The Olympic Dam copper-uranium-gold-silver-

rare earth element deposit, South Australia:

A geophysical case history
Donald Esdale1, Don F. Pridmore2, John Coggon3, Philip Muir4,
Peter Williams5 & Frank Fritz6

Keywords: Andamooka SH53-12, copper, downhole logging, electromagnetic coupling, gold, gravity,
hydrothermal, induced polarisation, magnetics, Proterozoic, resistivity, seismic reflection, seismic
refraction, Stuart Shelf, uranium

ABSTRACT
135 138 141

The Olympic Dam polymetallic deposit is located 520 km

northnorthwest of Adelaide, South Australia. The deposit has an
inferred resource of 2660 Mt at 1.2% Cu, 1.4 kg/t U3O8, 0.5 g/t Au.
30
Andamooka
The deposit occurs in a hydrothermal breccia complex within Olympic Dam
Mesoproterozoic crystalline basement of the Stuart Shelf. It is
overlain by 260 m of flat-lying sedimentary rocks and has no
surface expression. The mineralisation is irregularly distributed Stuart Shelf
Torrens
within the breccia complex, occurring predominately in haematite- Mt Gunson

T orrens H
rich matrix material. The deposit was located in 1975 by Western
Mining Corporation by the drilling of coincident gravity, magnetic
and tectonic targets, identified with respect to a geological

inge Z one
conceptual model. Extent of
Fig.2

Adelaide
The Olympic Dam deposit coincides with a 17 mGal gravity Geosyncline
anomaly, caused by haematite-rich polymict breccias. The source
of a broad 1600 nT magnetic anomaly, which is closely associated
with the deposit, is interpreted as being due to several geological
entities, including magnetite in the deposit and the host granite.
34
Electrical geophysical surveys have been tried over the Olympic
Dam deposit since discovery. Due to the disseminated nature of the
sulphide mineralogy, emphasis has been placed on IP techniques.
Initial experimentation was not encouraging, due to the low signal- Adelaide
to-noise ratio and the dominance of electromagnetic coupling.
However, in 1980 a high-power transmitter and digital IP receiver
were employed to combat the above two factors. The deposit was
covered with 400 m dipole-dipole surveys with an 800 m line
0

KILOMETRES

1 SA NSW
24 Waratah Street
Malvern
South Australia 5061 Area targetted based on conceptual model

2
Intierra Pty Ltd Neoproterozoic (Adelaidean) - outcrop/subcrop
PO Box 146
Fremantle
Western Australia 6959 Fig.1. Map of eastern South Australia showing the regions defined
during initial targeting leading to discovery of the Olympic Dam
3
Mines Geophysical Services deposit. Geology from Preiss (1993). Also shown are the positions of
16 Victoria Street the Andamooka and Torrens 1:250,000 map sheets.
Kalgoorlie
Western Australia 6430
spacing. These data detected an apparent resistivity low, restricted
4
45 Tahune Crescent to the southern and central sections of the deposit. The cause of this
Blackmans Bay low is interpreted as being porous, matrix-rich, haematitic breccias,
Tasmania 7052 in which the dominant form of haematite is a black crystalline
5
variety. Pore fluids are highly saline, with an apparent resistivity of
Resolute Ltd
between 0.1 and 0.05 Ω.m. The source of a positive phase-angle
GPO Box 7328
Cloisters Square response is not well understood, but it has a close spatial
Perth relationship with the extent of the haematite-rich breccias, whether
Western Australia 6850 these breccias are mineralised or not. This interpretation is not
consistent with the results of downhole logging using relatively
6
Fritz Geophysics small geometric survey parameters. This inconsistency reflects the
2567 Coil Drive
difficulty in trying to reconcile small-scale physical property
PO Box 1177
Fairplay measurements with the larger scale surface measurements, for such
Colorado 80440 a complex inhomogeneous mineralised environment.
USA

Geophysical Signatures of South Australian Mineral Deposits 147

Esdale et al. Olympic Dam copper-uranium-gold-silver-rare earth element deposit

Ore Reserves (Mt) Mineral Resources (Mt)

Proved Probable Total Measured Indicated Inferred Total
123 594 717 520 1330 810 2660

Copper (%) 2.4 1.5 1.7 1.7 1.2 1.0 1.2

Uranium (kg/t U3O8) 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.3 1.4
Gold (g/t) 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.5

Table 1. Ore reserves and mineral resources, as of end 2001, at Olympic Dam (Anon, 2002).

(a) (b) (c) Cu

137 00' 137 30' 137 00' 137 30' 137 00' 137 30'

CAMBRIAN

Olympic Dam 2.2

1.15
Acropolis 2.7
30 30' 30 30' 30 30'

4.8
Wirrda Well
Roxby
Downs H.S. Gravity anomaly
Gravity to come 1.7
Magnetic anomaly

Interpreted depth to
31 00' TENT HILL gravity source (km) 31 3.6
00'
31 00'

FORMATION Pandurra Formation

Tectonic target
Proposed drillhole

Mt Gunson
31 30' 31 30' 31 30'
3.6

Cu
WHYALLA
SANDSTONE 0 50
0 50 0 50

KILOMETRES KILOMETRES KILOMETRES

Fig.2. Regional potential field datasets from the Andamooka and Torrens 1;250,000 map sheets. a) TMI, b) Bouguer gravity, c) key exploration
targets identified from gravity and magnetic data. See Figure 1 for location. Imaging by Cowan Geodata Services.

INTRODUCTION
Olympic Dam is an iron-oxide associated copper-uranium-
gold-silver-rare earth element deposit, located 520 km north
northwest of Adelaide in central South Australia (Fig.1). It occurs
within a large hydrothermal breccia complex within the
Mesoproterozoic Roxby Downs Granite. The deposit has no
surface expression, being concealed by 260 m of overlying
Neoproterozoic and Cambrian sedimentary rocks. Geophysical
data, interpreted with respect to a conceptual geological model,
were responsible for its discovery (Reeve, 1990).
The deposit was discovered in 1975 and production began in
1988. Ore reserves and mineral resources as of the end of 2001 are
listed in Table 1. These data make the Olympic Dam deposit the
world's largest uranium resource and fifth largest copper resource.
There is also a resource of approximately 10 Mt of REE (mainly
La and Ce) and 6700 t of Ag. Average iron grade of the resource
is about 26% Fe (Reynolds, 2001).
geophysical techniques that have been used, and which are briefly
described, are CSAMT and geothermal measurements.
The basis for this paper is a manuscript prepared for publication
in the late 1980s, but which for a number of reasons was never
published. The original paper has been modified to incorporate
more recent geological ideas and data concerning the Olympic
Dam deposit and the basement to the Stuart Shelf. The most
important change concerns removal of references to the
sedimentary and stratigraphic nomenclature in use at the deposit at
the time (see Roberts and Hudson, 1983). This has now been
superseded by the interpretation of the mineralisation as occurring
within a hydrothermal breccia complex (Reeve et al., 1990).
Another change is the re-displaying of the geophysical data as
images, the original interpretations being mainly based on contour
plots. Despite these changes, the integrity of the original paper has
been maintained as far as possible, since it provides insights into
the role of geophysics in the early exploration and evaluation of the
Olympic Dam deposit.

Geophysical aspects of the discovery and evaluation of the DISCOVERY HISTORY

Olympic Dam deposit are described by Rutter and Esdale (1985)
and Esdale et al., (1987). This paper outlines the geophysical
characteristics of the deposit in greater detail than in previous
publications, and discusses the application and interpretation of
gravity, magnetic and, in particular, IP/resistivity surveys. All
techniques reveal anomalies over the deposit. The relationship
between these anomalies and their sources is examined in the light
of drilling and physical property measurements. Other
Western Mining Corporation first began exploring for copper in
South Australia in 1957 in the old copper mining district of Moonta-
Wallaroo on the Yorke Peninsula (see Dentith and Cowan, this
volume). Exploration continued intermittently in this area until 1972.
In that year a decision was made to begin a literature study of the
Proterozoic and Lower Palaeozoic rocks of South Australia, aimed at
identifying areas with potential for sediment-hosted copper deposits.

148 Geophysical Signatures of South Australian Mineral Deposits

Esdale et al. Olympic Dam copper-uranium-gold-silver-rare earth element deposit
Area Selection
Area selection was based on a conceptual model developed to
explain the source, transport and deposition of copper in sediment-
hosted deposits (Haynes, 1979). According to the model, copper
was removed from continental tholeiitic basalts by circulating
hydrothermal fluids during oxidative alteration. Copper could
then be re-deposited from solution in suitable sedimentary host
rocks, above altered basalt piles adjacent to major faults. A
basement high was included in the model as an ingredient to
generate a suitable trapping environment. The geophysical
signatures pertinent to this conceptual model were; a gravity high
sourced from the crystalline basement high plus a probable
component from the thick basalts, and a magnetic high from the
unoxidised basalt at depth. The literature study resulted in the
selection of an area that showed potential for the occurrence of
sediment-hosted copper deposits, which closely coincided with the
distribution of Neoproterozoic rocks in South Australia (Fig.1).
Geophysical and lineament studies were begun in 1973, to
assist in the location of possible targets for drilling. Much of the
prospective area contains flat-lying sediments covered by wind-
blown sand and scree, which made precise geological definition of
targets impossible. Regional aeromagnetic and Bouguer gravity
data were available, however, from the Bureau of Mineral
Resources (BMR, now Geoscience Australia) and the South
Australian Department of Mines and Energy (SADME, now
PIRSA). The aeromagnetic data (1.6 km spacing, 150 m flight
height) and gravity data (7 x 7 km grid) were interpreted initially
at 1:500,000 scale, with a view to identifying geological domains,
major faults and areas of concealed basalts, in accordance with the
geological model. Field inspections of known mafic volcanics
were made with emphasis on the documentation of haematite-
bearing assemblages essential to the conceptual model. Altered
mafics were sampled and assayed to check for copper depletion.
Interest began to focus on the northern Stuart Shelf (Fig.1) in
mid-1974. Of particular interest were a number of pronounced
gravity highs with associated magnetic anomalies (Fig.2). These
were similar to anomalies observed at Mount Gunson, an area
known to contain sediment-hosted copper mineralisation (see
Dentith and Cowan, this volume). It was believed that these
anomalies indicated piles of altered basalts similar to those known
to occur around the southern margin of the Stuart Shelf, and given
suitable structural settings, concealed sediment-hosted copper
deposits could have been developed in this region. In July 1974,
consideration was given to ground acquisition according to four
criteria:
• The presence of the Whyalla Sandstone (Neoproterozoic)-
Pandurra Formation (Mesoproterozoic) unconformity, which
controls mineralisation at Mount Gunson (Tonkin and
Creelman, 1990).
• Basement highs.
• The presence of altered basalts.
• Lineaments.
Effort was concentrated on the Torrens and Andamooka
1:250,000 map sheets (Fig.1), and by October 1974 interpretation
included estimates of the depths to the sources of the gravity and
magnetic anomalies ascribed to altered basalts. Targets were
defined and three stratigraphic drill holes were proposed (Fig.2c).
Interpreted depths to the sources of the gravity anomalies were in
excess of 1000 m. These depths were based only on the regional
gravity and magnetic data and assumed a density contrast
consistent with a basalt source. Magnetic basement depth in much
of the area, however, was thought to be only of the order of a few
hundred metres, although some of the larger anomalies seem to
have much deeper sources. Density and magnetic susceptibility
determinations were carried out on core samples provided by
SADME. Gravity interpretations were revised using the measured
densities and source depths, generally, were reduced by several
hundred metres.
By the end of 1974, a number of targets were looking
sufficiently encouraging to justify ground acquisition and
stratigraphic drilling. The main points in favour of the Stuart Shelf
were:
• Copper source rocks were thought to be present in the region.
• The important Whyalla Sandstone-Pandurra Formation
unconformity probably existed in the area.
• Magnetic and gravity anomalies similar to, but larger than,
those at Mount Gunson occurred in the area.
• Four targets identified by lineament analysis (O'Driscoll,
1985) coincided with geophysical targets.
Seismic Surveys
The uncertainty surrounding source depths led to SADME
carrying out a trial seismic survey near Andamooka, about 25 km
to the east of Olympic Dam, in mid-1975. It was hoped that
seismic methods would resolve the question of depth to basement
and yield information about the nature of the overlying sediments.
Almost immediately after the granting of an Exploration
Licence in May 1975, seismic tests were conducted at the Olympic
Dam and Acropolis targets (Fig.2c), as these were considered the
most promising on tectonic and geophysical grounds. Both
refraction and reflection techniques were tried. Refraction spreads
were shot with 24 detectors spaced at 30.5 m (100 ft). Charges of
1.7 kg to 3.4 kg in weight were used for centre, and 732 m
(2400 ft) offset, shooting, respectively. Reflection data were
obtained using 10 geophones per trace and a trace interval of 10.7
m (35 ft) on 24 channels. Energy was provided by a simulated line
source of 12 charges at 10 m spacing detonated sequentially. The
minimum distance between the spread and shot array was 366 m
(1200 ft).
The refraction survey detected two shallow refractors, the
deeper of which was thought to correlate with the Cambrian
Andamooka Limestone. The data suggested that the limestone
was thicker than previously thought and resulted in uncertainty
regarding the depth to source of the gravity anomalies. The short
reflection line was difficult to interpret, but a weak event from a
depth of about 300 m was correlated across part of the line. The
significance of this reflector was unknown.
Gravity and Magnetic Data
A ground magnetic survey collected VMI data along a
northwesterly trending profile across the Olympic Dam anomaly.
These data are plotted on Figure 3. The source of the anomaly was
thought to be deep, probably beyond the reach of the planned
drilling. However, the model required a thick pile of altered
basalts, and oxidation would have destroyed magnetite to a
considerable depth at the top of the pile. Intersection of altered
basalt would be a positive test of the anomaly.
In June 1975, the sites for two stratigraphic holes were chosen,
RRD1 at Olympic Dam and RRD2 at Acropolis (Fig.3). The
intention was to drill at least 50 m into basement, or source rock, to
identify alteration styles. The holes were not sited to test the centres
of the magnetically anomalous bodies, as it was believed that the
more prospective host sediments would lie above the altered non-
magnetic margins of the source rocks, probably in tectonic target
Geophysical Signatures of South Australian Mineral Deposits 149
Esdale et al.
Coronation Dam
Area covered by
detailed surveys 0 20
(Fig.5)
KILOMETRES
Andamooka
Olympic Dam
RD1/RRD 1
NW RD1
RD 2/RRD 2
Acropolis
1000 nT
Roxby Downs H.S.
VMI
18 km 12 km 6 km 0 6 km
Fig.3. Locations of early ground geophysical surveys in the Olympic
Dam area. RD1 etc are drill hole locations. Inset: Ground magnetic
traverse.
zones indicative of possible faulting. RRD1, now RD1, was
commenced on 14 June 1975, and completed on 31 July at a depth
of 441 m. After passing through 335 m of Neoproterozoic and
Cambrian sedimentary rocks, the hole passed through
approximately 1 m of red, medium to coarse grained, haematitic
sandstone, containing heavy minerals, cross-stratification and trace
chalcopyrite. At 336 m, the hole penetrated what were described at
the time as coarse-grained altered haematitic amygdaloidal basic
volcanics. These were subsequently identified as haematitic granite
breccias. The basement core was chip sampled at 15 cm intervals
for analysis, as was standard Western Mining Corporation
procedure. It was anticipated that these encouraging source rocks
would show copper depletion, but instead results were received
showing 1.05% Cu from 353 m to 391 m. The first 18 m of
basement immediately below the sediments contained only 930 ppm
Cu, which highlights the significance of the decision to drill at least
50 m into basement. RRD2 (RD2), at Acropolis, was completed at a
depth of 513 m within Pandurra Formation. It is now known that if
continued, it would have reached basement at a depth of 560 m.
Although the copper grades in RD1 were not economic at the
depths involved, the large size of the geophysical anomaly
indicated significant potential. Similar geophysical anomalies
existed outside the Exploration Licence and additional licence
applications were lodged.
Follow-up diamond drilling on a 400 x 800 m grid around RD1
commenced in mid-October, 1975. Ground magnetic and gravity
profiles were obtained along a line from RRD1 to RD2 at 90 m
intervals, and along perpendicular lines at each drill hole location
(Fig.4). SADME also carried out refraction seismic profiling
along these lines. Physical property measurements on the core
from RD1 failed to produce an explanation for the geophysical
anomalies. RD3 and RD4 were drilled on the anomaly margins,
but both gave disappointing copper values. RD3 intersected
granite, which together with petrological work, led to the
realisation that RD1 had drilled granite breccia and not altered
basalts. RD5, 1 km from RD1, intersected 92 m at 1.01% Cu, but
RD6 and RD7 gave disappointing results.
The mineralisation in RD5 had resulted in the pegging of a new
grid with RD5 as origin, designated 200,000N, 200,000E. Grid
lines were pegged at 500 m intervals and levelled, and gravity and
magnetic measurements were made at 100 m intervals along these
lines. Contour plans of these data are shown in Figure 5. The
increased detail of the anomaly showed that it was more significant
than had been apparent from reconnaissance data, revealing an
anomaly with an excess mass of greater than 1000 Mt.
150 Geophysical Signatures of South Australian Mineral Deposits
Olympic Dam copper-uranium-gold-silver-rare earth element deposit
Ground VMI traverse
(Fig.3)
E
00
-20
0,0
10
-15
SE
RD 8 -10
RD 5 RD 7
RD 9
RD 10
RD 6
RD 4
RD 1
RD 3
10
0,0
00
N
0 2
-25
KILOMETRES
To RD2
Fig.4. Early gravity survey results and drill hole locations (RD5 etc),
Olympic Dam area.
Down-hole geophysical logging of RD1 revealed significant
gamma radiation in the basement, later shown to be derived from
uranium mineralisation. Following this result, Western Mining
Corporation commenced routine geophysical logging of diamond
drill holes. Magnetic susceptibility measurements on core from
holes RD1 to RD6 provided no explanation for the magnetic
anomaly. Density measurements on the core, however, revealed
densities in excess of 4.0 g/cm3, corresponding with zones of high
haematite content. Modelling of these data demonstrated that the
haematite-rich breccias were the source of the gravity anomaly, but
that the source of the magnetic anomaly had not been intersected
by the drilling.
From the detailed gravity data, it was apparent that the initial
drilling was located in the west and southwestern parts of the
gravity anomaly. Results from RD8 and RD9 were only
moderately encouraging; 14 m of 1.2% Cu and 18 m of 1% Cu,
respectively. RD10, however, produced an intersection of 170 m
of 2.12% Cu commencing at a depth of 348 m. The core was
visually spectacular, with thick zones of disseminated bornite and
chalcopyrite. This was the first real indication that the Olympic
Dam mineralisation had economic potential. RD10 also contained
580 ppm of U3O8 coincident with the copper intersection, a much
higher concentration than found in the earlier holes. The results
from RD10, allied with the geophysical data and interpretation, led
to a more intensive phase of drilling.
As RD6 and RD7 were drilled closer to the peak of the gravity
anomaly and had encountered barren haematite-rich breccias, it
was speculated that the central dense core of the deposit may be
barren. 800 m-spaced holes were drilled to further test this idea.
RD16 was near the centre of the gravity anomaly and encountered
barren haematite-quartz rocks confirming the hypothesis. Holes
RD17, RD18, RD19 and RD20 showed that there was significant
mineralisation to the east and northeast of the peak of the gravity
anomaly. Hole RD19 intersected significant gold mineralisation.
The next phase of intensive drilling took place proximal to
these holes, which resulted in the perception that the deposit was
large and of medium-grade (Reeve et al., 1990). However, by the
Esdale et al. Olympic Dam copper-uranium-gold-silver-rare earth element deposit

(a) Contour Interval 100 nT W E

202000 mN ss v ss
bn v bn
cp ss v
vv v v cp
bn v v v v
v v v v
v
cp v vv
59
v v v
vv v
30
bnv v

0 201000 mN v v
vcp
v

RD 17

59
00 CAMBRIAN
0 0 1000
RD R R 200000 mN Andamooka Limestone
16 D 19 D 18RD 2

COVER SEQUENCE
METRES
0 NEOPROTEROZOIC
RD 10 Tent Hill Formation V
=1

WILPENA
H

GROUP
Arcoona Quartzite Member
Corraberra Sandstone Member
199000 mN Tregolana Shale Member (localised basal dolomite)
585 RD 1
00
Local pebble conglomerate
198000 mN
MESOPROTEROZOIC

Dolerite

BASEMENT
Haematite-matrix-rich Heterolithic granite and
granite breccias haematite breccias Volcaniclastics
197000 mN

ODBC
v
Granite-rich breccias Haematite-rich breccias Mafic and felsic dykes
bn
Granite and granite Bornite–chalcopyrite
breccias Haematite–quartz breccias (bn–cp) interface cp
198000 mE

199000 mE

200000 mE

203000 mE
201000 mE

202000 mE

Roxby Downs Granite Silicified zones s

201035-007

Fig.6. Schematic cross-section across the Olympic Dam Breccia

(b) Contour Interval 1 mGal Complex. From Reynolds (2001).

202000 mN
rocks of the Adelaide Geosyncline. The sequence of shelf
sediments overlying the Olympic Dam deposit consists of, in
-20
increasing age, the Cambrian Andamooka Limestone and the
201000 mN Neoproterozoic Arcoona Quartzite, Corraberra Sandstone and
Tregolana Shale. A thin discontinuous dolomite unit underlies the
RD 17
Tregolana Shale, and lenses of conglomerate are developed
RD R R 200000 mN immediately above the basement rocks. The minimum thickness
16 D 1 D 1 RD
9 8 20
RD 10 -10 of these sediments is 260 m over the Olympic Dam deposit, and
the thickness increases to in excess of 500 m several kilometres
-15 199000 mN west of Acropolis.
RD 1
-20
Beneath the cover sequence, the crystalline basement consists
198000 mN
of deformed Mesoproterozoic granitic and metasedimentary rocks.
These rocks are intruded by a relatively undeformed granite
-25 batholithic complex, known as the Burgoyne Batholith, which is
197000 mN
dated at 1595 Ma (Mortimer et al., 1988). The Olympic Dam
deposit occurs entirely within a pink to red-coloured, alkali
198000 mE

199000 mE

200000 mE

203000 mE
201000 mE

202000 mE

feldspar-rich, syenogranite member (Roxby Downs Granite) of

this suite. The granite is locally hydrothermally altered in the
vicinity of the deposit, and is moderately magnetic. An idealised
cross section is shown in Figure 6.
Fig.5. Post-discovery ground geophysical surveys with drill hole
locations (RD10 etc) at Olympic Dam, a) magnetics, b) gravity. The Olympic Dam mineralisation is hosted by a large,
hydrothermally altered, granite-haematite dominated breccia
complex, named the Olympic Dam Breccia Complex (ODBC). In
end of 1981, which saw the completion of a 200 x 200 m follow- the centre of the complex is a funnel-shaped zone of barren
up drilling phase, it was apparent that there was significant high- haematite-quartz breccia. This is surrounded by an irregular array
grade mineralisation to the northwest of the gravity peak. The of variably mineralised haematite-granite breccia bodies. These
zones were small and steeply dipping, and were thus poorly breccias have a range of lithologies. In general, they are granite-
sampled by the vertical drilling. However, the potential for dominated near the margins of the complex, with intensely
significant high-grade positions within the deposit was recognised haematised equivalents inside (Fig.7). There is a general
by the project geologists (Reeve et al., 1990). progression from haematite-rich breccias, to heterolithic granite-
haematite breccias, to granite breccias with haematite matrix, to
GEOLOGY OF THE OLYMPIC DAM DEPOSIT haematite-altered or veined granite to granite. Clast size and shape
varies widely, but is predominately angular and less than 20 cm.
The geology of the Olympic Dam deposit is described in detail Clast compositions include altered basement granite, felsic,
by Reeve et al., (1990). A more recent and concise description is intermediate and mafic volcanics, sulphide, fluorite and various
provided by Reynolds (2001). The Olympic Dam deposit occurs carbonate-rich rocks. Finely laminated rocks can occur as large
within Mesoproterozoic rocks of the eastern Gawler Craton that clasts (10s of metres). The matrix of some breccias can exhibit
comprise the basement to the Neoproterozoic succession deposited fine irregular layering on a local scale. Matrix is typically
on Stuart Shelf. The Stuart Shelf is bounded to the east by the haematite, varying in habit from crystalline black and grey, to
northnorthwest-trending Torrens Hinge Zone (Fig.1), which granular brown and earthy red. The grain size of matrix material
separates the Shelf succession from the thicker and more deformed is 0.05 to 2 mm.

Geophysical Signatures of South Australian Mineral Deposits 151

Esdale et al.
Fig.7. Simplified geological map of the Olympic Dam Breccia
Complex. From Reynolds (2001).
The mineralised complex trends northwest (Fig.8); the base of
the complex has yet to be intersected by drilling. The horizontal
margins of the breccia complex are not well known, but are
thought to be irregular and gradational. A vertical and horizontal
zonation in the copper mineralisation has been noted (Roberts and
Hudson, 1983; Reeve et al., 1990), varying from chalcocite-bornite
dominant in the upper and more central parts of the complex, to
chalcopyrite-pyrite (sulphur rich) in the deeper and outer parts.
This zone boundary (known as the bn-cp interface) is sharply
defined and readily mappable. The boundary has an irregular
surface, but broadly conforms to a funnel dipping into the central
haematite-quartz breccia (Fig.6). Higher-grade uranium
(pitchblende) mineralisation occurs in the upper part of the
chalcocite-bornite zone. High-grade gold can occur at the top of
the chalcocite-bornite zone and on the outer edge of the central
barren haematite-quartz breccia. Virtually no economic
mineralisation occurs more than 50 m above the top of the
chalcocite-bornite boundary. The total sulphide content is
considered generally similar on either side of this boundary. Most
of the mineralisation occurs in the matrix material, as uniform
disseminations comprising between 5 and 20% of the rock.
Dominant grain size of the sulphides is 0.1 to 2 mm.
In general, higher-grade mineralisation occurs within more
haematite-rich breccias. Black haematite clasts are generally more
strongly mineralised than the fine-grained red haematite clasts.
Much of the haematite is interpreted as having replaced pre-
existing minerals, e.g. primary granite material as well as
secondary hydrothermal minerals. Haematite alteration is the most
abundant alteration, followed by sericite, silica, chlorite and
carbonate alteration. Haematite-, sericite- and silica alteration is
more intense towards the central haematite-quartz breccia.
GRAVITY MEASUREMENTS AND THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN DENSITY AND GEOLOGY
The detailed gravity survey (Fig.5b) was continued outside the
initial 5 x 5 km area on a 2 km x 100 m grid. An anomaly of
amplitude 17 mGal and half-width of approximately 3 km was
delineated (Fig.9a). Density is measured routinely on all
152 Geophysical Signatures of South Australian Mineral Deposits
Olympic Dam copper-uranium-gold-silver-rare earth element deposit
Fig.8. Olympic Dam resource outline at 41 level ±100 m. From
Reynolds (2001).
mineralised drill core at Olympic Dam. Five density logs from
diamond drill holes are shown in Figure 10. Density information
is less abundant for unmineralised lithologies, but coverage is
sufficient to provide reasonably good estimates for modelling
purposes. Based on estimates of density within the ODBC, a
density model comprising 17 individual bodies was constructed
(Fig.9b).
The gravity response of this model (Fig.9c) was determined by
approximating the density distribution with numerous 2.5D bodies
in a forward-modelling program, effectively producing a 3-D
representation of the deposit. The topography of the basement has
been reduced to a flat plane at the 350 m below surface level. The
discrepancy between observed and calculated Bouguer anomalies
in the vicinity of the ODBC is generally less than 1 mGal (Fig.9d),
and indicates that the source of the Olympic Dam gravity anomaly
is the ODBC. The coincidence of the gravity anomaly and the ore
deposit is largely a result of the association between haematite-rich
polymict breccias and copper-uranium mineralisation. The larger
discrepancies of up to about 2 mGal away from the OBDC result
from broad-scale regional effects and possible inhomogeneities in
the granite basement, basement topographic irregularities or small
satellite breccia pipes.
MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS AND THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN MAGNETISATION AND GEOLOGY
Airborne magnetic data from over Olympic Dam are shown in
Figure 11. The survey was flown with north-south flight lines
spaced at 400 m, a sensor height of 100 m and a nominal sample
spacing of 45 m.
The amplitude of the Olympic Dam magnetic anomaly is
approximately 1600 nT. It is located on a broad, linear, northeast-
trending, regional magnetic high (Fig.2a). Anomaly profiles
suggest two major components at different wavelengths; a
relatively short-wavelength component (~500 nT) striking
northwest, and a longer wavelength (~1100 nT) more
equidimensional anomaly, whose outline is approximated by the
58,600 nT contour in Figure 11a. A 1st vertical derivative map,
derived from the aeromagnetic data, accentuates the shallow
sources (Fig.11b). In this map, negative gradients coincide with
shorter wavelength TMI highs.
Drill-core magnetic susceptibility data suggest there are two
shallow susceptible units within the deposit (Fig.12). The most
Esdale et al. Olympic Dam copper-uranium-gold-silver-rare earth element deposit

(a) (b)
A = 3.25 g/cm 3
Outline of
Olympic Dam B = 3.65 g/cm 3
Breccia Complex C,E = 3.75 g/cm 3
H
D = 4.05 g/cm 3
F,G = 3.35 g/cm 3
H = 3.10 g/cm 3
M I,J,K,L,M = 3.05 g/cm 3
B
N G N,O,P,Q = 2.80 g/cm3
A

F
I D
O C
E
J
K

P L

Background = 2.65 g/cm 3 Q

0 2 0 2

KILOMETRES KILOMETRES

(c) (d)

0 2 0 2

KILOMETRES KILOMETRES

Fig.9. Olympic Dam gravity anomaly. a) Observed gravity with outline of bodies used to model the observed data, b) details of bodies comprising
the model, c) calculated gravity, d) difference between a) and c). Contours are in mGals.

predictable of these are dolerite dykes, which occur along a
northwest-trending zone through the centre of the ODBC (Roberts
and Hudson, 1983). The dolerite has a susceptibility of 0.05 to 0.1
SI units. The other susceptible material is siderite-rich zones, in
which the carbonate is thought to have acted as a buffer against the
oxidation of magnetite to haematite (T. Peachey pers. comm.).
Susceptibilities within these zones range up to 0.5 SI units. In an
effort to quantify the contribution of the shallow susceptible
sources to the total field anomaly, the data presented in Figure 12
were used to derive averaged blocks (horizontal slabs) of
susceptible material, in a manner analogous to ore-reserve blocks.
The amplitude of the anomaly produced is approximately 400 nT.
• a wide but relatively thin source
• a combination of the above.
Magnetic susceptibility measurements made on samples from
drill holes into the host granite indicate significant thicknesses of
magnetic rock. Several widely spaced drill holes record zones,
more than 200 m thick, of susceptibilities in excess of 6 x 10-3 SI
units. If the susceptibility is 6 x 10-3 SI and defines a rectangular
prism geometry of dimensions 10,000 m (E), 10,000 m (W) and
10,000 m (Z) then an anomaly of 200 nT is generated.
SURFACE INDUCED POLARISATION MEASUREMENTS

Remanent magnetism has been measured in one or two samples
from each lithology for a preliminary investigation of the
contribution of remanence to the anomaly. The most notable result
is from the haematite-quartz breccia in which a remanent
magnetisation of 10,000 µG, equivalent to a susceptibility 0.3 S.I.
units, was measured.
The source of the longer wavelength component of the
magnetic anomaly is more conjectural. There are three
possibilities:
The depth of the target and lack of high-powered equipment
precluded the use of electrical methods in early exploration at
Olympic Dam. However, in March 1977, a trial IP/resistivity
survey was carried out on line 200,000N (Fig.13) using
conventional frequency-domain equipment (2 kW transmitter,
Geoscience R401 receiver). The dipole-dipole configuration was
employed with 100 m dipoles, and seven n-levels were read.
Results from part of this line, in the vicinity of RD5 which
intersected significant mineralisation (see above), are shown in
Figure 14a. No indication of the mineralisation was obtained.

• a deep source (this could be from a postulated deeper In 1978, another attempt was made to detect the Olympic Dam
intrusion) deposit using the IP method. Conventional frequency-domain

Geophysical Signatures of South Australian Mineral Deposits 153

Esdale et al. Olympic Dam copper-uranium-gold-silver-rare earth element deposit

Density (g/cm3) Density (g/cm3) Density (g/cm3) Density (g/cm3) Density (g/cm3)
2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
300 300

400 400

600 600
Depth (m)

700 700

800 800

900 900

Haematitic breccia

Granitic breccia

Heterolithic haematitic breccia

Fig.10. Down-hole density logs from Olympic Dam, including mineralised and unmineralised stratigraphy, from drill holes RD247, RD55, RD24,
RD131 and RD69.
equipment was used as before, but with 200 m and 300 m dipoles
to improve depth penetration. These attempts also were
unsuccessful, and electromagnetic coupling became a problem as
illustrated by the plot of part of the 300 m dipole-dipole survey in
Figure 14b. Note the horizontal layering of the frequency-effect
data. SADME were likewise unsuccessful in detecting the
mineralisation with a time-domain gradient-array survey in 1978
(Limb, 1978). For this survey, a 3 km current-electrode separation
was used and a current of 9 A achieved. Low signal levels and high
telluric noise caused problems, and indicated the need for more
power.

Transient electromagnetic measurements also were made in

1978. These used a SIROTEM with 200 m square coincident
loops, read at 100 m intervals, centered on line 199,900N. Signal
strengths generally were sufficient to enable reliable readings to be
obtained out to at least 50 ms after current shut-down, but
inversion of some of these data suggested that this was insufficient
to 'see' basement beneath the thick, conductive, Tregolana Shale
within the Neoproterozoic cover. Success with electrical methods
at Olympic Dam was not to be achieved for a further two years,
when higher-powered, more sophisticated, equipment became
available to overcome the problems posed by low signal-to-noise
ratio and electromagnetic coupling.

Consideration of the mineralogy of the deposit, its dimensions

Fig.11. Aeromagnetic data from the Olympic Dam area. The shaded
region is the extent of the ODBC. a) TMI, b) 1st vertical derivative
(negative vertical derivative anomalies correspond with shorter wave
length TMI anomalies).
and depth of burial suggested the use of high-powered, large-
separation dipole-dipole IP measurements. This exploration
methodology was, by the late 1970s, relatively commonplace in
the western United States in the search for porphyry copper
mineralisation. However, in 1979 there was, to our knowledge,
neither the equipment, nor the expertise, available for contract in
Australia to explore to depths in excess of 400 m with the IP
technique. In that year, as part of an evaluation of microprocessor
controlled receivers, Western Mining Corporation purchased a
two-channel GDP-12 receiver from Zonge Engineering and
Research Organisation (ZERO) and a 10 kW FT-10 transmitter
from Geotronics Corporation.

154 Geophysical Signatures of South Australian Mineral Deposits

Esdale et al. Olympic Dam copper-uranium-gold-silver-rare earth element deposit

198000E 200000E 200200E 204000E W E

Outline of RD-5 Olympic Dam Breccia Complex
Olympic Dam 203000N
Breccia Complex
199700E 200000E 200300E

Apparent Resistivity (Ω.m)

N=1 39 2735 2149 3443 2942 4060 3570 4451 3940
201000N N=3 58 4477 675350 54 5255 4972 9587 6862 49101
N=5 1089876 63706564 5360 7866 6254 78141115
96
86 67 88 64 58 99 112
N=7

Percentage Frequency Effect 0 500

199000N N=1 0.20.30.50.10.50.70.31.30.40.30.30.10.30.0 0.1

-0.3 0.4 METRES
N=3 0.60.10.90.00.60.80.50.20.40.10.80.50.50.10.60.50.6
Total cumulative interval (not continuous)
N=5 0.70.70.70.50.40.60.90.60.60.10.60.30.00.80.10.50.5
with readings >6.3 x 10 -3 SI units
1.3 1.7 0.3 0.8 0.9 0.4 0.7
N=7
>200 m
>100 - 200 m 0 2
199500E 200100E 200700E 201300E
197000N
>50 - 100 m
KILOMETRES Apparent Resistivity (Ω.m)
<50 m
74 71 97 93 83 65 59
N=1
101 93 95 93 60 53 78
Fig.12. Drill-core magnetic susceptibility data from Olympic Dam. N=2
106 116 87 55 44 58 58
N=3
Locations of apparent resistivity 90 121 49 38 45 38
203,400N N=4
data in Table 4
203000N
202,600N Percentage Frequency Effect
1.3 0.9 0.3 0.8 0.4 0.8 0.9
N=1
202,000N
1.5 1.2 0.8 1.6 0.7 1.3 1.4
201,800N N=2
8)
(Fig.1
1.7 2.5 1.3 1.8 1.8 2.5 3.1
201,300N 100 N=3
201000N
(Fig.16) 3.2 2.6 3.4 6.1 4.6 5.2
N=4
200,600N
100 m dipole (Fig.14a)
(Fig.15)
200,000N
300 m dipole (Fig.14b)
(Figs.17 &23) 199,500N Fig.14. Results of early dipole-dipole IP/resistivity surveying at
Olympic Dam, line 200,000N. Survey frequencies were 0.3 and 3.0 Hz.
199000N 198,900N
a) 100 dipoles, b) 300 m dipoles. See Figure 13 for location. RD5 is a
drill hole, located on Figure 4.
198,200N

0 2 measured at odd harmonics of the fundamental up to the 11th

Outline of
Olympic Dam
197000N
Breccia Complex
198000E 200000E 200200E
13. Location map for electrical data from Olympic Dam.
In 1980, two experimental 400 m dipole-dipole spreads were
read on lines 200,000N and 200,600N (Fig.13), over the frequency
range 0.0156 Hz to 0.0625 Hz in binary steps. The objective was
to examine whether the mineralisation could be detected with the
IP technique and, if so, the optimum frequency band to be used.
The higher frequencies were read to determine whether the
mineralisation could be detected through, and distinguished from,
the electromagnetic-coupling response. The data were gathered
using an early version of the GDP-12 resistivity-phase programme,
where the amplitude and phase at the fundamental frequency of the
input voltage is determined after stacking and averaging the results
over a selectable number of cycles. Identical crystal clocks, at the
transmitter and in the receiver, ensured synchronous detection of
the transmitted voltage by the receiver, which was usually situated
at the centre of the two dipoles being measured. Typical phase
drifts were of the order of 1 mrad at 1 Hz over a 10-hour day.
Subsequently, lines 198,200N, 198,900N, 201,300N, 201,800N,
202,600N and 203,400N (Fig.13) were read, using the resistivity-
phase programme, at frequencies of 0.125 Hz, 0.25 Hz and 0.5 Hz.
During 1982, a ZERO crew was contracted to survey lines
198,900N and 199,500N (Fig.13) using the complex resistivity
(CR) method. The CR technique varies from the resistivity-phase
method described above in that one channel of the receiver is used
for monitoring the transmitter current, whilst only one channel
measures the voltage at the receiving dipole. Monitoring the
transmitter current enables the impedance of the Earth to be
harmonic, since the instability in the transmitted waveform at the
KILOMETRES
higher harmonics is taken into account. In this way, multi-
204000E
frequency data can be collected from a square current waveform
transmitted at a single frequency. In practice, this is accomplished
by placing the receiver at the transmitter and transmitting the
signal from the dipole being measured back to the receiver, after
pre-amplification, via two-conductor communication wires. This
measurement is made in an environment of high common-mode
signal and comprehensive checks are required to ensure that useful
data are being acquired. Data were recorded at fundamental
frequencies of 0.125 Hz, 1 Hz and 8 Hz, using GDP-12 program
HM version 3.1, resulting in information over the frequency band
0.125 Hz to 88 Hz. Finally, CR data were collected on lines '100'
and 202,000N (Fig.13), at fundamental frequencies of 0.125, 1 and
8 Hz, by Western Mining Corporation. All data were collected
using a dipole spacing of 400 m.
Pseudosections of apparent resistivity, phase lag at 0.125 Hz
and decoupled phase angle (where decoupled phase angle is
defined later), for lines 199,500N, 200,000N, 200,600N and line
100, are presented in Figures 15 to 18. For line 200,000N, phase-
angle data at additional frequencies are presented (Fig.15).
Anomalous results to the south of line 200,000N are typified by
those on line 199,500N (Fig.17). A broad decoupled-phase high
is evident, which is conceptually consistent with a buried
chargeable body at a depth of a dipole length. Results to the north
are, with the exception of line 100, similar to those on 200,000N
(Fig.15). Anomalous phase angles at the first and second dipole
separations on, and to the north of, 200,000N appear to be caused,
in part, by sources in the cover sequence. In the absence of
appropriate physical properties in the cover sequence, it is believed
that shallow drill-hole casing causes these effects (see below).

Geophysical Signatures of South Australian Mineral Deposits 155

Esdale et al. Olympic Dam copper-uranium-gold-silver-rare earth element deposit

W E
0 1
Olympic Dam Breccia Complex
KILOMETRES

198900E 200900E 202900E

Apparent Resistivity (Ω.m)

67 85 91 79 32 62 92 95 42 33
N=1
122 94 96 64 36 35 48 84 44 32 36
N=2
113 139 84 60 29 36 27 42 38 32 37 37
N=3
119 110 50 33 29 31 25 23 30 39 41
N=4
94 66 31 32 27 29 18 21 39 45
N=5
62 46 33 31 28 22 18 30 46
N=6

198900E 200900E 202900E

φ 0.125 Hz (mrad)
4 3 3 8 18 9 5 5 7 7
N=1
7 7 6 10 19 19 13 8 11 12
N=2 12 11 11 14 24 24 24 19 18 20 21 23
N=3
20 18 22 32 30 32 31 31 31 31 32
N=4
30 32 41 38 38 37 40 40 41 42
N=5
46 43 47 48 41 44 43 48 52
N=6

198900E 200900E 202900E

3pt Decoupled Phase (mrad)

2 2 2 7 15 9 3 3 4 4
N=1
4 3 3 8 15 17 11 4 5 4 4
N=2
5 6 5 7 17 19 14 12 6 5 6 6
N=3
8 9 10 19 12 17 14 12 7 8 7
N=4
12 14 18 14 15 14 18 12 10 10
N=5
17 17 14 18 16 22 17 15 12
N=6

Fig.16. Dipole-dipole IP/resistivity pseudosections from line 200,600N.

400 m dipole size. See Figure 13 for location.

ELECTRICAL PROPERTY MEASUREMENTS

Measurement of the electrical properties of different rock types

Fig.15. Dipole-dipole IP/resistivity pseudosections from line 200,000N.
400 m dipole size. See Figure 13 for location.
was given high priority in the development of IP survey techniques
for the Olympic Dam environment. However, the usual problems
of blocked holes prevented a comprehensive sampling of the
deposit for in-situ electrical measurements. Twenty holes were
logged for resistivity and phase angle. All the measurements were
taken at 0.25 Hz using a Zonge GDP-12 receiver, running an early
version of the resistivity-phase programme, and a Zonge LDT-10
laboratory transmitter. Most of the measurements were made in an
experimental phase of the electrical exploration programme during
1980, using primitive non-standard cable and couplings. The probe
was made from household power flex with oxidised lead electrodes.
Measurements were made routinely with the pole-transmitter
dipole-receiver array at two spacings, effectively utilising the two
channels of the GDP-12 receiver, in order to assess the effects of
borehole-fluid resistivity and lateral inhomogeneities. Early work
was carried out with receiver-electrode separations from the
transmitter of 3 m and 9 m for channel one, and 9 m and 27 m for
channel two. Subsequently, spacings of 1.5 m, 4.5 m and 13.5 m
were utilised in an effort to make the probe more manageable.

Borehole fluid corrections for these logarithmically spaced

Maps of variations in apparent resistivity and decoupled phase
angle at the fourth dipole separation are presented in Figure 19.
Comparison with Figure 8 shows that the area with values of 10
mrad, or greater, in decoupled phase angle encompasses
practically the entire copper resource. The peak phase-angle
response is approximately five times background. The apparent
resistivity anomaly is less elongate than the phase angle response,
and probably reflects the higher matrix content of the material
towards the centre of the ODBC.
arrays are similar, particularly at the larger separations, to
corrections for pole-pole arrays that have been published by Glenn
and Nelson (1977) and others. Approximate estimates of the
borehole fluid resistivity from the resistivity logs are in the range
0.1 to 0.3 Ω.m, and compare well with a single measured value of
0.4 Ω.m. The presence of electromagnetic coupling was assessed
by taking measurements at several frequencies and noting the rate
of change of phase angle with frequency. Even in the most
conductive rock units, electromagnetic coupling appeared to have
no significant effect on the results, except in areas of rapidly

156 Geophysical Signatures of South Australian Mineral Deposits

Esdale et al. Olympic Dam copper-uranium-gold-silver-rare earth element deposit

W Olympic Dam Breccia Complex

0 1 E
KILOMETRES
KILOMETRES

198000E 200000E 202000E 204000E 206000E

Apparent Resistivity (Ω.m)

92.2 100.5 87.3 77.4 75.7 48.8 61.1 61.4 43.9 19.9 32.0 61.2 34.8 55.6 49.8 55.4 69.9 74.2 96.5 102.3 95.9 89.6 74.7
N=1
87.2 82.1 72.3 81.4 80.4 48.6 51.1 52.2 34.9 21.8 19.5 21.4 32.9 29.4 44.3 40.8 49.5 59.4 80.0 87.8 81.6 87.7 90.5 82.9
N=2
69.0 52.3 43.2 62.5 76.2 46.0 45.3 42.1 32.1 17.0 19.3 20.2 18.7 28.9 26.0 41.8 39.0 43.0 59.6 67.9 74.0 71.4 90.8 83.8 98.7
N=3
46.0 41.3 40.9 62.1 47.4 45.9 38.5 29.9 21.6 16.1 21.7 15.7 15.3 27.3 29.5 49.1 38.2 46.7 53.4 61.4 66.5 72.1 81.0 89.1
N=4
40.9 43.7 45.0 43.2 51.0 41.1 30.6 24.2 23.2 22.4 18.2 16.9 16.9 33.2 36.3 51.9 43.9 45.8 51.6 57.6 87.3 86.8 96.0
N=5
46.8 51.9 34.9 48.7 38.1 25.8 36.6 20.3 20.3 21.6 41.0 40.4 45.7 48.1 52.3 65.7 76.1
N=6
198000E 200000E 202000E 204000E 206000E

φ 0.125 Hz (mrad)
5.4 5.8 6.5 7.5 5.7 6.3 7.8 12.0 8.2 11.6 13.6 8.4 8.4 8.5 8.9 7.4 6.7 5.7 6.3 4.4 3.9 3.9 4.4
N=1
10.4 10.0 10.8 11.4 10.4 11.8 15.4 21.5 16.3 15.7 15.5 19.2 16.3 15.4 15.5 14.5 12.2 9.9 9.1 8.2 7.4 7.0 6.3 6.3
N=2 16.5 17.2 19.2 20.3 19.7 21.5 26.2 33.3 37.1 26.5 22.2 27.9 26.0 27.0 25.8 25.8 23.3 18.9 14.9 14.1 13.0 12.0 10.4 10.6 9.7
N=3
28.5 32.0 33.5 34.4 36.8 40.4 47.3 54.5 35.7 36.7 29.6 30.9 27.2 38.3 38.9 36.6 32.9 27.6 23.2 21.6 20.1 17.3 16.6 16.1
N=4 47.3 49.8 50.9 54.7 58.8 63.8 70.2 46.5 40.0 25.7 30.8 31.3 34.1 50.3 49.3 46.5 49.8 38.6 31.4 29.9 27.2 26.8 24.0
N=5
66.3 68.1 70.5 81.2 85.3 52.0 31.5 20.4 36.9 34.5 57.3 57.2 54.3 48.4 41.7 37.2 34.7
N=6
198000E 200000E 202000E 204000E 206000E

3pt Decoupled Phase (mrad)

3.4 3.5 4.5 4.0 3.3 3.4 8.8 11.4 4.6 10.3 2.8 5.4 5.7 5.7 5.9 4.3 3.5 2.3 2.8 1.9 2.2 1.5 1.3
N=1
6.1 4.9 5.4 5.8 4.5 4.8 8.4 16.3 11.9 12.7 9.8 16.1 9.0 8.2 7.2 6.3 5.3 3.7 3.2 3.1 2.5 2.1 2.0 2.1
N=2
6.1 5.8 7.3 6.9 7.3 9.6 12.0 19.9 20.9 14.4 15.7 19.4 18.1 13.5 10.5 9.0 8.8 6.8 3.7 4.0 3.9 3.1 3.2 2.9 2.5
N=3
7.3 9.4 9.8 12.0 12.8 16.4 23.1 26.3 18.1 19.1 13.6 18.5 17.9 15.3 15.1 13.0 9.6 7.9 5.2 5.4 4.5 4.2 3.8 4.5
N=4 13.8 14.4 16.3 16.9 22.3 30.0 30.8 18.6 13.0 2.3 10.2 12.3 14.7 20.3 17.4 14.8 13.0 10.0 7.6 5.7 5.4 7.6 6.2
N=5
18.6 20.8 22.2 35.1 34.1 17.3 0.4 -6.5 11.9 7.5 20.4 17.2 13.8 12.5 10.1 7.9 7.9
N=6

Fig.17. Dipole-dipole IP/resistivity pseudosections from line 199,500N. 400 m dipole size. See Figure 13 for location.

W 0 1
Olympic Dam Breccia Complex E
KILOMETRES
KILOMETRES

195900E 197900E 199900E 201900E 203900E

Apparent Resistivity (Ω.m)

65 95 107 156 134 81 98 61 56 75 57 68 80 143 86 80 84 76
N=1
63 80 92 108 126 70 107 95 62 34 39 62 30 75 130 79 63 51 88
N=2
61 65 77 66 86 58 83 79 70 33 24 44 28 40 61 112 45 49 51 136
N=3
61 61 70 78 48 64 64 61 48 24 38 23 37 34 57 68 41 49 77
N=4
60 60 68 56 81 82 86 43 36 39 23 32 32 38 37 63 42 82
N=5
61 89 44 56 45 50 41 36 62 24 32 29 38 28 39 67 74
N=6

195900E 197900E 199900E 201900E 203900E

φ 0.125 Hz (mrad)
7.8 6.7 6.3 7.9 6.8 7.0 6.3 8.8 12.3 7.3 10.0 9.1 6.0 6.1 5.0 5.9 5.6 5.2
N=1
10.0 11.1 9.5 9.6 9.4 10.1 11.9 14.3 19.3 20.5 16.3 14.2 12.7 9.4 8.2 7.7 8.2 9.3 7.9
N=2
14.0 15.8 16.7 18.9 15.0 16.0 16.0 21.8 26.6 26.7 27.9 21.6 19.3 17.6 12.8 13.8 13.0 15.0 13.6 11.5
N=3
22.0 24.0 27.0 26.0 26.0 27.0 31.0 36.2 33.3 34.9 30.0 26.0 26.0 25.0 22.0 23.0 24.0 22.0 20.0
N=4
38.0 38.1 42.0 42.0 38.0 43.0 46.0 44.0 41.4 36.0 31.4 34.0 34.0 36.3 34.0 37.0 32.5 29.0
N=5
51.0 55.4 58.7 53.0 54.0 59.0 54.0 46.3 38.0 35.1 40.5 41.4 43.0 46.0 47.0 47.0 39.0
N=6

195900E 197900E 199900E 201900E 203900E

3pt Decoupled Phase (mrad)

8.3 4.2 4.3 6.1 5.0 5.0 3.0 7.6 10.8 5.9 9.4 6.0 4.0 4.2 3.4 3.5 3.2 2.7
N=1
5.8 6.3 4.6 5.3 4.9 5.4 5.6 11.1 15.9 17.6 13.7 11.2 8.2 4.5 4.7 3.1 2.3 4.1 3.4
N=2
5.3 6.9 7.2 6.2 6.0 5.7 9.7 13.9 18.4 19.7 20.7 18.6 12.1 9.1 5.5 4.8 2.9 3.6 4.2 3.8
N=3
7.2 8.4 9.6 9.6 6.8 9.9 18.4 20.1 20.8 20.6 17.7 12.5 12.6 11.2 6.4 5.5 5.1 4.8 5.4
N=4
9.1 11.6 13.5 13.0 13.2 18.0 21.0 24.5 20.6 14.6 13.8 15.0 13.3 13.5 7.8 8.8 5.6 5.9
N=5
14.1 15.8 18.6 18.0 20.0 23.0 25.0 18.4 12.9 10.0 12.0 13.0 15.3 18.5 13.0 10.8 7.3
N=6

Fig.18. Dipole-dipole IP/resistivity pseudosections from line 100. 400 m dipole size. See Figure 13 for location.

changing apparent resistivity, where phase angles measured by the six other holes from the lower part of the cover sequence. As
larger array were occasionally negative. (Phase lags in this paper expected from the geological logs, the resistivity profiles are similar
are given a positive sign). for each hole. An average profile has been estimated by comparing
profiles and averaging resistivity values for corresponding sections.
Measurements in the Cover Sequence The average resistivity profile is given in Table 2.

Relatively complete logs of the cover sequence are available only The cover sequence has generally high resistivity, above 70
from drill holes RD100 (Fig.20) and RD134. Data were obtained in Ω.m in the top 180 m. Below this the resistivities are lower,

Geophysical Signatures of South Australian Mineral Deposits 157

Esdale et al. Olympic Dam copper-uranium-gold-silver-rare earth element deposit

Phase Angle (mrad)

(a) 50 32 86 94 71 60 53 10 99 68 61 -10 0 20 40 60 80 100
0

203000N
75 50 56 78 75 72 55 76 105 82 83

ARCOONA QUARTZITE
58 59 53 57 52 57 57 54 76 80 93 97 Electrode
Separation
61 44 48 43 59 51 50 65 60 72 104 9 - 27 m
77
58 49 50 59 33 46 29 38 49 3-9m
65 41
34 57
201000N 37
36 23
119 110 50 23 33 29 31 25 23 30 39 41

45 65 64 (61) 48
61 70 75
86 86 57 21 20 22 22 19 31 31 39

CS
48 41 41 62 47 46 39 30 22 16 22 16 15 27 30 48 38 47 53 61 66 72

TREGOLANA SHALE
199000N 37 34 42 44 40 33 36 39 31 34 35 29 35 37 49 58 40

Outline of
197000N Olympic Dam 0 2

GRANITIC
BRECCIA
Breccia Complex
198000E 200000E 200200E 204000E KILOMETRES

(b) Fig.20. Geology and apparent resistivity and polarisation data for drill
hole RD100. CS - Corraberra Sandstone.
203000N
5 9 6 10 10 6 6 5 4 3 4
Measurements in the Olympic Dam Breccia Complex
7 6 6 11 11 11 12 6 4 3 5 5
Table 3 summarises the electrical logs for the units of the
4 7 13 13 (20) 14 10 5 3 3 6
5
5
5 ODBC, and the Roxby Downs Granite. The basement exhibits a
6
2 8 9 14 13 14 9 9 11 6 wide range of resistivities, ranging from a highly resistive host
201000N 13
8 9 10 19
18
13
12 17 14 12 7 8 7 granite (averaging 10,000 Ω.m), to low apparent resistivities
(21) 21
7 8 10 9 7 10 (15) (20) (down to 1 Ω.m) associated with black-haematite bearing rocks.
7 8 9 20 16 18 20 16 10 10 4

7 9 10 12 13 16 23 26 18 19 14 20 18 15 15 13 10 8 5 5 4 4 The haematite-breccia has the lowest resistivity, followed by, in

order of increasing resistivity, the heterolithic-haematite-,
199000N 8 9 11 11 9 14 16 17 15 9 10 10 9 11 6 10 8
heterolithic-granite and granitic breccias. The highest resistivities
were measured in the granite to the south of the ODBC. A general
6 5 7 5 6 5 7 7 12 9 6 6 6 6 4 6 5 6 6 8 6 correlation of increasing phase angle with increasing resistivity is
apparent in all ODBC units, in both logging and laboratory-sample
Outline of
Olympic Dam 0 2 measurements. Whilst copper mineralisation is present in all units
197000N
Breccia Complex of the ODBC, the copper grades tend to be highest (at least in the
KILOMETRES
198000E 200000E 200200E 204000E holes that have been logged), in regions of low apparent resistivity
and relatively low phase angle. This is attributed to the association
of copper mineralisation with haematite-dominant matrix-rich
breccias of high porosity. Conduction of electric current in these
Fig.19. Maps of IP/resistivity data at n=4. 400 m dipole size. Brackets
denote readings that are probably influenced by casing. a) Apparent high-porosity units is predominantly via ionic conduction in the
Ω.m), b) decoupled phase angle (mrad).
resistivity at 0.125 Hz (Ω highly conductive ground water filling the pore space, with few
polarisable sulphide/pore-fluid interfaces carrying significant
current. Porosities of up to 40% have been estimated in matrix-
generally below 40 Ω.m. The lower part (70 m) of the Tregolana rich units where the matrix is black haematite (D. Roberts, pers.
Shale immediately above the crystalline basement has a resistivity comm.). Resistivities in the range 2-10 Ω.m from highly porous
of 15 Ω.m. Electrical logs in only two holes have a complete rocks filled with water of resistivity 0.1 - 0.5 Ω.m are consistent
record of the properties of the cover sequence. The measured with Archie's Law. A second possibility is that the low resistivities
covered sequence is almost uniformly non-polarisable, with phase are a direct result of the black haematite being a relatively
angles between 3 and 8 mrad. conductive semiconductor; a possibility supported by
measurements in the literature, where the most conductive sample
Depth (m) Unit Ω.m)
Resistivity (Ω measured less than 1 Ω.m (Shuey, 1977). It is possible that the
?-110 Arcoona Quartzite 75 polarisability of these units is due to the massive nature of the
110-130 Arcoona Quartzite 100 semiconductor; the same explanation invoked for the low IP
130-170 Arcoona Quartzite 145 response of massive sulphides. However, it has been our
170-180 Arcoona Quartzite 70 experience that true massive sulphides, when measured with a
180-195 Arcoona Quartzite 45 four-electrode system involving moisture and using the GDP-12 as
195-220 Corraberra Sandstone 15 a receiver, always give a large polarisation response, significantly
220-260 Tregolana Shale 30 greater than that observed in the low resistivity units at Olympic
260-330 Tregolana Shale 15 Dam. It is likely that the black haematite is the most conductive
non-sulphide mineral in the breccia units, but as it occurs in porous
Table 2. Average resistivity profile for the sedimentary sequence units the electrical properties are strongly influenced by the pore
overlying the Olympic Dam deposit, based on eight drill-hole logs water.

158 Geophysical Signatures of South Australian Mineral Deposits

Esdale et al. Olympic Dam copper-uranium-gold-silver-rare earth element deposit

Cu (%) Phase Angle (mrad) Apparent Resistivity (Ω.m) (a) Resistivity Resistivity Resistivity
20 40 60 80 100 1.0 10.0 100 500 (Ω.m) (Ω.m) (Ω.m)
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
0
3-layer
GRANITIC
BRECCIA

model

100 AL
HAEMATITE BRECCIA BRECCIA BRECCIA
HETEROLITHIC

AQ

200

TS

300
HAEMA' GRANITIC

Model A (drillhole) Model B Model C

Electrode
400
Separation

(b) Resistivity Ω.m)

(
40 60 80 100
1
Model A
(drillhole) Model B
Fig.21. Geology, average copper assays and apparent resistivity and
2

Dipole Separation (n)

polarisation data for drill hole RD486. Model D
Dataset 1
3 Model C

Geology Ω.m) Phase Angle (mrad)

Resistivity(Ω
4 Dataset 2
Range Average Range Average Dataset 3

Granitic breccia 150-2000 300 40-90 80

5
Heterolithic haematite 4-25 4 20-60 35
breccia 6
Heterolithic granite 4-100 30 30-80 40
breccia
Fig.22. a) Layered resistivity-depth models designed to simulate the
Haematitic breccia 1.5-15 5 25-80 35 cover and basement geology at Olympic Dam. b) Apparent resistivities
Granitic breccia 100-5000 400 30-60 40 for different dipole-dipole array n-values predicted by the models in
Roxby Downs 1000-10000 4000 10-40 30 a), along with the observed values comprising the three datasets in
Granite Table 4. AL – Andamooka Limestone, AQ – Aroona Quartzite, TS –
Tregolana Shale.
Table 3. Olympic Dam Breccia Complex, electrical properties from
downhole IP logging. dipole-dipole apparent resistivities, to devise simplified models for
the sedimentary cover sequence. These models provide a basis for
The porosity of the rocks decreases with decreasing matrix evaluating anomalies caused by the basement.
content, and the porosity due to fractures and joints becomes
dominant. In these rocks, relatively small amounts of mineralisation Surface Dipole-Dipole Measurements
and other sulphides give significant polarisation effects. The logging
results for RD 486 (Fig.21) illustrate the general correlation between Almost all apparent resistivities from 400 m dipole-dipole
high resistivity and high phase angle and the poor correlation, in surveys fall in the range 15-150 Ω.m. A selection of resistivity
detail, between copper content and phase angle. The basement has measurements from places where there should be little influence
consistently higher phase angles than the cover sequence, even when from basement mineralisation is given in Table 4. The locations of
the basement consists of unmineralised granite. Generally, the phase- these datasets are shown in Figure 13.
angle response decreases with increasing proportions of black
haematite matrix in the breccias, and increasing copper grades. The The resistivities for separations 5 and 6 suggest the mineralised
most significant high phase-angle response is produced by basement has a resistivity of the order of 60 Ω.m. There are no
cupriferous and other polarisable material in low porosity breccias, or signs of very resistive basement (100's of Ω.m), even near the ends
those breccias with little black crystalline haematite. of the survey lines furthest away from mineralisation. This may be
due to increasing thickness of the cover sequence and in particular
INDUCED POLARISATION MODELLING the Tregolana Shale. Over the area of mineralisation, however,
apparent resistivities are low (to less than 20 Ω.m), as seen on the
An appreciation of the resistivity structure is essential in pseudosections (Figs.14 to 18) and in plan (Fig.19a).
evaluating IP data. Superficially, the situation at Olympic Dam is
simple, consisting of a series of almost flat lying, laterally One-Dimensional Modelling
homogeneous, sediments above a heterogeneous basement.
Examination of the apparent resistivity pseudosections, however, Layered models of the covering sediments and basement were
indicates lateral variations in the sedimentary cover are important, constructed to examine the consistency of drill hole and dipole-
whilst the layer structure is often not obvious (Figs.14 to 18). dipole measurements (Table 5). These layered resistivity-depth
These features complicate identification and interpretation of models are plotted in Figure 22a, whilst the apparent resistivities
resistivity and polarisation heterogeneities in the basement. for different n values predicted by these models are shown in
Figure 22b, along with the observed values for the three datasets in
Apparent Resistivity Data Table 4.

Direct information on resistivity is, fortunately, available from Model A comprises apparent resistivities for the average drill
drill hole logs (see above). This has been used, together with hole layer structure of Table 2, with a 50 m thick, 30 Ω.m, top layer

Geophysical Signatures of South Australian Mineral Deposits 159

Esdale et al. Olympic Dam copper-uranium-gold-silver-rare earth element deposit

Separation Dataset 1 Dataset 2 Dataset 3

204,200E on 199,500N Average of 199,000E 199, 800E Average of 199,100E, 199, 900E
and 200,600E on 202,600N and 200,700E on 201,800N
(n) Apparent Resistivities (Ω.m) Apparent Resistivities (Ω.m) Apparent Resistivities (Ω.m)
1 74 88 80
2 70 90 66
3 60 85 59
4 50 75 53
5 46 66 54
6 47 61 55

Table 4. Selected measured apparent resistivities, 400 m dipole-dipole surveys.

Layer Model A Model B Model C Model D

Thickness Resistivity Thickness Resistivity Thickness Resistivity Thickness Resistivity
(m) (Ω.m) (m) (Ω.m) (m) (Ω.m) (m) (Ω.m)
1 50 30 60 100 30 15 30 10
2 60 75 50 120 45 50 45 150
3 20 100 40 250 40 250 40 200
4 40 145 20 120 60 400 60 100
5 10 70 30 25 20 350 20 45
6 15 45 130 30 5 100 5 45
7 25 15 50 5 15 5 15
8 40 30 20 30 20 30
9 70 15 65 15 65 15
10 60 40 20 40 20
11 60 60

Table 5. Multi-layer resistivity models for the Olympic Dam environment.

and a 60 Ω.m basement. Comparison of the calculated apparent
resistivities with the observations (Table 4) suggests that the most
resistive unit, the Arcoona Quartzite, is commonly more resistive
than estimated from drill hole logs. Models B, C and D represent
attempts to provide a better fit to the observations.
It is important to note that these models are just examples of
layer structures that are compatible with both drill hole and dipole-
dipole surface measurements. It is obvious that the dipole-dipole
data are quite inadequate for deriving such detailed, multi-layer,
resistivity structures. Clearly it is also difficult to estimate bulk
resistivities over a large area from locally variable drill hole
observations. From the adjustments that have to be made to the
models to fit (approximately) the different field datasets, it appears
that variations in resistivity within the Arcoona Quartzite and
Andamooka Limestone are responsible for a large part of the
apparent resistivity variation. In the former, such variations are
thought to be due to fracturing and faulting. In the latter, such
variations could be caused by irregular topography of the
limestone and internal cavities.
Interpretation of the dipole-dipole data alone, without drill hole
information, would lead to a much simpler models. For example,
a three-layer model, such as shown in Figure 22a, will produce
almost exactly the same resistivity values in a dipole-dipole survey
as the structure based on the drill hole information. However, the
PFE effects of a polarisable basement are very different. For a
basement with 10 PFE, the apparent PFE for n = 3 is 5.8 for the
three-layer model, but only 2.7 with the drill hole-based model A.
It is evidently desirable for further interpretation of the IP
anomalies to use the more complex models (based on drill hole
data), such as given in Table 5.
Electromagnetic Coupling - The Extent of Coupling
Multi-frequency phase data for line 200,000N are presented in
Figure 15. The significant differences in the phase-angle results
between the 1 Hz and 0.0156 Hz data are due to electromagnetic
coupling, which because of the strong dependence on distance
between the transmitter and receiver, produces a horizontal layered
appearance. Inspection of phase angle versus frequency plots
suggests that the 0.0156 Hz data are relatively free of such effects,
even at the sixth separation. Use of the quadratic decoupling
formula (see below), where phase angle data at three frequencies
are extrapolated to zero frequency, on data from frequencies of
0.125, 0.25 and 0.5 Hz produce the decoupled phase result shown
at the bottom of Figure 15. The agreement with the 0.0156 Hz data
is generally good, considering the amount of electromagnetic
coupling present in even the 0.125 Hz data. The difference
between the decoupled phase angle and the 0.0156 Hz data in the
centre of the anomaly is a result, in part, of the long time-constant
of the IP effect measured at these points. One of the assumptions
behind the decoupling formula is that the IP effect does not change
significantly with frequency. Similar agreement was obtained for
line 200,600N. As a result of this work, all subsequent spreads
were read at frequencies of 0.125, 0.25, and 0.5 Hz for resistivity-
phase measurements and at 0.125, 1 and 8 Hz for CR
measurements. Gathering the three higher frequencies was
approximately a factor of five faster than gathering the 0.0156 Hz
data. Telluric noise, particularly the PC1 micropulsation with
periods in the range 17 to 22 s, was the most significant source of
noise encountered, and accounts for the extremely long
observation times required for gathering lower frequency data.
The decoupled phase data presented above were all calculated
using a quadratic three-point decoupling formula, that assumes the
IP phase is constant, and the phase angle caused by EM coupling
varies as the first and second powers of frequency (an approach
proposed by Hallof, 1974). Specifically:
φ (decoupled) = (8φ0.125 – 6φ0.25 + φ0.5)/3 (1)
where φf is the phase measured at frequency f.
When CR data were obtained later in the survey programme, it
was possible to apply more sophisticated decoupling procedures,

160 Geophysical Signatures of South Australian Mineral Deposits

Esdale et al. Olympic Dam copper-uranium-gold-silver-rare earth element deposit

W 0 1 E
Olympic Dam Breccia Complex
KILOMETRES
(a) 198000E 200000E 202000E 204000E

φ Decoupled - Coggon (mrad)

3.4 3.6 5.0 4.2 3.3 3.9 6.3 11.4 4.0 12.2 14.8 7.0 6.5 6.6 7.9 6.1
N=1
6.1 4.8 5.8 5.8 3.9 3.5 8.0 15.8 11.1 13.5 11.1 10.3 9.8 9.2 8.5 7.8 4.6
N=2
4.8 4.6 6.7 8.3 6.1 8.1 10.6 18.1 19.0 11.9 19.1 21.6 19.4 14.4 11.5 9.9 8.0 8.0
N=3
4.2 6.6 8.5 9.8 9.6 12.6 19.2 21.5 18.6 14.4 15.1 21.6 21.5 15.9 15.9 11.9 6.0
N=4
8.6 9.1 14.1 10.1 14.9 25.2 23.6 11.9 13.9 11.3 13.3 14.6 20.4 21.6 15.1 12.4
N=5
11.1 14.1 18.2 27.8 23.3 18.7 5.7 7.7 22.0 9.0 16.2 10.2
N=6
(b) 198000E 200000E 202000E 204000E

φ Decoupled - ZERO (mrad)

3.8 3.9 4.6 4.6 3.4 4.0 5.8 10.4 5.6 12.0 13.0 6.1 6.2 6.4 6.9 5.3
N=1
5.9 5.2 5.6 6.8 5.5 6.9 10.1 16.7 12.7 14.7 10.7 17.3 9.7 6.5 6.3 7.5 5.6
N=2
5.3 6.1 7.4 9.1 9.0 10.4 14.9 22.8 22.9 13.4 11.6 19.2 15.5 12.4 9.6 8.6 8.3 6.9
N=3
8.7 11.2 13.3 14.5 16.6 20.8 26.2 26.3 14.3 16.4 5.5 10.8 10.7 11.1 11.5 9.7 9.5
N=4
16.9 19.3 20.3 22.4 25.8 30.7 35.4 8.9 11.4 -17.6 -8.2 4.6 4.1 12.5 12.2 12.6
N=5
22.3 22.8 27.7 44.6 40.7 4.9 0.7 -37.9 -5.6 -4.3 11.8 13.9
N=6
(c)
198000E 200000E 202000E 204000E

φ Decoupled - Geophynque International (mrad)

3.3 3.3 3.7 3.8 3.6 3.9 4.6 4.6 5.9 6.9 6.8 5.4 5.5 4.6 3.8 3.1
N=1
5.0 5.6 5.4 6.8 7.8 9.8 12.3 15.7 13.3 7.6 7.8 13.6 11.0 8.5 7.2 6.7 5.6
N=2
9.8 10.0 12.0 13.3 12.2 13.7 16.9 21.4 22.9 13.8 9.7 11.3 12.4 11.8 11.3 10.8 8.5 11.9
N=3
16.3 16.9 17.9 18.3 22.3 24.2 27.2 27.7 13.3 7.8 7.5 7.7 9.0 13.0 11.4 11.2 12.5
N=4
19.7 23.6 26.2 27.5 29.6 31.0 39.3 9.7 6.4 4.5 4.0 4.3 4.8 10.0 12.4 11.1
N=5
25.4 27.9 30.5 52.3 44.1 7.9 3.6 3.2 3.5 3.9 12.4 11.1
N=6

Fig.23. Decoupled IP phase data from line 199,500N. See Figure 13 for location. The data in a) were decoupled using the method of Coggon (1984).
The data in b) and c) were decoupled using proprietary methods developed by ZERO and Geophynque International, respectively.

using all measurements over the frequency range 0.125 to 88 Hz.

Real component
Figure 23 shows the results of two proprietary decoupling 1.0

techniques (ZERO, and Geophynque International) applied to data 0.9

on line 199,500N. Also shown for comparison, are the results of a 0.8
0.7 Basement
different three-point formula designed for coupling removal in Model data resistivity
0.6 20 Ω.m
layered environments (Coggon, 1984). Specifically: 60 Ω.m
0.5 200 Ω.m
0.4
φ2.5 = 2.468φ0.125 – 2.492φ0.375 + 1.024φ0.625 (2) 0.3
Field data
204,200E 199,500N
0.2 201,400E 199,500N
where φf is the phase measured at frequency f. Imaginary component
0.5
0.4
Differences between the various decoupled phase patterns
0.3
illustrate the uncertainties in attempting to separate
0.2
electromagnetic coupling and IP effects. 0.1
0.0
The degree of electromagnetic coupling on 199,500N appears
greater than on 200,000N and lines to the north. This is consistent 0.1 0.5 1.0 5.0 10.0 50.0 100.0
with modelling results (discussed later) that suggest a greater Frequency (Hz)

lateral extent of conductive basement in the area of 199,500N. The

IP phase response here, consequently, is not as reliably known as Fig.24. Theoretical and observed electromagnetic-coupling spectra
on the northern lines. from 'on' and 'off' mineralisation. Normalised response for 400 m
dipoles, 5th separation. See Table 5 for details of models.
Electromagnetic Sounding Data
respectively. Figure 24 illustrates the variation in complex
The electromagnetic-coupling data basically support the impedance as a function of the basement resistivity. Decreasing
models derived from the apparent resistivity data. Electromagnetic the resistivity of the basement decreases the maximum phase
sounding curves for a simplified 5-layer model, derived from the response. In fact, at the 5th separation the curves are quite
models of Table 5 but with varying basement resistivities, are sensitive to the resistivity of the basement. Field data from the 5th
shown for the 5th separation in Figure 24. Data are plotted as real separation at 204,200E on 199,500N, a point chosen for dataset 1
and imaginary components of complex impedance, normalised so in Table 4, are in good agreement with the 60 Ω.m basement model
that the real part of the impedance is 1.0 at 0.125 Hz. The sign of results. The variation at higher frequencies between the model
the imaginary component has been reversed. Resistivities for the results and field data reflect variations in the cover sequence from
first four layers above the basement are 12, 70, 150 and 10 Ω.m the theoretical model. Electromagnetic-coupling data for the 5th
respectively, and their thicknesses are 30, 20, 140 and 140 m separation at 201,400E on 199,500N, in the centre of the apparent

Geophysical Signatures of South Australian Mineral Deposits 161

Esdale et al.
Basement
ρ = 60 Ω.m
203000N
Cover
0 - 100 m
100 - 200 m
200 - 300 m
201000N
Depth 300-800 m, ρ = 3 Ω.m, PE = 80
1 models of the basement, little attention was paid to the interpreted
Depth 300-600 m, ρ = 5 Ω.m, PE = 80 2 Depth 300-800 m, ρ = 3 Ω.m, PE = 80
6 4 3 Depth 300-600 m, ρ = 3 Ω.m, PE = 40
5
199000N
Depth 400-600 m Depth 400-600 m
0 2
Outline of
197000N Olympic Dam KILOMETRES
Breccia Complex
198000E 200000E 200200E
Fig.25. Results of three-dimensional IP/resistivity modelling of the
data from Olympic Dam. Compare with Figures 7 and 8. The
structure is defined by a finite difference mesh of 57 nodes (east-west)
by 17 nodes (north-south) by 12 nodes (in depth). Polarisation effect
(PE) equals four times PFE simulated with real impedance.
resistivity low (Fig.19), are also plotted in Figure 24. The data are
consistent with a basement of resistivity of the order of 20 Ω.m.
Two- and Three-Dimensional Induced Polarisation
Modelling
It is obvious from the map and pseudosections of decoupled
phase that there is an IP anomaly associated with the Olympic
Dam deposit (Figs.15 to 19). By deriving semi-quantitative
estimates of source geometry from the IP data, and comparing this
geometry with the geological structure, the principal sources of the
polarisation response may be identified. The anomalies on lines
202,600N to 200,000N are like those caused by relatively narrow,
depth-extensive, bodies. In many cases strongly anomalous phase
angles are apparent at the first dipole separation, which is not
expected of bodies buried by nearly a dipole length. It is probable
that there is some anomaly distortion by conductive steel drill
casing (discussed later). Anomalous phase patterns, on line
199,500N and to the south, appear as if they are caused by laterally
extensive bodies. The source zone(s) appear to deepen toward the
south.
In detail, as previously mentioned, the form of the phase
anomalies depends upon the technique used to remove
electromagnetic-coupling effects. These uncertainties in the true
IP phase pattern have to be borne in mind during interpretation.
The approach taken with modelling was to try to devise relatively
simple models that reproduce the observed IP anomalies. There
are gross simplifications of the real Earth to be made, and even if
a model should fit the data, it would by no means be unique.
However, the modelling process brings insight into understanding
the causes and form of the IP response, and some tentative
conclusions on the sources of the anomalies at Olympic Dam can
be drawn. The electrical physical properties determined from
downhole logging (Tables 2 and 3) were used as starting
parameters. The term 'polarisation effect' is used here for the
models, as the modelling technique simulates IP by a change in
resistivity, rather than by changes in complex impedances.
162 Geophysical Signatures of South Australian Mineral Deposits
Olympic Dam copper-uranium-gold-silver-rare earth element deposit
Modelling was attempted, using a three-dimensional IP
modelling program, to honour the geometrical aspects of the
PE = 13
geology. Attention was concentrated on the area 199,000N to
201,000N, covering the central part of the deposit. After a good
ρ = 50 Ω.m PE = 3
ρ = 120 Ω.m PE = 3 deal of trial and error the model shown in plan in Figure 25 was
ρ = 15 Ω.m PE = 3
arrived at. For ease of description and adjustment, the structure is
made up of rectangular blocks, within a finite-difference mesh.
The sedimentary cover is represented by a simplified sequence of
three layers, designed to give apparent resistivities like those of the
average drill hole model of Table 5, Model A. When making up
geological structure, but polarisable zones were assigned
resistivities and polarisation effects compatible with drill hole
logging data. Host basement material, however, was assigned a
resistivity of 60 Ω.m (c.f. data in Table 4 and models in Table 5)
and a polarisation effect of 13 (equivalent to 13 mrad), in order to
match 'off-anomaly' field data. During modelling, much more
attention was paid to matching polarisation anomalies than
resistivity patterns. The result is that the main polarisable zones
are located, but the resistivity structure is not fully modelled.
200400E
Calculated anomalies for parts of two lines (199,500/600N and
200,000N) are shown in Figures 26 and 27 respectively. Note that
the model results are on 199,600N to fit the finite-difference mesh
structure. The modelling has concentrated on the section of the
lines between 199,600E and 201,700E. On model line 199,600N,
the main differences compared with field data on 199,500N are a
higher model polarisation response in the eastern part of the
section, and higher model resistivities at large separations. The
degree of agreement of model with field data depends on the type
of decoupling preferred (see Figure 23). The "φ2.5" pattern
(equation 2) is the easiest to match with model results, but this
does not mean it is 'correct'.
On line 200,000N, the model and field polarisation patterns are
broadly similar, with the exception of values for the first dipole
separation. The strongly anomalous phase at 201,100E cannot be
matched by any model sources in the basement. Early 100 m and
200 m dipole-dipole surveys carried out here (Fig.14), and drill
hole logs, show a lack of polarisable zones in the cover sediments,
and it seems likely that the anomaly has been distorted by more
recently emplaced steel drill casing. This is discussed later.
Some of the observed resistivity patterns clearly reflect
variations in the sedimentary cover sequence. In addition, there is
a definite resistivity low associated with the area of mineralisation.
The derived model of polarisable and conductive zones does not
account for all of this low, and it appears there must be a more
extensive and deeper region of relatively conductive material.
Reconciliation of the Electrical Measurements and
Interpretation with Geology
In comparing the apparent resistivity of the 400 m dipole-dipole
data (Fig.19) with the geology and mineralisation (Figs 6 to 8), and
combining with observations in the mine, the following
observations can be made:
• The lowest resistivities occur in the middle of the breccia
complex, which is dominated by barren quartz-silica and more
haematitic members of the breccia complex. This may be
because rock permeability is enhanced in the central area,
proximal to the edge of the barren breccias. This is evident
from seepage of highly saline fluids from the walls of the
underground drives. In fact, some of the walls are white with
salt encrustation.
• The decoupled phase-angle data show a generally similar
relationship, with a phase-angle high coinciding with
Esdale et al. Olympic Dam copper-uranium-gold-silver-rare earth element deposit

W E
198500E 200100E 201700E 203300E

3.6 5.0 4.2 3.3 3.9 6.3 11.4 4.0 12.2 14.8 7.0 6.5 6.6 7.9 6.1

5.8 5.8 3.9 3.5 8.0 15.8 11.1 13.5 11.1 10.3 9.8 9.2 8.5
199500N
6.7 8.3 6.1 8.1 10.6 18.1 19.0 11.9 19.1 21.6 19.4 14.4 11.5
Decoupled
phase 8.5 9.8 9.6 12.6 19.2 21.5 18.6 14.4 15.1 21.6 21.5 15.9
(mrad) 14.1 10.1 14.9 25.2 23.6 11.9 13.9 11.3 13.3 14.6 20.4
9.1

14.1 18.2 27.8 23.3 18.7 5.7 7.7 22.0

3.3 3.2 3.6 4.0 5.6 6.4 5.2 5.2 4.4 3.6 3.2 3.3

4.6 5.6 6.8 12.0 16.0 10.8 14.6 13.6 9.2 5.6 4.6
199600N 7.7 8.8 15.6 20.8 14.0 11.2 21.6 21.5 13.2 7.7
Model
polarisation 10.9 17.2 21.6 12.4 10.4 10.0 22.6 24.4 10.9

effect 12.7 22.0 12.0 8.4 8.8 9.2 22.4 12.7

13.7 12.8 8.0 8.8 8.4 9.2 13.7

57 62 61 60 57 54 53 53 58 61 63 57

199600N 48 50 48 41 34 33 30 31 41 51 48
Model 48 48 40 31 30 34 28 27 36 46
apparent
49 42 33 35 39 43 32 26 49
resistivity
52
(Ω.m) 35 38 46 50 50 36 52

53 39 40 57 56 55 53

Depth (m)
0
ρ = 50 Ω.m, PE = 3
200 ρ = 120 Ω.m, PE = 3
3 2 ρ = 15 Ω.m, PE = 3
Model 400 Background 6
4
5 ρ = 3 Ω.m, PE = 40
600 ρ = 60 Ω.m, PE = 13 200 m to S

ρ = 5 Ω.m, PE = 80
800 300 m to S
ρ = 3 Ω.m, PE = 40
1000 ρ = 3 Ω.m, PE = 80
300 m to N

Fig.26. Calculated and field IP results, on lines 199,500/199,600N, for the three-dimensional model in Figure 25. Decoupled phase was calculated
using equation 2. PE – polarisation effect.

haematite-rich mineralised breccia. Polarisable zones 1, 2 and There is some question over whether the decoupled-phase
6 (Fig.25) correspond with copper mineralisation. Zones 3, 4 response is in fact a pure IP response, or whether it still contains
and 5 (Fig.25) correspond with less copper mineralised areas, an appreciable amount of electromagnetic coupling. However,
but contain more haematite, and interestingly significant gold perhaps the most important point in considering these apparent
mineralisation. inconsistencies is that the surface IP surveys provide a good
description, and bulk sampling, of electrical properties across the
However, there are significant differences between the results area of the deposit, but little information on depth variations. The
of surface and drill hole electrical measurements. For example: drill-hole IP logs give good, and detailed, sampling in depth, but a
poor sampling across the whole area of the deposit. Logged drill
• Surface measurements at the flanks of the deposit indicate that holes are almost entirely restricted to a belt one to one and a half
the basement rocks here have lower resistivities (less than 100 dipoles (400-600 m) wide of any stratigraphic unit well to the east
Ω.m) and lower polarisabilities (less than 15 mrad) than and west of the mineralised zone.
expected from the drill-hole logs (at least 200 Ω.m, 40 mrad).
• The correspondence of high phase angles with low resistivity, Other aspects relating to the nature of the measurements are the
evident from surface data, is at variance with drill hole results, effects of fractures and anisotropy. The influences of conducting
which show more resistive rocks being more polarisable. faults and fractures are more accurately sampled by the very large
• The correlation of surface phase response with copper volumes of ground investigated by the 400 m-dipole surface
mineralisation is not predicted from drill-hole logs. measurements, than by the relatively short separation drill hole
arrays. Specific preferred orientations of fractures might cause bulk
anisotropy, in both resistivity and polarisation. Vertical fractures in

Geophysical Signatures of South Australian Mineral Deposits 163

Esdale et al. Olympic Dam copper-uranium-gold-silver-rare earth element deposit

W E
198500E 200100E 201700E 203300E

3 3 3 4 16 8 5 7 7 7

3 4 4 5 18 22 13 6 6 6
Decoupled
6 6 20 18 21 16 8 8
phase 5 5

(mrad) 7 9 8 20 16 18 20 16 10

14 13 22 15 16 15 19 17

17 17 14 7 14 12 14

3.3 3.6 3.6 3.6 4.0 4.0 4.4 5.6 6.0 3.6 3.2

4.6 5.6 6.4 8.0 8.8 10.0 14.0 13.6 12. 6

Model 7.7 8.4 11.2 12.8 15.6 19.2 17.2 18.0
8
17.6
polarisation
effect 10.9 12.8 14.4 17.2 20.0 14.8 16.8 16.8

12.7 15.2 17.6 18.8 12.8 12.4 16.0

13.7 18.0 17.6 11.2 10.4 11.6

57 62 61 61 60 60 57 53 54 61 63

Model 48 51 49 47 44 36 31 33 37 50
apparent 48 49 45 41 33 27 30 31 34
resistivity
49 47 42 33 29 36 35 33
(Ω.m)
52 44 34 33 42 44 40

53 36 36 48 50 49

Depth (m)
0
ρ = 50 Ω.m, PE = 3
200 ρ = 120 Ω.m, PE = 3
3 2 ρ = 15 Ω.m, PE = 3
Model 400 Background 6
4 1

600 ρ = 60 Ω.m, PE = 13
ρ = 3 Ω.m, PE = 80
ρ = 5 Ω.m, PE = 80
800 300 m to S
ρ = 3 Ω.m, PE = 40 ρ = 3 Ω.m, PE = 80
1000 300 m to S 200 m to N

Fig.27. Calculated and field IP results, on 200,000N, for the three-dimensional model in Figure 25. Decoupled phase was calculated from the
expression: φ Decoupled = 1.8750φ0.125 – 1.2500φ0.375 + 0.3750φ0.625 .Where φf is phase in mrad at frequency φ. PE – polarisation effect.

moderately resistive rock, for example, should reduce apparent Line 200,000N
resistivity and phase angles measured with a horizontal surface
array, while having little affect on vertical drill hole measurements. The earliest IP surveys carried out on this line were 100 m, 200
m and 300 m dipole-dipole traverses, completed in 1977 and 1978.
While it is likely that porosity is an important control on At this time, there were already several drill holes along the line,
resistivity, with most current being conducted by highly saline cased with steel through the sedimentary cover. It is unknown
pore fluid, it is not clear what controls polarisation. There are what influence these holes had on the measurements, but there are
several varieties of haematite present and a number of sulphide no obvious effects (Fig.14).
minerals, but the drill hole logs show little correlation of content
with phase angle. It is suggested that texture and porosity are more The 400 m dipole-dipole survey was carried out in 1980, by
important than mineral content. which time a further eleven cased holes were present near the line,
seven of them within 200 m of 200,000N, 201,200E. Figure 28a
Drill-hole Casing Effects shows the positions of the drill holes, plus apparent resistivities
calculated from the 200 m dipole survey and measured on the 400
As mentioned earlier, some of the IP anomalies appear to be m dipole survey. The maximum discrepancy between the
influenced by the presence of steel drill-hole casing. The effects resistivity profiles, at 201,100E, corresponds with to the area with
of casing are seen in high first-separation phase angles, and in most new casing.
changes in phase and resistivity patterns observed after casing has
been withdrawn or inserted. Crude three dimensional modelling A similar comparison of polarisation effects is not appropriate as
confirms, qualitatively, the nature of these effects. the 200 m dipole survey involved measurements at only two
frequencies, providing no basis for removal of inductive-coupling

164 Geophysical Signatures of South Australian Mineral Deposits

Esdale et al. Olympic Dam copper-uranium-gold-silver-rare earth element deposit

w E
(a) 120 Field Data
200 m dipoles
calculated to 400 m

( .m)
100 (1978)

Apparent Resistivity Ω
80
60
400 m dipoles
first separation
40 (1980)
80
Model Data Without casing
60
Casing drillholes With casing
40 at time of 200 m survey
20 Location of
cased drillholes
Additional cased within 200 m of line
holes at time of
400 m survey
7 new holes
(b) 198600E 200200E 201800E 203400E

3.6 3.6 3.2 4.0 4.0 4.0 14.4 6.8 3.6 3.2

5.6 5.2 6.8 8.4 9.2 21.2 18.4 13.6 6.0

7.2 9.6 11.6 13.6 24.4 18.8 19.6 18.4

Model
11.2 13.2 15.2 22.8 14.8 17.2 19.6
polarisation
effect 14.4 16.4 21.2 12.0 12.0 16.8

17.2 20.4 10.8 9.2 10.8

(c)
0 0 -0.4 0 0 -0.4 8.8 0.8 0 0

0 -1.2 -1.2 -0.4 -0.8 7.2 4.8 0.8 0

Change in -1.2 -1.6 -1.2 -2.0 5.2 1.6 1.6 0.8

polarisation -1.6 -1.2 -2.0 2.8 0 0.4 0.8

effect -0.8 -1.2
0
2.4 0.8
-0.6 -0.4
due to addition
of casing -0.8 2.8 -0.4 -1.2 -0.8

(d)
Depth (m) casing: ρ = 5, PE = 20, 0-200 m N of line
0
7 ρ = 50 Ω.m, PE = 3
200 ρ = 120 Ω.m, PE = 3
3 2 ρ = 15 Ω.m, PE = 3
400 Background
4 1
6
600 ρ = 60 Ω.m, PE = 13
ρ = 3 Ω.m, PE = 80
ρ = 5 Ω.m, PE = 80
800 300 m to S
ρ = 3 Ω.m, PE = 40 ρ = 3 Ω.m, PE = 80
1000 300 m to S 200 m to N

Fig.28. Casing effects on 200,000N. a) Observed and modelled resistivity effects of casing. b) Polarisation effect anomaly for three-dimensional IP model
with casing. c) Changes in polarisation effect, for the model, caused by the addition of casing. d) Model with casing block. PE – polarisation effect.

effects. However, the area where the resistivity data appear affected caused principally by polarisable material within the basement, but
by casing, near 201,100E, corresponds with the peak in the phase has been distorted by the presence of drill-hole casing through the
angle measured at the first dipole separation with the 400 m dipole cover above this material.
survey. This phase peak is greater than predicted by numerical
models that have polarisable sources confined to the basement. Lines 200,600N and 100

To try to simulate the effect of steel casing passing through the The phase anomaly on 200,600N (Fig.16) is similar to that on
cover sequence, a small conductive and polarisable block was 200,000N, and may similarly be ascribed to basement sources with
inserted in the three-dimensional model of Figure 25. Results some anomaly distortion by drill-hole casing in the area of
from the model with casing are given in Figure 28. There is a local 201,100E. Line 200,600N was completed in 1980, and the area
drop in apparent resistivity, while the phase at the first separation was then resurveyed in 1983, on line 100 (Fig.18). Although the
rises sharply, giving a pattern very like the measured anomaly survey lines are close to each other, there are very large differences
(compare Figures 28b and 27). The distortion of the phase between the resistivities and phase angles from the two surveys.
anomaly by the effects of casing is shown, for the model case, by The differences are greatest in an area of intensive drilling, carried
the difference in phase between the anomaly for casing present and out during 1980-83, again suggesting casing-related anomalies.
the anomaly for casing absent (Fig.28c).
Attempts at modelling this situation have only been partly
The consistency of the field observations and the model results successful. A model of polarisable material within the basement,
is taken to support the view that the IP anomaly on 200,000N is and a small zone of casing near 200,100E, was designed for the

Geophysical Signatures of South Australian Mineral Deposits 165

Esdale et al. Olympic Dam copper-uranium-gold-silver-rare earth element deposit

(a) (b)
W E W E
199300E 200900E 202500E 199200E 200800E 202400E

200600 n 5 5.6 5.2 5.6 11.2 17.2 17.6 10.0 5.2 5.2 200600N
decoupled 7.2 8.0 16.0 19.8 16.4 20.0 14.6 7.8 model
phase polarisation
9.6 18.8 17.6 13.2 14.0 19.6 17.6 effect
20.0 16.8 11.8 10.4 12.4 19.8
16.4 10.8 9.6 9.6 12.0

6.0 6.4 7.2 13.6 15.0 14.4 10.4 5.2 5.2

Line 100 Line 1
decoupled 7.6 6.0 16.4 19.2 15.6 18.0 15.2 7.6
model
phase 9.2 18.0 18.4 14.4 13.6 18.0 17.8 polarisation
19.2 16.0 10.8 12.4 17.6 effect
12.0
15.6 10.4 8.8 11.2 11.6

1 8 1 -2 -3 -2 1 0 0 3 3 0 -4 0 0 0
5 7.5
Change 7 12 12 2 -6 -6 -3 0 0 -1 0 1 2 2 -2 -3 0 0 0
in phase Model
13 14 8 1 -6 -4 -3 -2. -1 0 0 0 0 -1 2.5 -2 0 0 0
(100) - (200600N) 5 change in
-5

5 0
12 11 12.10 6 1 -2 -4 -2 -3 -2 0 -1 -1 -1
0
0 -2 0 polarisation
7 . 5 effect
11 5 25.5 -2 -1 1 -3 -2 -3 -1 -1 -1 2 0 -1
0
-2.5
(100) - (200600N)
1 -3 -6 -5 -6 -6 -4 -1 -1 -1 0 -1 2 0

c) (d)
Casing for 100 C asing for 200600 N
ρ = 5 Ω.m, PE = 20
Casing for ρ = 50 Ω.m, PE = 3
line 200600 N 0
ρ = 5 Ω.m, PE = 20
ρ = 120 Ω.m, PE = 3
Model
400 ρ = 15 Ω.m, PE = 3
plan 200 600 N Background
ρ = 60 Ω.m, PE = 13 ρ = 3 Ω.m, PE = 80
199200 E

200400 E

202400 E

800 Model
section
Depth (m)
N.B. Model lines 100 and 200600N
Casing for line 100 ρ = 3 Ω.m, PE = 80 have identical locations
ρ = 5 Ω.m, PE = 20 Depth
300-800 m

Fig.29. Casing effects on 200,600N. a) Observed phase anomalies on lines 200,600N and 100, with the differences between them, representing the
effects of changes (mainly an increase) in casing distribution. b) Model polarisation effect anomalies on lines 200,600N and 100, and the difference
pattern between these. c) and d), Plan and section of IP model, showing locations of casing used for modelling results for lines 200,600N and 100.PE
– polarisation effect.

anomaly on 200,600N. With the aid of the casing effects anomaly of basement mineralisation by providing a reduced-
calculated for line 200,000N (Fig.28c), the observed pattern of resistance path to it.
phase differences between lines 100 and 200,600N is interpreted to
indicate a reduction of casing near 201,200E, and an increase in With the large amount of casing present near line 100, in the
casing near 200,100E. This agrees roughly with the actual casing area 199,600E to 200,400E, and the uncertainties of modelling, it
situation. Accordingly, 'casing' was removed and added to the is difficult to estimate how much of the phase anomaly here may
original model for 200,600N, to give a model more appropriate for be due directly to casing, and how much represents anomaly
the situation when line 100 was surveyed. The models, field data enhancement by casing. The apparent depth (on the
and model results, are shown in Figure 29. pseudosection) suggests there is a significant anomaly
enhancement component. If this is so, the source of the anomaly
Although the pattern of change in the modelled polarisation would be within the basement, sufficiently deep or away from the
effect is similar to the observed phase change, it is much survey line (100) that its response (not enhanced by casing) was
weaker and shallower in the pseudosection in the area 199,600E not detected by the original survey on 200,600N.
to 200,400E. Increasing the amount and proximity of casing in
the model increases the amplitude of the effect, but not the OTHER GEOPHYSICAL DATA
apparent depth extent. However, there is not much point in
inserting large blocks of casing in the model, because they Limited CSAMT has been trialled over the Olympic Dam
cannot simulate the high degree of anisotropy a zone of casing deposit. The results have mapped an apparent Cagniard resistivity
must exhibit, i.e. low resistivity in the vertical direction, higher low over the breccia complex. The lowest resistivity is coincident
resistivity (close to that of the surrounding rocks), in the with the central area of haematite-quartz breccia. This technique
horizontal direction. has provided a more precise indication of the edge of this area,
which is important since it is close to higher grade gold
Insofar as the model of Figure 29 does simulate casing effects, mineralisation.
it is significant that a small amount of casing above a conductive
polarisable zone has more affect than a good deal more casing over Heat flow, thermal conductivities and down-hole temperature
'barren' basement. It is argued that the casing enhances the measurements have been measured by WMC and AGSO staff.

166 Geophysical Signatures of South Australian Mineral Deposits

Esdale et al. Olympic Dam copper-uranium-gold-silver-rare earth element deposit
Downhole temperatures of the order of 60°C were recorded at
1000 m depth, which indicate an above average geothermal
gradient. Houseman et al. (1989) have given the most recent
summary of these measurements, which show that Olympic Dam
is within a major regional-scale thermal anomaly, which includes
the geologically similar deposits at Acropolis and Wirrda Well (see
Dentith, this volume).
A total of 63 holes have been measured, with 23 being within,
or proximal to, the Olympic Dam deposit. The temperature
gradient measured within the Tregolana Shale averages 51.4 °C/km
across the Stuart Shelf, but at Olympic Dam the gradient averages
83.1°C/km. Thermal conductivity and uranium assay data suggest
that heat flow out of the basement at Olympic Dam is 60% higher
than the average for the Stuart Shelf. Two thirds of this is
interpreted to originate from the ore shallower than 1 km, with the
rest coming from sources deeper than this.
DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY
The Olympic Dam deposit was discovered by drilling
coincident gravity and magnetic anomalies, which were
considered prospective in the context of an exploration model and
continental tectonic and lineament analyses.
Drill-hole measurements revealed that the densities of the
ODBC units ranged from 2.7 to in excess of 4.2 g/cm3. These
densities, when used with drill-hole geology to derive a set of 2.5D
bodies used for modelling, showed that the known and inferred
distribution of the ODBC units can explain the observed 17 mGal
gravity anomaly to within 1 mGal over the anomaly's extent.
Magnetic susceptibility measurements made on diamond drill
core indicate that although a significant portion is weakly to non-
magnetic, there are strongly magnetic units within the ODBC.
These can contain appreciable amounts of siderite, which is
thought to inhibit oxidation of the original magnetite. There are
also dolerite dikes within the ODBC. Limited remanent
magnetisation measurements have shown very appreciable
remanent magnetisations. Magnetic susceptibility measurements
on the Roxby Downs Granite show that the granite is moderately
magnetic. The magnetic anomaly of the deposit is a composite of
short- and long-wavelength components. Preliminary modelling
has indicated that the magnetisation measured within the ODBC
can explain 75% of the short-wavelength component. It is likely
that a significant part of the longer wavelength component is
sourced from the magnetisation of the host Roxby Downs Granite.
However, more work is needed to test this hypothesis. The shape
of the long wavelength component will be greatly influenced by
the topography of the upper surface of this granite.
IP/resistivity surveys carried out subsequent to the discovery of
the deposit at first were unsuccessful, because of electromagnetic
coupling and a low signal-to-noise ratio. Following utilisation of
a high-powered transmitter and digital receiver, a strong high
phase angle, low apparent resistivity, response was detected over
the Olympic Dam deposit. Downhole IP logging suggests a
complex spectrum of electrical signatures from the breccias
comprising the ODBC, which is dependent mainly on the amount
of matrix material in the breccia and the type of haematite in the
matrix. Generally, the higher the amount of black haematite
matrix, the higher the copper grade. It is significant that the
porosity of these black haematite-rich breccias may be very high
(up to 40%). This, combined with the high salinity and high
conductivities of pore fluids, is interpreted as the main reason why
mineralised black-haematite matrix breccias have a low apparent-
resistivity and low phase-angle signature. The most significant
polarisation response measured in downhole IP logging is
produced by cupriferous and other polarisable material in 'tight'
breccias, which are typically those containing little black
crystalline haematite and/or matrix content. The amount of black
haematite in the matrix, volumetrically, decreases from the center
of the deposit toward the edges.
The resistivity structure deduced from electromagnetic-
coupling data is basically consistent with that derived from the
apparent resistivity data. Basement resistivities away from known
mineralisation are interpreted to be in the range 60-100 Ω.m. This
is at variance with resistivities ranging from several hundred to
several thousand Ω.m from barren breccias in the central part of
the deposit, where logs have been measured. It is also at variance
(lower) than the resistivities measured in-situ in a single hole into
the host barren granite (1000-10,000 Ω.m). Assuming these higher
values are representative of barren basement, significant
anisotropy in the basement, possibly generated by vertical
fractures and joints that decrease the vertical resistivity, must be
invoked. Interpreted barren-basement phase angles, whilst
inconsistent with results from holes in the vicinity of
mineralisation, are marginally greater than phase angles measured
in the alkali feldspar granite.
In general, there is a great deal of difficulty in reconciling the
small-scale down-hole electrical property measurements and
geological interpretations, with the significantly larger scale
surface electrical measurements and geological interpretations. It
would appear that the high phase-angle and low apparent-
resistivity response measured in the surface dipole-dipole
IP/resistivity surveys coincides with the central more haematite-
rich barren part of the Olympic Dam deposit, and the response
diminishes towards the periphery of the breccia complex. This is
crudely sympathetic with the changes in the percentage of
haematite in the breccia complex. The copper mineralisation
occurs within the outer part of this apparent-resistivity low and
phase-angle high response.
The influence of steel drill-hole casing in the surface dipole-
dipole phase-angle results, and to a lesser extent apparent-
resistivity results, is indicated by shallow polarisable and
conductive sources on several pseudosections, and by the poor
repeatability of data collected at different stages of the drilling
programme. However, modelling suggests that, with the exception
of a single line, the influence of casing is relatively minor and most
of the phase angle and resistivity anomaly can be attributed to
sources in the basement.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to the management of Western Mining
Corporation Ltd, for permission to publish this paper. The early
support of Mr. Roy Woodall, Director of Exploration of Western
Mining, for this work is gratefully acknowledged. The
enthusiastic support, perseverance and dedication of supervising
field technicians Bill Truell (deceased), Graham Fraser and Uwe
Sinn deserves special mention. Dave Roberts, whilst Senior
Research Geologist at Olympic Dam, gave freely of his time to
help our understanding of the geology, and George White, whilst
Chief Geologist at Olympic Dam, assisted wherever possible.
Mary Monaco and Donna Baldwin typed the manuscript. Their
efforts are sincerely appreciated. Cecilia d'Ercole and Mike
Dentith are thanked for there work re-drafting figures and editing
the manuscript.
Geophysical Signatures of South Australian Mineral Deposits 167
Esdale et al. Olympic Dam copper-uranium-gold-silver-rare earth element deposit

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168 Geophysical Signatures of South Australian Mineral Deposits