep Quality (SCI) 19.78 (7.34) 4-32
Night-Time Social 18.85 (4.64) 6-31
Media Use (SM2)

Our sample’s level of engagement in social comparison behaviour15 and ruminative

thought28 is in line with previous investigations examining similar populations. However,
our sample demonstrated slightly poorer sleep quality29 and higher night-time social media
use2.

Correlations between study variables, using Pearson’s correlation, are presented in Table 2.
The reported significance levels are based on one-sided tests of significance as direction of
effect was specified in our hypotheses, except for the correlation between night-time social
media use and social comparison orientation which was not hypothesised and therefore is
based on a two-sided test of significance.
Figure 1. Correlations between study variables

l p
ua o m
Q
t SM l C
in
e ep igh c ia m
Sl N So R u
1

0.8
Sleep Qual 1 −0.32 −0.14 −0.56
0.6
* **
0.4
Night SM 1 0.3 0.32 0.2

* * 0

−0.2
Social Comp 1 0.52
−0.4
**
−0.6
Rumin 1
* p < 0.01 −0.8
** p < 0.001
−1

All proposed correlations were significant. As predicted, social comparison orientation

scores were positively and significantly associated with rumination tendency (H1; r = 0.522,
p < 0.001). In addition, night-time social media use scores were positively and significantly
associated with rumination tendency (H3; r = 0.317, p < 0.01). Furthermore, night-time
social media scores were negatively and significantly associated with sleep quality (H4; r = -
0.320, p < 0.01). Although not hypothesised, night-time social media use was also found to
be positively and significantly associated with social comparison orientation (r = 0.305, p =
0.01).

Mediation analysis was used to investigate the hypothesis that rumination mediates the
effect of social comparison orientation on sleep quality (H2). Results demonstrated that
social comparison orientation is a significant predictor of rumination (ß = 1.468, SE = 0.380,
p <0.001) and that rumination was a significant predictor of sleep quality (ß = -0.415, SE =
0.100, p < 0.001). These results therefore support our mediation hypothesis, as a significant
indirect effect was found (ß = -0.609, SE = 0.216, p < 0.01). As expected, a significant direct
effect of social comparison orientation upon sleep quality was not found (ß = 0.365, SE =
0.269, p = 0.176).

Exploratory Analysis: Proposed Path Models

As associations were found amongst social comparison orientation, rumination, sleep

quality and night-time social media use - we conducted a post-hoc mediational path
analysis in order to examine potential pathways between these variables. Based on the
theoretical underpinnings of this research area, we proposed two possible models.

Firstly, based on previous literature regarding the associations between night-time social
media use and wellbeing2,30 we proposed that night-time social media use increases social
comparison behaviours31 which is associated with increased rumination, that in turn leads
to poor sleep (Figure 2). We also proposed a direct path from night-time social media use to
increased rumination, which in turn predicts poorer sleep.

Figure 2. First Proposed Model

Our first fitted model (Figure 3) demonstrated that all paths were significant (p < 0.01)
except the direct path from night-time social media use to rumination. Night-time social
media use significantly increased social comparison orientation (ß = 0.274, SE = 0.111, p <
0.01). Social comparison orientation in turn significantly increased rumination (ß = 1.316, SE
= 0.319, p < 0.001). Furthermore, rumination tendency was shown to significantly decrease
sleep quality (ß = -0.347, SE = 0.067, p < 0.001). However, the direct path from night-time
social media use to rumination was non-significant (ß = 0.448, SE = 0.287 p = 0.118). Instead,
a significant indirect path was found in which social comparison orientation was a significant
mediator of the relationship between night-time social media use and rumination (ß =
0.361, SE = 0.170, p = 0.03). However, the overall fit of this model was poor (X2[2] = 5.935, p
= .05, CFI = .92, TLI = .76, RMSEA = 0.181). Removing the non-significant direct path from
night-time social media use to rumination did not improve model fit.

Figure 3. First Fitted Model

Secondly, based on literature regarding motivations for social media use 32,33 we proposed
that social comparison orientation would increase engagement with social media around
bed-time – through acting as a motivation for social media use - which would in turn
increase ruminative thinking, which impacts sleep quality (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Second Proposed Model

Again, all individual paths in our second fitted model were found to be significant except
from the path from night-time social media use to rumination (Figure 5). Social comparison
orientation significantly increased night-time social media use (ß = 0.339, SE = 0.137, p <
0.01). Social comparison orientation also significantly increased rumination (ß = 1.316, SE =
0.319, p = 0.001) which in turn significantly reduced sleep quality (ß = -0.347, SE = 0.067, p <
0.001). Yet, night-time social media use did not significantly increase rumination (ß = 0.448,
SE = 0.251, p = 0.08). Therefore, a significant direct effect of social comparison orientation
upon rumination, and in turn sleep quality, was found (ß = 1.316, SE = 0.319, p = 0.001).
However, night-time social media use was not found to be a significant mediator of this
relationship (ß = 0.152, SE = 0.115, p = 0.186). Once again the fit provided by the model was
not acceptable: (X2[2] = 5.935, p = .05, CFI = .92, TLI = .76, RMSEA = 0.181).
Figure 5. Second Fitted Model

Discussion

The current study provides a tentative, yet positive, step forward by demonstrating that
individual differences in social media engagement must be appreciated when investigating
associations between social media use and wellbeing. By demonstrating that social
comparison orientation is significantly associated with night-time social media use,
rumination, and poor sleep – we support recent arguments that not all young people
engage with social media in the same way 7,8.

We provide support for the hypothesis that social comparison orientation is positively
associated with rumination, in line with previous research15,16. It is important to stress,
however, that the direction of this relationship cannot yet be inferred. One possibility is that
engaging in social comparison behaviour provides the ideal context for individuals to
selectively focus on their perceived inferiority which may in turn increase rumination 15.
However, another possible way of looking at this relationship is that social media users
make motivated choices about what content to view, which regulates their mood and self-
concept over time. Negative mood – which is associated with rumination – has previously
been found to reduce the appeal of downward comparisons which involve viewing yourself
as superior to others34. Therefore, individuals’ affective experiences may also drive their
social comparison behaviours.

Support is also provided for the hypothesis that rumination significantly mediates the
relationship between social comparison behaviour and poor sleep. This is in line with
previous evidence which argues for the influence of negative social evaluative emotions
upon sleep quality18 and also supports the pre-sleep arousal influence of rumination which
can displace sleep and impact sleep quality15,16. In addition, we provide further support for
the potential negative influence of night-time social media use upon both mental wellbeing
and sleep as this behaviour was associated with increased rumination – which has
previously been associated with depression and anxiety23,35 - and increased sleep
disturbance2,30.

Although not hypothesised, it was demonstrated that social comparison orientation and
night-time social media use are significantly, positively associated. Arguably, engaging in a
greater volume of night-time social media use may present the opportunity to engage in
more social comparison behaviours. Previous research has highlighted a causal link between
social media use and body dissatisfaction, demonstrating that social networking site use
significantly predicts body dissatisfaction and greater receipt of peer appearance-based
feedback31. Therefore, by spending more time on social media around bedtime young
people may be exposed to a greater volume of opportunities to engage in social
comparisons with their peers, which has the potential to impact wellbeing. Another possible
interpretation of this relationship is that social comparison behaviour may be a motivation
for night-time social media use. The Uses and Gratifications Model of social media use32
argues that surveillance use of social media and gaining knowledge about others is one of
the main motivations for social media use. Through this monitoring, there is potential to
engage in harmful social comparison behaviour as previous work with adolescent girls has
highlighted that control of self-presentation (e.g. through editing selfies) is a motivation for
social media use33.
These findings should be interpreted within the limitations of the current study. As these
findings were part of a larger lab-based experiment investigating young women’s
engagement with the social media trend of #fitspiration our study is significantly
underpowered. In addition, using Facebook passively – rather than actively – has been
significantly associated with declines in affective wellbeing over-time, due to increases in
envy36. As a result, it is necessary to move away from a global conceptualization of night-
time social media use and consider the importance of active versus passive social media use
in order to further develop the models presented in this study. Furthermore, differentiating
between social comparison frequency and type would also be beneficial in order to gain a
more in-depth understanding of how different comparison dimensions impact mental
wellbeing37. Recent research highlights that a two-factor model of the INCOM25 which is
comprised of ability-based and opinion-based comparison is superior to the commonly used
one-factor structure38. In addition, the current findings are constrained by the use of
correlational methods. Future research should consider the examination of causal pathways
between these related variables alongside objective measurement of social media
behaviours14.

Despite these limitations, our findings are in line with evidence presented to a recent UK
parliamentary inquiry which calls for a greater appreciation of the nuances in youth social
media use by consider specific behaviours that young people engage in online39. Our
findings suggest that research and practice should consider the complexities of social media
use and consider what content young people engage with on social media, how they engage
with it, and how these interactions influence mental wellbeing and sleep. Arguably, social
media use may be viewed as a “see-saw” of positive and negative experiences8, thereby
suggesting that social media use is not inherently problematic. Therefore, attention should
be drawn towards cultivating healthier relationships with social media platforms which
reduce the risks – and maximise the benefits – of social media engagement.

Appreciating individual differences in social media engagement style has significant

implications for the design of interventions. Existing sleep hygiene interventions which
purely address the volume and timing of social media use have shown success in improving
sleep efficacy, sleep hygiene, time in bed, and bedtimes in young people 40,41. However,
these effects have not been found to continue longitudinally41. As social media is such an
integrated aspect of young peoples’ lives, it is arguably impractical to solely encourage
young people to refrain from using social media as this may only serve to increase
rumination and anxiety due to the degree of emotional connectedness to social media in
this population42. As a result, interventions designed to address social media use should
focus both on the behavioural aspects of sleep hygiene (e.g. reducing the use of
smartphones in bed) and the cognitive aspects (e.g. educating young people about the
‘highlight reel’ nature of social media) of night-time social media use.

Conclusions

The current investigation demonstrates that both the nature and timing of social media
interactions are related to mental wellbeing and sleep in young women. Consistent with
previous research, greater frequency of social comparison behaviour was found to be
significantly associated with increased rumination tendency. Rumination tendency was also
shown to significantly mediate the relationship between social comparison behaviours and
sleep quality. A higher volume of night-time social media use was also found to be
significantly associated with increased rumination and poorer sleep quality, in line with
previous findings. Although not hypothesised, our finding that night-time social media use
and social comparison orientation are positively associated is in line with two differing
theoretical perspectives which view social media use as increasing social comparison
opportunity, and social comparison orientation acting as a motivation for social media use.
Ultimately, we demonstrate a need for social media literacy interventions to be integrated
with sleep hygiene provisions in order to improve young people’s knowledge of social media
as a ‘highlight reel’ and foster an understanding of how both the nature and timing of social
media interactions can influence mental wellbeing and sleep.
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